Special Relativity

David W. Hogg

School of Natural Sciences

Institute for Advanced Study
Olden Lane
Princeton NJ 08540

hogg@ias.edu

1 December 1997
Contents

1 Principles of relativity 1
1.1 What is a principle of relativity? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 Einstein’s principle of relativity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.3 The Michelson-Morley experiment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.4 The “specialness” of special relativity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

2 Time dilation and length contraction 7

2.1 Time dilation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
2.2 Observing time dilation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
2.3 Length contraction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2.4 Magnitude of the effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
2.5 Experimental confirmation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

3 The geometry of spacetime 13

3.1 Spacetime diagrams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
3.2 Boosting: changing reference frames . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
3.3 The “ladder and barn” paradox . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
3.4 Relativity of simultaneity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
3.5 The boost transformation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
3.6 Transforming space and time axes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

4 The Lorentz transformation 19

4.1 Proper time and the invariant interval . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
4.2 Derivation of the Lorentz transformation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
4.3 The Lorentz transformation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
4.4 Velocity addition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
4.5 The twin paradox . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22

5 Causality and the interval 25

5.1 The ladder and barn revisited . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
5.2 Causality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
5.3 Nothing can travel faster than the speed of light . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26

6 Relativistic mechanics 29
6.1 Scalars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
6.2 4-vectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
6.3 4-velocity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
6.4 4-momentum, rest mass and conservation laws . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
6.5 Collisions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
6.6 Photons and Compton scattering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
6.7 Mass transport by photons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
6.8 Particle production and decay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
6.9 Velocity addition (revisited) and the Doppler shift . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
6.10 4-force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
i
7 Optics and apparent effects: special relativity applied to astronomy 37
7.1 Doppler shift (revisited) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
7.2 Stellar Aberration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
7.3 Superluminal motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
7.4 Relativistic beaming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
7.5 The appearance of passing objects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
7.6 A simpleminded cosmology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40

References 43

Index 45

ii
Preface Acknowledgments

For me, the wonder of special relativity lies in its success- Along with Caltech teaching assistantships, several NSF
ful prediction of interesting and very nonintuitive phe- and NASA grants provided financial support during the
nomena from simple arguments with simple premises. time over which this was written. I thank the enlightened
These notes have three (perhaps ambitious) aims: members of our society who see fit to support scientific
(a) to introduce undergraduates to special relativity from research and I encourage them to continue.
its founding principle to its varied consequences, (b) to My thanks go to the Caltech undergraduates to whom
serve as a reference for those of us who need to use spe- I have taught this material; they shaped and criticized
cial relativity regularly but have no long-term memory, the content of these notes directly and indirectly from
and (c) to provide an illustration of the methods of the- beginning to end. I also thank the members of Caltech’s
oretical physics for which the elegance and simplicity of astronomy and physics departments, faculty, staff and my
special relativity are ideally suited. History is a part of fellow students, from whom I have learned much of this
all science—I will mention some of the relevant events material, and Caltech for providing an excellent academic
in the development of special relativity—but there is no atmosphere. I owe debts to Mathew Englander, Adam
attempt to present the material in a historical way. Leibovich and Daniel Williams for critical reading of early
A common confusion for students of special relativity drafts; Steve Frautschi, David Goodstein, Andrew Lange,
is between that which is real and that which is appar- Bob McKeown and Harvey Newman for defining, by ex-
ent. For instance, length contraction is often mistakenly ample, excellent pedagogy; and mentors Michel Baranger,
thought to be some optical illusion. But moving things Roger Blandford, Gerry Neugebauer and Scott Tremaine
do not “appear” shortened, they actually are shortened. for shaping my picture of physics in general.
How they appear depends on the particulars of the obser- David W. Hogg
vation, including distance to the observer, viewing angles, Princeton, New Jersey
times, etc. The observer finds that they are shortened November 1997
only after correcting for these non-fundamental details of
the observational procedure. I attempt to emphasize this
distinction: All apparent effects, including the Doppler
Shift, stellar aberration, and superluminal motion, are
relegated to Chapter 7. I think these are very impor-
tant aspects of special relativity, but from a pedagogical
standpoint it is preferable to separate them from the ba-
sics, which are not dependent on the properties of the
observer.
I love the description of special relativity in terms of
frame-independent, geometric objects, such as scalars and
4-vectors. These are introduced in Chapter 6 and used
thereafter. But even before this, the geometric proper-
ties of spacetime are emphasized. Most problems can be
solved with a minimum of algebra; this is one of the many
beautiful aspects of the subject.
These notes, first written while teaching sections of
first-year physics at Caltech, truly represent a work in
progress. I strongly encourage all readers to give me com-
ments on any aspect of the text∗ ; all input is greatly ap-
preciated. Thank you very much.

∗ email: hogg@ias.edu

iii
iv
Chapter 1
Principles of relativity
These notes are devoted to the consequences of Ein-
stein’s (1905) principle of special relativity, which states
that all the fundamental laws of physics are the same
for all uniformly moving (non-accelerating) observers. In
particular, all of them measure precisely the same value
for the speed of light in vacuum, no matter what their
relative velocities. Before Einstein wrote, several prin-
ciples of relativity had been proposed, but Einstein was
the first to state it clearly and hammer out all the coun-
terintuitive consequences. In this Chapter the concept of
a “principle of relativity” is introduced, Einstein’s is pre-
sented, and some of the experimental evidence prompting
it is discussed.
1.1 What is a principle of relativity?
The first principle of relativity ever proposed is attributed
to Galileo, although he probably did not formulate it pre-
cisely. Galileo’s principle of relativity says that sailors on
a uniformly moving boat cannot, by performing on-board
experiments, determine the boat’s speed. They can de-
termine the speed by looking at the relative movement of
the shore, by dragging something in the water, or by mea-
suring the strength of the wind, but there is no way they
can determine it without observing the world outside the
boat. A sailor locked in a windowless room cannot even
tell whether the ship is sailing or docked∗ .
This is a principle of relativity, because it states that
there are no observational consequences of absolute mo-
tion. One can only measure one’s velocity relative to
something else.
As physicists we are empiricists: we reject as meaning-
less any concept which has no observable consequences,
so we conclude that there is no such thing as “absolute
motion.” Objects have velocities only with respect to
one another. Any statement of an object’s speed must be
made with respect to something else.
Our language is misleading because we often give
speeds with no reference object. For example, a police
officer might say to you “Excuse me, but do you realize
that you were driving at 85 miles per hour?” The officer
∗ The sailor is not allowed to use some characteristic rocking or
creaking of the boat caused by its motion through the water. That
is cheating and anyway it is possible to make a boat which has no
such property on a calm sea
1
leaves out the phrase “with respect to the Earth,” but it
is there implicitly. In other words, you cannot contest a
speeding ticket on the strength of Galileo’s principle since
it is implicit in the law that the speed is to be measured
with respect to the road.
When Kepler first introduced a heliocentric model of
the Solar System, it was resisted on the grounds of com-
mon sense. If the Earth is orbiting the Sun, why can’t we
“feel” the motion? Relativity provides the answer: there
are no local, observational consequences to our motion.†
Now that the Earth’s motion is generally accepted, it has
become the best evidence we have for Galilean relativity.
On a day-to-day basis we are not aware of the motion of
the Earth around the Sun, despite the fact that its orbital
speed is a whopping 30 km s−1 (100, 000 km h−1 ). We are
also not aware of the Sun’s 220 km s−1 motion around
the center of the Galaxy (e.g., Binney & Tremaine 1987,
Chapter 1) or the roughly 600 km s−1 motion of the local
group of galaxies (which includes the Milky Way) rela-
tive to the rest frame of the cosmic background radiation
(e.g., Peebles 1993, Section 6). We have become aware
of these motions only by observing extraterrestrial refer-
ences (in the above cases, the Sun, the Galaxy, and the
cosmic background radiation). Our everyday experience
is consistent with a stationary Earth.
• Problem 1–1: You are driving at a steady
100 km h−1 . At noon you pass a parked police car. At
twenty minutes past noon, the police car passes you, trav-
elling at 120 km h−1 . (a) How fast is the police car moving
relative to you? (b) When did the police car start driving,
assuming that it accelerated from rest to 120 km h−1 in-
stantaneously? (c) How far away from you was the police
car when it started?
• Problem 1–2: You are walking at 2 m s−1 down a
straight road, which is aligned with the x-axis. At time
t = 0 s you sneeze. At time t = 5 s a dog barks, and
at the moment he barks he is x = 10 m ahead of you
in the road. At time t = 10 s a car which is just then
15 m behind you (x = −15 m) backfires. (a) Plot the
† Actually, there are some observational consequences to the
Earth’s rotation (spin): for example, Foucault’s pendulum, the ex-
istence of hurricanes and other rotating windstorms, and the pre-
ferred direction of rotation of draining water. The point here is
that there are no consequences to the Earth’s linear motion through
space.
2 Chapter 1. Principles of relativity
positions x and times t of the sneeze, bark and backfire,
relative to you, on a two-dimensional graph. Label the
points. (b) Plot positions x0 and times t0 of the sneeze,
bark and backfire, relative to an observer standing still, at
the position at which you sneezed. Assume your watches
are synchronized.
• Problem 1–3: If you throw a superball at speed v
at a wall, it bounces back with the same speed, in the
opposite direction. What happens if you throw it at speed
v towards a wall which is travelling towards you at speed
w? What is your answer in the limit in which w is much
larger than v?
• Problem 1–4: You are trying to swim directly east
across a river flowing south. The river flows at 0.5 m s−1
and you can swim, in still water, at 1 m s−1 . Clearly if
you attempt to swim directly east you will drift down-
stream relative to the bank of the river. (a) What angle
θa will your velocity vector relative to the bank make
with the easterly direction? (b) What will be your speed
(magnitude of velocity) va relative to the bank? (c) To
swim directly east relative to the bank, you need to head
upstream. At what angle θc do you need to head, again
taking east to be the zero of angle? (d) When you swim at
this angle, what is your speed vc relative to the bank?
1.2 Einstein’s principle of relativity
Einstein’s principle of relativity says, roughly, that every
physical law and fundamental physical constant (includ-
ing, in particular, the speed of light in vacuum) is the
same for all non-accelerating observers. This principle
was motivated by electromagnetic theory and in fact the
field of special relativity was launched by a paper enti-
tled (in English translation) “On the electrodynamics of
moving bodies” (Einstein 1905).‡ Einstein’s principle is
not different from Galileo’s except that it explicitly states
that electromagnetic experiments (such as measurement
of the speed of light) will not tell the sailor in the win-
dowless room whether or not the boat is moving, any
more than fluid dynamical or gravitational experiments.
Since Galileo was thinking of experiments involving bowls
of soup and cannonballs dropped from towers, Einstein’s
principle is effectively a generalization of Galileo’s.
The govern-
ing equations of electromagnetism, Maxwell’s equations
(e.g., Purcell 1985), describe the interactions of magnets,
electrical charges and currents, as well as light, which is
a disturbance in the electromagnetic field. The equations
depend on the speed of light c in vacuum; in other words,
if the speed of light in vacuum was different for two differ-
ent observers, the two observers would be able to tell this
simply by performing experiments with magnets, charges
and currents. Einstein guessed that a very strong princi-
ple of relativity might hold, that is, that the properties
‡ This paper is extremely readable and it is strongly reccomended
that the student of relativity read it during a course like this one.
It is available in English translation in Lorentz et al. (1923).
of magnets, charges and currents will be the same for all
observers, no matter what their relative velocities. Hence
the speed of light must be the same for all observers. Ein-
stein’s guess was fortified by some experimental evidence
available at the time, to be discussed below, and his prin-
ciple of relativity is now one of the most rigorously tested
facts in all of physics, confirmed directly and indirectly
in countless experiments.
The consequences of this principle are enormous. In
fact, these notes are devoted to the strange predictions
and counterintuitive results that follow from it. The most
obvious and hardest to accept (though it has been exper-
imentally confirmed countless times now) is that the fol-
lowing simple rule for velocity addition (the rule you must
have used to solve the Problems in the previous Section)
is false:
Consider a sailor Alejandro (A) sailing past an ob-
server Barbara (B) at speed u. If A throws a cantaloupe,
in the same direction as he is sailing past B, at speed
v0 relative to himself, B will observe the cantaloupe to
travel at speed v = v0 + u relative to herself. This rule for
velocity addition is wrong. Or imagine that A drops the
cantaloupe into the water and observes the waves travel-
ing forward from the splash. If B is at rest with respect
to the water and water waves travel at speed w relative to
the water, B will obviously see the waves travel forward
from the splash at speed w. On the other hand A, who
is moving forward at speed u already, will see the waves
travel forward at lower speed w0 = w − u. This rule for
velocity addition is also wrong!
After all, instead of throwing a cantaloupe, A could
have shined a flashlight. In this case, if we are Galileans
(that is, if we believe in the above rule for velocity addi-
tion), there are two possible predictions for the speeds at
which A and B observe the light to travel from the flash-
light. If light is made up of particles which are emitted
from their source at speed c relative to the source, then A
will observe the light to travel at speed c relative to him-
self, while B will observe it to travel at c + u relative to
herself. If, on the other hand, light is made up of waves
that travel at c relative to some medium (analogous to
the water for water waves), then we would expect A to
see the light travel at c − u and B to see it travel at c (as-
suming B is at rest with the medium). Things get more
complicated if both A and B are moving relative to the
medium, but in almost every case we expect A and B to
observe different speeds of light if we believe our simple
rule for velocity addition.
Einstein’s principle requires that A and B observe ex-
actly the same speed of light, so Einstein and the simple
rules for velocity addition cannot both be correct. It turns
out that Einstein is right and the “obvious” rules for ve-
locity addition are incorrect. In this, as in many things
we will encounter, our initial intuition is wrong. We will
try to build a new, correct intuition based on Einstein’s
principle of relativity.
• Problem 1–5: (For discussion.) What assumptions
does one naturally make which must be wrong in order for
1.3. The Michelson-Morley experiment 3

A and B to measure the same speed of light in the above two beams are recombined and the interference pattern
example? Consider how speeds are measured: with rulers is observed through a telescope at the output. The whole
and clocks. apparatus is mounted on a stone platform which is floated
on mercury to stabilize it and allow it to be easily rotated.
1.3 The Michelson-Morley experiment Figure 1.1 shows the apparatus, and Figure 1.2 shows a
simplified version.
In the late nineteenth century, most physicists were con-
vinced, contra Newton (1730), that light is a wave and not
a particle phenomenon. They were convinced by interfer-
ence experiments whose results can be explained (classi-
cally) only in the context of wave optics. The fact that
light is a wave implied, to the physicists of the nineteenth
century, that there must be a medium in which the waves
propagate—there must be something to “wave”—and the
speed of light should be measured relative to this medium,
called the aether. (If all this is not obvious to you, you
probably were not brought up in the scientific atmosphere
of the nineteenth century!) The Earth orbits the Sun, so
it cannot be at rest with respect to the medium, at least
not on every day of the year, and probably not on any
day. The motion of the Earth through the aether can
be measured with a simple experiment that compares the
speed of light in perpendicular directions. This is known
as the Michelson-Morley experiment and its surprising re-
sult was a crucial hint for Einstein and his contemporaries
in developing special relativity.§
Imagine that the hypothesis of the aether is correct,
that is, there is a medium in the rest frame of which
light travels at speed c, and Einstein’s principle of rela-
tivity does not hold. Imagine further that we are per-
forming an experiment to measure the speed of light c⊕ Figure 1.1: The Michelson-Morley apparatus (from Michel-
on the Earth, which is moving at velocity v ⊕ (a vector son & Morley 1887). The light enters the apparatus at a, is
with magnitude v⊕ ) with respect to this medium. If we split by the beam splitter at b, bounces back and forth be-
measure the speed of light in the direction parallel to the tween mirrors d and e, d1 and e1 , with mirror e1 adjustable
Earth’s velocity v ⊕ , we get c⊕ = c − v⊕ because the to make both paths of equal length, the light is recombined
Earth is “chasing” the light. If we measure the speed of again at b and observed through the telescope at f. A plate
light in the opposite direction—antiparallel to the Earth’s of glass c compensates, in the direct beam, for the extra
velocity—we get c⊕ = c + v⊕ . If we measure in q the direc- light travel time of the reflected beam travelling through
tion perpendicular to the motion, we get c⊕ = c2 − v⊕ 2 the beam splitter an extra pair of times. See Figure 1.2 for
because the speed of light is the hypotenuse of a right a simplified version.
triangle with sides of length c⊕ and v⊕ .¶ If the aether
hypothesis is correct, these arguments show that the mo- If the total length of travel of each beam is ` and one
tion of the Earth through the aether can be detected with beam is aligned parallel to v ⊕ and the other is aligned
a laboratory experiment. perpendicular, the travel time in the parallel beam will
The Michelson-Morley experiment was designed to be
perform this determination, by comparing directly the
` ` `c
speed of light in perpendicular directions. Because it is tk = + = 2 (1.1)
very difficult to make a direct measurement of the speed 2 (c + v⊕ ) 2 (c − v⊕ ) c − v⊕2

of light, the device was very cleverly designed to make an

accurate relative determination. Light entering the ap- because half the journey is made “upstream” and half
paratus from a lamp is split into two at a half-silvered “downstream.” In the perpendicular beam,
mirror. One half of the light bounces back and forth 14
`
times in one direction and the other half bounces back t⊥ = q (1.2)
and forth 14 times in the perpendicular direction; the c2 − v⊕
2

total distance travelled is about 11 m per beam. The

§ The information in this section comes from Michelson & Morley
because the whole journey is made at the perpendicular
(1887) and the history of the experiment by Shankland (1964). velocity. Defining β ≡ v⊕ /c and pulling out common
¶ The demonstration of this is left as an exercise. factors, the difference in travel time, between parallel and
4 Chapter 1. Principles of relativity

Morley were therefore able to place upper limits on the

speed of the Earth v⊕ through the aether; the upper lim-
its were much lower than the expected speed simply due
to the Earth’s orbit around the Sun (let alone the Sun’s
orbit around the Galaxy and the Galaxy’s motion among
its neighboring galaxies).
Michelson and Morley concluded that something was
wrong with the standard aether theory; for instance, per-
haps the Earth drags its local aether along with it, so
we are always immersed in locally stationary aether. In
a famous paper, Lorentz (1904) proposed that all mov-
ing bodies are contracted along the direction of their mo-
tion by the amount exactly necessary for the Michelson-
Morley result to be null. Both these ideas seemed too
much like “fine-tuning” a so-far unsubstatiated theory.
Einstein’s explanation—that there is no aether and
that the speed of light is the same for all observers
(and in all directions)—is the explanation that won out
eventually.k The Michelson-Morley experiment was an
attempt by “sailors” (Michelson and Morley) to deter-
Figure 1.2: The Michelson apparatus (from Kleppner & mine the speed of their “boat” (the Earth) without look-
Kolenkow 1973), the predecessor to the Michelson-Morley ing out the window or comparing to some other object, so
apparatus (Figure 1.1). The Michelson apparatus shows according to the principle of relativity, they were doomed
more clearly the essential principle, although it is less sensi- to failure.
tive than the Michelson-Morley apparatus because the path
length is shorter. • Problem 1–6: With perfect mirrors and light source,
the Michelson-Morley apparatus can be made more sen-
sitive by making the path lengths longer. Why is a de-
perpendicular beams, is vice with longer paths more sensitive? The paths can be
" # lengthened by making the platform larger or adding more
` 1 1
∆t = −p (1.3) mirrors (see Figure 1.1). In what ways would such modi-
c 1 − β2 1 − β2 fication also degrade the performance of the device given
imperfect mirrors and light source (and other real-world
For small x, (1 + x)n ≈ 1 + n x, so concerns)? Discuss the pros and cons of such modifica-
` 2 tions.
∆t ≈ β (1.4)
2c • Problem 1–7: Show that under the hypothesis of a
Since the apparatus will be rotated, the device will swing stationary aether, the speed of light as observed from a
from having one arm parallel to the motion of the Earth platform moving at speed v, in the √ direction perpendicu-
and the other perpendicular to having the one perpendic- lar to the platform’s motion, is c2 − v2 . For a greater
ular and the other parallel. So as the device is rotated challenge: what is the observed speed for an arbitrary an-
through a half turn, the time delay between arms will gle θ between the direction of motion and the direction in
change by twice the above ∆t. which the speed of light is measured? Your answer should
The lateral position of the interference fringes as mea- reduce to c + v and c − v for θ = 0 and π.
sured in the telescope is a function of the relative travel
It is worthy of note that when Michelson and Morley
times of the light beams along the two paths. When the
first designed their experiment and predicted the fringe
travel times are equal, the central fringe lies exactly in the
shift, they did not realize that the speed of light perpen-
center of the telescope field. If the paths differ by one-half
dicular to the direction of motion of the platform would
a period (one-half a wavelength in distance units), the
be other than c. This correction was pointed out to them
fringes shift by one-half of the fringe separation, which
by Potier in 1881 (Michelson & Morley, 1887).
is well resolved in the telescope. As the apparatus is
rotated with respect to the Earth’s motion through the
aether, the relative travel times of the light along the two
paths was expected to change by 0.4 periods, because (in k It was also Poincaré’s (1900) explanation. Forshadowing Ein-

the aether model) the speed of light depends on direc- stein, he said that the Michelson-Morley experiment shows that
tion. The expected shift of the interference fringes was absolute motion cannot be detected to second order in v/c and so
perhaps it cannot be detected to any order. Poincaré is also al-
0.4 fringe spacings, but no shift at all was observed as legedly the first person to have named this proposal a “principle of
the experimenters rotated the apparatus. Michelson and relativity.”
1.4. The “specialness” of special relativity 5

1.4 The “specialness” of special relativity

Why is this subject called “special relativity,” and not

just “relativity”? It is because the predictions we make
only strictly hold in certain special situations.
Some of the thought experiments (and real experi-
ments) described in these notes take place on the surface
of the Earth, and we will assume that the gravitational
field of the Earth (and all other planets and stars) is
negligible.∗∗ The laws of special relativity strictly hold
only in a “freely falling” reference frame in which the ob-
servers experience no gravity. The laws strictly hold when
we are falling towards the Earth (as in a broken elevator;
e.g., Frautschi et al., 1986, ch. 9) or orbiting around the
Earth (as in the Space Shuttle; ibid.), but not when we
are standing on it.
Does the gravitational field of the Sun affect our re-
sults? No, because we are orbiting the Sun. The Earth
is in a type of “free fall” around the Sun. Does the ro-
tation of the Earth affect our results? Yes, because the
centrifugal force that is felt at the equator is equivalent
to an outward gravitational force. However, this effect is
much smaller than the Earth’s gravity, so it is even more
negligible.
In addition, we are going to assume that all light sig-
nals are travelling in vacuum. The speed of light in air
is actually a bit less than the speed of light in vacuum.
We will neglect this difference. The “c” that comes into
the general equations that we will derive is the speed of
light in vacuum, no matter what the speed at which light
is actually travelling in the local medium. Everything is
simpler if we just treat all our experiments as if they are
occurring in vacuum.
• Problem 1–8: (Library excercise.) How much slower
(or faster) is the speed of light in air, relative to vacuum?
How do you think the speed will depend on temperature
and pressure? How much slower (or faster) is the speed
of light in glass and water, relative to vacuum. Give your
references.
• Problem 1–9: You shine a flashlight from one end
zone of a football field to a friend standing in the other
end zone. Because of the Earth’s gravity, the beam of
light will be pulled downwards as it travels across the
field. Estimate, any way you can, the distance the light
will “drop” vertically as it travels across the field. What
deflection angle does this correspond to, in arcseconds?
Don’t worry about getting a precise answer, just esti-
mate the order of magnitude of the effect.

∗∗ The fractional error that the Earth’s gravity introduces into the

experiments we describe must depend only on the acceleration due

to gravity g, the parameters of each experiment, and fundamental
constants. Fractional error is dimensionless, and the most obvious
fundamental constant to use is c. The ratio g/c has dimensions
of inverse time. This suggests that an experiment which has a
characteristic time τ or length ` will not agree with the predictions
of special relativity to better than a fractional error of about τ g/c
or ` g/c2 if it is performed on the surface of the Earth.
6 Chapter 1. Principles of relativity
Chapter 2
Time dilation and length contraction
This Chapter is intended to demonstrate the simplic-
ity of special relativity. With one basic thought exper-
iment the two most important effects predicted by the
theory are derived: time dilation and length contraction.
For the beginning student of relativity, this is the most
important chapter.
It is emphasized that the predicted effects are real,
not just apparent.
Before starting, recall Einstein’s (1905) principle of
relativity (hereafter “the” principle of relativity): there
is no preferred reference frame; no entirely on-board ex-
periment can tell a sailor the speed of her or his boat. Its
first consequence is that the speed of light is the same in
all frames.
2.1 Time dilation
Consider two observers, Deepto (D) and Erika (E), mov-
ing relative to one another in spaceships. D measures E’s
speed to be u with respect to D’s rest frame. By symme-
try, E must also measure D’s speed to be u with respect
to E’s rest frame. If this is not obvious to you, notice that
there is no absolute difference between D and E. If they
did not measure the same speed, which one of them would
measure a higher speed? In order for one to measure a
higher speed, one of them would have to be in a special
or “preferred” frame; the principle of relativity precludes
this.
Now imagine that D and E each carry a clock of a
certain very strange type. These “light-clocks” consist
of an evacuated glass tube containing a lightbulb, a mir-
ror, a photodetector and some electrical equipment. The
photodetector is right next to the lightbulb (but sepa-
rated by a light-blocking shield) and the mirror is 0.5 m
from the lightbulb (see Figure 2.1). When the clock is
started, the lightbulb flashes, light bounces off the mirror
and back into the photodetector. When the photodetec-
tor registers the light, it immediately signals the lightbulb
to flash again. Every time the photodetector registers a
light pulse, it flashes the bulb again.
The round-trip distance for the light inside the light-
clock is 1 m and the speed of light c is roughly 3 ×
108 m s−1 , so the round-trip time for the light is roughly
3.3 × 10−9 s. The clock ticks off time in 3.3 ns (nanosec-
ond) intervals. The speed of light is the same for all
mirror
evacuated tube
0.5 m lightbulb
shield
photodetector
Figure 2.1: The schematic layout of a light-clock. The
round-trip distance (lightbulb to mirror to photodetector)
for the light is 1 m.
observers, so c can be seen as a conversion factor between
time and distance. Under this interpretation, the clock
ticks off time in meters!∗
Imagine that D holds his light-clock so that the light is
bouncing back and forth at right angles to his direction of
motion with respect to E. D observes the light flashes in
his clock to make 1 m round trips in ∆t = 3.3 ns intervals.
What does E observe? Recall that D is moving at speed
u with respect to E, so in E’s rest frame the light in D’s
clock is not really making round trips. As it travels down
the tube and back, D is advancing in the perpendicular
direction; the light takes a zig-zag path which is longer
than the straight back-and-forth path (see Figure 2.2).
By the principle of relativity, E and D must observe the
same speed of light, so we are forced to conclude that
E will measure† longer time intervals ∆t0 between the
flashes in D’s clock than D will. (In this chapter, all
quantities that E measures will be primed and all that
D measures will be unprimed.) What is the difference
between ∆t and ∆t0 ?
In E’s rest frame, in time ∆t0 , D advances a distance
∗ Now that the meter is defined in terms of the second, this is in
fact the interpretation of the speed of light that the International
Standards Organization accepts. The speed of light is defined to be
2.99792458 × 108 m s−1 .
† What is meant by “measure” here is explained in the next
Section—Erika is a very good scientist!
7
8 Chapter 2. Time dilation and length contraction

(a) D’s frame (b) E’s frame prove that it is not possible for D to observe both time-
pieces to tick at the same rate while E observes them to
tick at different rates.
The reader might object that we have already vio-
lated relativity: if D and E are in symmetric situations,
how come E measures longer time intervals? We must be
∆y ∆y
careful. E measures longer time intervals for D’s clock
2 2
than D does. By relativity, it must be that D also mea-
sures longer time intervals for E’s clock than E does. In-
deed this is true; after all, all of the above arguments are
equally applicable if we swap D and E. This is the fun-
damentally counterintuitive aspect of relativity. How it
∆ x=0 ∆x can be that both observers measure slower rates on the
other’s clock? The fact is, there is no contradiction, as
long as we are willing to give up on a concept of abso-
Figure 2.2: The trajectory of the light in D’s light-clock, as lute time, agreed-upon by all observers. The next two
observed by (a) D and (b) E. Note that the light follows Chapters explore this and attempt to help develop a new
a longer path in E’s frame, so E measures a longer time intuition.
interval ∆t0 .
• Problem 2–1: Your wristwatch ticks once per sec-
ond. What is the time interval between ticks when your
∆x0 = u ∆t0 and the light in D’s clock must go a to- wristwatch is hurled past you at half the speed of light?
tal distance ∆`0 = c ∆t0 . By the Pythagorean theorem
(∆`0 )2 = (∆x0 )2 + (∆y)2 , where ∆y is the total round- • Problem 2–2: How fast does a clock have to move
trip length of the clock (1 m in this case) in its rest frame to be ticking at one tenth of its rest tick rate? One one-
and for now it has been assumed that ∆y = ∆y0 (this will hundredth? One one-thousandth? Express your answers
be shown in Section 2.3). Since ∆y = ∆` = c ∆t, we find in terms of the difference 1 − β, where of course β ≡
v/c.
0 ∆t
∆t = q (2.1) • Problem 2–3: Consider the limit in which γ  1, so
1 − uc2
2
its inverse 1/γ is a small number. Derive an approxima-
tion for β of the form β ≈ 1 −  which is correct to second
The time intervals between flashes of D’s clock are longer order in 1/γ.
as measured by E than as measured by D. This effect is
• Problem 2–4: Consider the low-speed limit, in which
called time dilation. Moving clocks go slow.
β  1. Derive an expression for γ of the form γ ≈ 1 + 
It is customary to define the dimensionless speed β
which is correct to second order in β.
and the Lorentz factor γ by
u • Problem 2–5: Prove (by thought experiment) that
β≡ (2.2) it is not possible for D to observe both his light-clock and
c
his wristwatch to tick at the same rate while E observes
1 them to tick at different rates. (Hint: Imagine that both
γ≡p (2.3)
1 − β2 of D’s clocks punch a ticker tape and the experimentalists
compare the tapes after the experiment is over.)
Because (as we shall see later) nothing travels faster than
the speed of light, u is always less than c, so 0 ≤ β < 1,
and γ ≥ 1. Using these new symbols, ∆t0 = γ ∆t. 2.2 Observing time dilation
Above we found that “moving clocks go slow,” but one
might object that we have shown only that these strange In the previous section, as in the rest of these notes, it is
light-clocks go slow. However, we can show that all clocks important to distinguish between what an ideally knowl-
are subject to the same time dilation. Suppose that in ad- edgeable observer observes and what an ordinary person
dition to his light-clock, D also has a wristwatch that ticks sees. As much as possible, the term “to observe” will be
every 3.3 ns, and suppose (incorrectly) that this watch is used to mean “to measure a real effect with a correct ex-
not subject to time dilation; i.e., suppose that E observes perimental technique,” while “to see” will be reserved for
the watch to tick with intervals of 3.3 ns no matter what apparent effects, or phenomena which relate to the fact
D’s speed. When D is not moving with respect to E the that we look from a particular viewpoint with a partic-
wristwatch and light-clock tick at the same rate, but when ular pair of eyes. This means that we won’t talk about
D is moving at high speed, they tick at different rates be- what is “seen” in detail until Chapter 7.
cause, by supposition, one is time-dilated and the other Though E observes D’s clock to run slow, what she
is not. D could use the relative tick rates of the watch sees can be quite different. The time intervals between
and clock to determine his speed, and thereby violate the the flashes of D’s clock that she sees depends on the time
principle of relativity. It is left to the ambitious reader to dilation and the changing path lengths that the light tra-
2.3. Length contraction
verses in getting to E. The path lengths are changing be-
cause D is moving with respect to E (see Figure 2.3). In
order to correctly measure the rate of D’s clock, E must
subtract the light-travel time of each pulse (which she
can compute by comparing the direction from which the
light comes with the trajectory that was agreed upon in
advance). It is only when she subtracts these time delays
that she measures the time between ticks correctly, and
when she does this, she will find that the time between
ticks is indeed ∆t0 , the dilated time.
F4
F3 D parallel to the direction of motion. Imagine that both
F2
F1 S4
S3
S2
S1
Figure 2.3: Observing the time delay. Because D is mov-
ing with respect to E, the flashes (F1 through F4 ) from his
clock travel along paths (S1 through S4 ) of different lengths
in getting to E. Hence different flashes take different times
to get to E. E must correct for this before making any state-
ments about time dilation. It is after the correction is made
that E observes the predicted time dilation.
• Problem 2–6: Consider a clock, which when at rest
produces a flash of light every second, moving away from
you at (4/5)c. (a) How frequently does it flash when
it is moving at (4/5)c? (b) By how much does dis-
tance between you and the clock increase between flashes?
(c) How much longer does it take each flash to get to your
eye than the previous one? (d) What, therefore, is the in-
terval between the flashes you see?
You will find that the time interval between the flashes
you see is much longer than merely what time-dilation
predicts, because successive flashes come from further and
further away. This effect is known as the Doppler shift
and is covered in much more detail in Chapter 7
2.3 Length contraction
Imagine that E observes D’s clock to tick 100 times during
a journey from planet A to planet B, two planets at rest
in E’s rest frame.
D must also observe 100 ticks during this same jour-
ney. After all, if we imagine that the clock punches a
time card each time it ticks and D inserts the time card
at point A and removes it at point B, it must have been
punched a definite number of times when it is removed. D
and E must agree on this number, because, for example,
they can meet later and examine the card.
In addition to agreeing on the number of ticks, D and
E also agree on their relative speed. (They must, because
there is total symmetry between them: if one measured
9
a larger speed, which one could it be?) However, they
do not agree on the rate at which D’s clock ticks. While
E measures the distance between A and B to be `0 =
100 u ∆t0, D measures it to be ` = 100 u ∆t = `0 /γ. Since
γ > 1, D measures a shorter distance than E. D is moving
relative to the planets A and B, while E is stationary.
Planets A and B can be thought of as being at the ends
of a ruler stick which E is holding, a ruler stick which is
moving with respect to D. We conclude that moving ruler
sticks are shortened; this effect is length contraction, or
sometimes Lorentz contraction.
It is simple to show that length contraction acts only
E and D are carrying identical pipes, aligned with the
direction of their relative motion (see Figure 2.4). Let
Figure 2.4: E and D carrying pipes to prove that there can be
no length changes perpendicular to the direction of motion.
us assume (incorrectly) that the large relative velocity
causes the diameter of E’s pipe to contract in D’s frame.
If this happens, D’s pipe becomes larger than E’s pipe,
so E’s pipe “fits inside” D’s pipe. But E and D are in-
terchangeable, so D’s pipe contracts in E’s frame and D’s
pipe fits inside E’s. Clearly it cannot be that both D’s
fits inside E’s and E’s fits inside D’s, so there is a contra-
diction; there can be no length changes perpendicular to
the direction of relative motion.
Note that because there are no length changes per-
pendicular to the direction of motion, we cannot explain
away time dilation and length contraction with length
changes in the light-clock perpendicular to the direction
of motion.
• Problem 2–7: How fast do you have to throw a meter
stick to make it one-third its rest length?
• Problem 2–8: Two spaceships, each measuring
100 m in its own rest frame, pass by each other traveling
in opposite directions. Instruments on board spaceship A
determine that the front of spaceship B requires 5×10−6 s
to traverse the full length of A. (a) What is the relative
velocity v of the two spaceships? (b) How much time
elapses on a clock on spaceship B as it traverses the full
length of A? (From French 1966.)
• Problem 2–9: That there can be no length con-
traction perpendicular to the direction of motion is often
demonstrated with the example of a train and its track;
10 Chapter 2. Time dilation and length contraction

i.e., if there were length changes perpendicular the train
would no longer fit on the track. Make this argument,
and in particular, explain why the train must fit on the
track no matter how fast it is going.
2.4 Magnitude of the effects
As these example problems show, the effects of time di-
lation and length contraction are extremely small in ev-
eryday life, but large for high-energy particles and any tance from the Earth to Alpha Centauri and back in the
practical means of interstellar travel.
• Problem 2–10: In the rest frame of the Earth, the
distance ` between New York and Los Angeles is roughly
4000 km. By how much is the distance shortened when
observed from a jetliner flying between the cities? From
the Space Shuttle? From a cosmic ray proton traveling
at 0.9c?
In the rest frame, the distance is `; to an observer
traveling at speed u along the line joining the cities, it is
`0 = `/γ. The difference is
   p 
0 1
`−` = 1− ` = 1 − 1 − β2 ` (2.4)
γ
For  much smaller than unity, (1 + ) ≈ 1 + n , so for dilation and length contraction are not very big in our ev-
n
in one year) from the Earth. At what speed u must a 25-
year-old astronaut travel there and back if he or she is
to return before reaching age 45? By how much will the
astronaut’s siblings age over the same time?
This is the famous “twin paradox,” which we will cover
in gory detail in Section 4.5. For now, let us be simplistic
and answer the questions without thinking.
We want the elapsed time T 0 in the astronaut’s frame
to be 20 years as he or she goes a distance 2`0 , the dis-
astronaut’s frame. The time and distance are related by
T 0 = 2`0 /u = 2`/(γu). So we need γu = 2`/T 0 . Dividing
by c, squaring and expanding we need
 2
β2 2`
= 0
= (0.434)2 (2.7)
1 − β 2 c T
This is a linear equation for β 2 ; we find β = 0.398. So the
astronaut must travel at u = 0.398c, and from the point
of view of the siblings, the trip takes T = 2`/u = 21.8 yr.
2.5 Experimental confirmation
As we have seen in the previous section, the effects of time

speeds u  c or β  1, we have eryday experience. However, these predictions of special

relativity have been confirmed experimentally. Time dila-
0 1 2
`−` ≈ β ` (2.5) tion is generally easier to confirm directly because Nature
2 provides us with an abundance of moving clocks, and be-
A jetliner takes about 6 h to travel from New York to cause in such experiments, it is generally more straight-
Los Angeles, so its speed is roughly u = 4000/6 km h−1 forward to design procedures in which the delays from
or β = 6 × 10−7 . Since β  1, we have that ` − `0 ≈ light travel time (discussed in Section 2.2) are not impor-
8×10−7 m, or 0.8 microns! The Space Shuttle takes about tant. Of course in addition to experiments like the one
1.5 h to orbit the earth, on an orbit with radius roughly discussed in this section, both time dilation and length
6500 km, so β = 2.5 × 10−5 . Here ` − `0 ≈ 1.3 mm. contraction are confirmed indirectly countless times ev-
As for the cosmic ray proton, β = 0.9, so it is no ery day in high energy physics experiments around the
longer true that β  1; we gain nothing by using the world.
approximation. We find γ = 2.3 and so ` − `0 = 2300 km. The first direct confirmation of time dilation was ob-
tained by Bruno Rossi and David Hall, studying the
• Problem 2–11: At rest in the laboratory, muons have decay of muons (in those days called “mesotrons” or
a mean life T of 2.2 × 10−6 s or 2.2 µs, or in other words, “mu mesons”) as they descend through the Earth’s
the average time a muon exists from production (in a col- atmosphere.‡ Muons are elementary particles§ produced
lision, say) to decay (into an electron and neutrinos) is at high altitude when cosmic rays (fast-moving pro-
2.2 µs (Particle Data Group, 1994). If, as experimental- tons and other atomic nuclei) collide with atoms in the
ists, we need a sample of muons to have a longer mean Earth’s atmosphere. When produced more or less at
life of T 0 = 11 µs, to what speed u must we accelerate rest in the laboratory, each muon has a mean lifetime
them? What distance `, on average, does one of these of τ = 2.5 × 10−6 seconds before it disintegrates. In-
0
high-speed muons travel before decaying? deed, if one has N0 muons at time zero and then looks at
We want the muons to age at 1/5 their usual rate, so a later time t, the number of muons will have dropped
we want time dilation by a factor γ = 5. Inverting the to N (t) = N e−t/τ0 . If there were no such thing as
0
formula for γ we find time dilation, the mean distance a muon moving at high
r speed v = βc could travel before disintegrating would be
1
β = 1− 2 (2.6) L = vτ0 . Similarly if at position zero one has N0 muons
γ moving at speed v down a tube, at a position x further
or in this case β = 24/25. This makes u = 24c/25 and ‡ The information in this section comes from Rossi & Hall (1941),

` = u T = 630 m. their extremely readable, original paper.

§ For those who care, muons are leptons, most analogous to elec-
• Problem 2–12: Alpha Centauri is a distance of ` = trons, with the same charge but considerably more mass. They are
4.34 light years (one light year is the distance light travels unstable and typically decay into electrons and neutrinos.
2.5. Experimental confirmation 11

down the tube there would be only N (x) = N0 e−x/L . would be measured in their own rest frame? (From French
As the speed of the muons approaches c, the mean range 1966.)
would approach cτ0 , or 750 m. Since the muons are cre-
ated at high altitude, very few of them could reach the
ground.
However, we expect that time dilation does occur, and
so the mean life τ and range L of the moving muons
will be increased by the Lorentz factor γ ≡ (1 − β 2 )−1/2
to τ = γ τ0 and L = γ v τ0 . Although all the muons
will be moving at speeds close to c (β nearly 1), they
will have different particular values of γ and therefore
decay with different mean ranges. Bruno & Rossi mea-
sure the fluxes (number of muons falling on a detector
of a certain area per minute) of muons of two different
kinetic energies at observing stations in Denver and Echo
Lake, Colorado, separated in altitude by ∆h = 1624 m
(Denver below Echo Lake). The higher-energy muons in
their experiment have Lorentz factor γ1 ≈ 18.8 (speed
v1 ≈ 0.9986c) while the lower-energy muons have γ2 ≈ 6.3
(v2 ≈ 0.987c). Because we expect the mean range L
of a muon to be L = γ v τ0 , we expect the ratio of
ranges L1 /L2 for the two populations of muons to be
(γ1 v1 )/(γ2 v2 ) ≈ 3.0. The flux of higher-energy muons
at Denver is lower by a factor of 0.883 ± 0.005 than it
is at Echo Lake, meaning that if they have mean range
L1 , e−∆h/L1 = 0.883. The flux of lower-energy muons de-
creases by a factor of 0.698 ± 0.002, so e−∆h/L2 = 0.698.
Taking logarithms and ratios, we find that L1 /L2 = 2.89
as predicted. The results do not make sense if the time
dilation factor (the Lorentz factor) is ignored.
• Problem 2–13: Consider a muon traveling straight
down towards the surface of the Earth at Lorentz fac-
tor γ1 ≈ 18.8. (a) What is the vertical distance between
Denver and Echo Lake, according to the muon? (b) How
long does it take the muon to traverse this distance, ac-
cording to the muon? (c) What is the muon’s mean life-
time, according to the muon? (d) Answer the above parts
again but now for a muon traveling at Lorentz factor
γ2 ≈ 6.3.
• Problem 2–14: Charged pions are produced in high-
energy collisions between protons and neutrons. They
decay in their own rest frame according to the law

N (t) = N0 2−t/T (2.8)

where T = 2 × 10−8 s is the half-life. A burst of pions is

produced at the target of an accelerator and it is observed
that two-thirds of them survive at a distance of 30 m from
the target. At what γ value are the pions moving? (From
French 1966.)
• Problem 2–15:√A beam of unstable K+ mesons, trav-
eling at speed β = 3/2, passes through two counters 9 m
apart. The particles suffer a negligible loss of speed and
energy in passing through the counters but give electri-
cal pulses that can be counted. It is observed that 1000
counts are recorded in the first counter and 250 in the
second. Assuming that this whole decrease is due to de-
cay of the particles in flight, what is their half-life as it
12 Chapter 2. Time dilation and length contraction
Chapter 3
The geometry of spacetime
Observers in different frames of reference, even if they
are observing identical events, may observe very differ-
ent relationships between those events. For example, two
events which are simultaneous for one observer will not, in
general, be simultaneous for another observer. However,
the principle of relativity must hold, i.e., both observers
must agree on all laws of physics and in particular on the
speed of light. This principle allows detailed construction
of the differences between two observers’ measurements
as a function of their relative velocity. In this chapter we
derive some of these relationships using a very useful tool:
the spacetime diagram. With spacetime diagrams most
special relativity problems are reduced to simple geome-
try problems. The geometric approach is the most elegant
method of solving special relativity problems and it is also
the most robust because it requires the problem-solver to
visualize the relationships between events and worldlines.
3.1 Spacetime diagrams
Frances (F) and Gregory (G) live on planets A and B,
respectively, separated in space by ` = 6 × 1011 m (600
million km). Exactly halfway between their home plan-
ets, on the line joining them, is an interplanetary café (C),
at which they decide to meet at noon. F has a standard-
model spaceship which travels at speed c/5 (which cor-
responds to β = 1/5), while G’s sporty model travels at
c/3 (β = 1/3). If we choose a coordinate system with
the x-axis pointing along the direction from A to B, we
can plot the trajectories, or worldlines, of F and G on a
diagram with distance x on the abscissa and time t on the
ordinate. Actually, to emphasize the geometry of special
relativity, we will use not t to mark time, but ct, which
has dimensions of distance.∗ Such a plot, as in Figure 3.1,
is a spacetime diagram. Figure 3.1 is clearly drawn in the
rest frame of planets A and B: the planet worldlines are
vertical; the planets do not change position with time.
They meet at noon at the café. Their meeting is an
event: it takes place in a certain location, at a certain
time. Anything that has both a position and a time is
an event. For example, the signing of the United States’
Declaration of Independence was an event: it took place
on 4 July, 1776, and it took place in Philadelphia, Penn-
∗ Recall the idea, from Section 2.1, that c is merely a conversion
factor between time and distance.
13
sylvania. Each tick of a clock is an event: it happens at a
given time at the location of the clock. Events are 3+1-
dimensional† points—they have three spatial coordinates
and one time coordinate. In the case of the meeting M
at the café of F and G, we needed only 1+1 dimensions
to specify it because we began by restricting all activity
to the x-axis, but in general 3+1 dimensions are needed.
On Figure 3.1, event M is marked, along with two other
events K and L, the departures of F and G.
Because we are marking time in dimensions of distance
ct, the inverse slope ∆x/(c∆t) of a worldline at some time
ct is the speed of the corresponding object in units of c,
or in other words, β. As we will see below, nothing can
travel faster than the speed of light. So, all worldlines
must be steeper than 45◦ on the spacetime diagram, ex-
cept, of course, for the worldlines of flashes of light or
photons, which have exactly 45◦ worldlines. Radio, in-
frared, optical, ultraviolet, x-ray and gamma-ray signals
all travel on 45◦ worldlines maybe neutrinos do too‡ .
• Problem 3–1: The next day F decides to meet G at
the café again, but realizes that she did not arrange this
with G in advance. She decides to send a radio message
that will get to G at exactly the time he should depart.
When should F send this message?
We can answer this problem trivially by looking at
the spacetime diagram. If we drop a 45◦ line from event
L, G’s departure, going back in time towards planet A,
we can find the event at which it intersects F’s world-
line. This is done in Figure 3.2; we see that it intersects
F’s worldline exactly at event K, the time of her depar-
ture. This means that F should send the radio message
at exactly the time she departs for the café.
3.2 Boosting: changing reference frames
Heather (H) and Juan (J) are two more residents of plan-
ets A and B respectively. (A and B are separated by
` = 6 × 1011 m in the x-direction.) Early in the morning
(at event P ) H sends J a radio message. At event Q, J
receives the message. A time τ later in the day, H sends J
† One could say “4-dimensional,” but it is customary among rel-
ativists to separate the numbers of space and time dimensions by a
plus sign. The reason for this will be touched upon later.
‡ As we will see in Chapter 6, neutrinos travel at the speed of
light only if they are massless; this is currently a subject of debate.
14 Chapter 3. The geometry of spacetime

ct ct
A C B A C B

M M

G 3l G 3l
F 2 F 2
5l 5l
l
2 2

e
L L

g
sa
es
l

m
K K
x x

Figure 3.1: Worldlines of F and G meeting at the café, and Figure 3.2: When should F send the radio message to G? By
worldlines of their home planets A and B, and the café itself, dropping a 45◦ line (dotted) from event L to F’s worldline,
C. The event of F’s departure is K, of G’s is L, and of their we find that she should send it right when she departs; at
meeting is M . This diagram is in the rest frame of A, B, event K.
and C because these objects have vertical worldlines. Note
that the time (vertical) axis is marked in units of distance
says that the speed of light is the same in both frames, so
ct.
the radio signals will still have 45◦ worldlines. Thus, the
spacetime diagram in K’s frame must be that pictured in
another message at event R, and J receives it at event S. Figure 3.4.
The spacetime diagram with these events and the world- The transformation from H’s frame to K’s is a boost
lines of H, J and the messages is shown in Figure 3.3. The transformation because it involves changing velocity. The
diagram is drawn in what we will call “H’s frame” or “H’s boost transformation is central to special relativity; it is
rest frame,” because it is a reference frame in which H is the subject of this and the next chapter.
at rest. • Problem 3–2: Re-draw the events and worldlines of
While this is all going on, Keiko (K) is travelling at Figures 3.3 and 3.4 from the point of view of an observer
speed u between planets A and B. How do we re-draw moving at the same speed as K relative to H and J but
the spacetime diagram in K’s frame, a reference frame in in the opposite direction.
which K is at rest? First of all, K is moving at speed
u relative to H and J, so in K’s frame H and J will be • Problem 3–3: A rocket ship of proper length `0 trav-
moving at speed −u. Thus, H’s and J’s worldlines in K’s els at constant speed v in the x-direction relative to a
frame will have equal but opposite slope to that of K’s frame S. The nose of the ship passes the point x = 0 (in
worldline in H’s frame. Time dilation (Section 2.1) says S) at time t = 0, and at this event a light signal is sent
that moving clocks go slow, so in K’s frame, events P from the nose of the ship to the rear. (a) Draw a space-
and R will be separated in time not by τ but by ∆t0 = time diagram showing the worldlines of the nose and rear
γ τ . Same for Q and S. (All quantities in K’s frame will of the ship and the photon in S. (b) When does the signal
be primed.) Length contraction (Section 2.3) says that get to the rear of the ship in S? (c) When does the rear
moving ruler sticks are shortened. This means that the of the ship pass x = 0 in S? (After French 1966.)
distance separating the parallel worldlines of two objects • Problem 3–4: At noon a rocket ship passes the Earth
moving at the same speed (the “ends of the ruler stick”) is at speed β = 0.8. Observers on the ship and on Earth
shorter by a factor 1/γ in a frame moving at speed u than agree that it is noon. Answer the following questions,
it is in the frame at which the two objects are at rest. H and draw complete spacetime diagrams in both the Earth
and J, therefore, are separated by not ` but ∆x0 = `/γ in and rocket ship frames, showing all events and worldlines:
the horizontal direction. Einstein’s principle of relativity (a) At 12:30 p.m., as read by a rocket ship clock, the
3.3. The “ladder and barn” paradox
ct
J
H
S H
l J
τ γτ
Q γτ
R
l x
τ
P x
Figure 3.3: Spacetime diagram with worldlines of H, J, and
the radio messages (dotted), along with the sending and
receiving events. This diagram is drawn in H’s rest frame;
her worldline is vertical.
ship passes an interplanetary navigational station that is
fixed relative to the Earth and whose clocks read Earth
time. What time is it at the station? (b) How far from
Earth, in Earth coordinates, is the station? (c) At 12:30
p.m. rocket time, the ship reports by radio back to
Earth. When does Earth receive this signal (in Earth
time)? (d) The station replies immediately. When does
the rocket receive the response (in rocket time)? (After
French 1966.)
3.3 The “ladder and barn” paradox
Farmers Nettie (N) and Peter (P) own a barn of length `
and a ladder of length 2`. They want to put the ladder
into the barn, but of course it is too long. N suggests
that P run with the ladder at speed u = 0.866c. At this
speed γ = 2, so the ladder will be shortened by enough
to fit into the barn. P objects. P argues that if he is
running with the ladder, in his frame the ladder will still
have length 2` while the barn will be shortened to length
`/2. The running plan will only make the problem worse!
They cannot both be right. Imagine P running with
the ladder through the front door of the barn and out
the back door, and imagine that the barn is specially
equipped with a front door that closes immediately when
the back of the ladder enters the barn (event C), and a
back door that opens immediately when the front of the
ladder reaches it (event D). Either there is a time when
both doors are closed and the ladder is enclosed by the
barn, or there is not. If there is such a time, we will say
that the ladder fits, and if there is not, we will say that
it does not fit. Who is right? Is N right that the ladder
15
ct
S
R
Q
P
l γ
Figure 3.4: Spacetime diagram with worldlines of H, J, and
the radio messages along with the sending and receiving
events, now drawn in K’s rest frame. Note the time dilation
and length contraction.
is shorter and it will fit in the barn, or is P right that it
isn’t and won’t?
If we draw spacetime diagrams of the ladder and barn
in both frames we get Figure 3.5, where the front and
back of the barn are labeled G and H respectively and
the front and back of the ladder are J and K respectively.
In N’s frame, indeed, events C and D are simultaneous,
ct (a) N’s frame ct (b) P’s frame
G J
J H
C
C G
D
D
K K l
H 2
l l 2l
x x
ladder barn ladder barn
Figure 3.5: Worldlines of the front and back of the barn (G
and H) and the front and back of the ladder (J and K) and
events C and D in the rest frames of (a) N and (b) P. While
events C and D are simultaneous in N’s frame, they are not
in P’s.
so there is a brief time at which the ladder fits inside the
barn. In P’s frame, strangely enough, the events are no
longer simultaneous! Event D happens long before event
C, so there is no time at which the ladder is entirely inside
the barn. So indeed both N and P are correct: whether or
not the ladder fits inside the barn is a frame-dependent
question; it depends on whether or not two events are
simultaneous, and simultaneity is relative.
16
3.4 Relativity of simultaneity
How can we synchronize two clocks that are at rest with
respect to one another but separated by a distance `? The
simplest thing to do is to put a lightbulb halfway between
the two clocks, flash it, and have each clock start ticking
when it detects the flash. The spacetime diagram in the
rest frame S for this synchronizing procedure is shown in
Figure 3.6, with the light bulb at the origin and the two
clocks at x = ±`/2. The flash is marked as event F and
the detections of the flash as events G and H. Thereafter,
the clock ticks are shown as marks on the clock worldlines.
Simultaneous ticks lie on horizontal lines on the spacetime
ct
lines of simultaneity
G H
x
F D
Figure 3.6: Synchronizing clocks at rest in frame S by flash-
ing a lightbulb halfway between them at event F and having
each clock start when it detects the flash (events G and H).
After the two clocks receive the flashes, they tick as shown.
Lines of simultaneity connect corresponding ticks and are
horizontal.
diagram, because they occur at the same value of the time
coordinate. In fact, the horizontal lines can be drawn in;
they are lines of simultaneity.
Now consider a new frame S 0 which is moving at speed
+u = β c in the x-direction with respect to S. In this new
frame, the worldlines of the clocks are no longer vertical
because they are moving at speed −u, but by Einstein’s
principle of relativity the flashes of light must still travel
on 45◦ worldlines. So the spacetime diagram in S 0 looks
like Figure 3.7. Note that in S 0 the lines of simultaneity
joining the corresponding ticks of the two clocks are no
longer horizontal. What does this mean? It means that
two events which are simultaneous in S will not in general
be simultaneous in S 0 .
3.5 The boost transformation
We have seen in the previous section that “horizontal”
lines of simultaneity in one frame become “tilted” in an-
other frame moving with respect to the first, but can we
quantify this? We can, and it turns out that the lines
of simultaneity in frame S acquire slope −β in frame S 0
(which moves at speed +β c with respect to S) just as the
lines of constant position in S acquire slope −1/β in S 0 .
Chapter 3. The geometry of spacetime
ct
G
H
x
F
Figure 3.7: The clocks as observed in frame S 0 along with
events F , G, H, and the subsequent ticks. Although the
clocks are synchronized in S they are not in S 0 . Note that
the lines of simultaneity (horizontal in S) are slanted in S 0 .
A simple thought experiment to demonstrate this consists
of two clocks, synchronized and at rest in S, exchanging
photons simultaneously in S, as shown in Figure 3.8. In
E
C
A B
Figure 3.8: Clocks at rest and synchronized in frame S ex-
changing photons. They emit photons simultaneously at
events A and B, the photons cross paths at event C, and
then are received simultaneously at events D and E.
S they emit photons simultaneously at events A and B;
the photons cross paths at event C; and then are received
simultaneously at events D and E. In S 0 events A and
B are no longer simultaneous, nor are events D and E.
However, light must still travel on 45◦ worldlines and the
photons must still cross at an event C halfway between
the clocks. So the spacetime diagram in S 0 must look like
Figure 3.9, with the square ABED in S sheared into a
parallelogram, preserving the diagonals as 45◦ lines. We
know that the slope of the lines of constant position trans-
form to lines of slope −1/β; in order to have the diagonals
be 45◦ lines, we need the lines of simultaneity to trans-
form to lines of slope −β.
This is really the essence of the boost transforma-
tion, the transformation from one frame to another mov-
ing with respect to it: the transformation is a shear or
3.6. Transforming space and time axes 17

(a) ct (b) ct
ct ct
D
E
x
x
x
C x

Figure 3.10: Spacetime diagrams in frames (a) S 0 and (b) S,

each showing the time and space axes of both frames.
A
B We are now in a position to answer the question posed
at the end of Section 2.1: How can it be that two ob-
servers, moving relative to one another, can both observe
Figure 3.9: Same as Figure 3.8 but in frame S 0 . the other’s clock to tick more slowly than their own?
Imagine that observers at rest in S and S 0 both draw
lines of constant position separated by 1 m of distance
“crunch” along 45◦ lines. A shear is a linear transfor- and lines of simultaneity separated by 1 m of time (3.3 ns)
mation that does not involve rotation, but “squashes” through the spacetime maps of their frames. In S, the S-
coordinates along one direction, allowing them to expand observer’s lines of constant position are vertical, and lines
along the perpendicular direction. In this case, these di- of simultaneity are horizontal. The S 0 -observer’s lines of
rections are photon trajectories or 45◦ worldlines.§ We constant position have slope 1/β and lines of simultaneity
will derive the symbolic form of the boost transformation have slope −β, as seen in Figure 3.11. simultaneity. In
in Chapter 4, but for now these geometrical facts are all S, the horiztonal distance between the S 0 -observer’s lines
we need. of constant position is (1 m)/γ. Look carefully at Fig-
ure 3.11, which shows the ticks of each observer’s clock
• Problem 3–5: Prove, using whatever you need (in-
along a line of constant position. If we travel along the
cluding possibly Figures 3.8 and 3.9), that if the clock
S 0 -observer’s line of constant position, we find that we en-
world lines have slope 1/β in some frame, the lines of si-
counter ticks of the S 0 clock less frequently than lines of
multaneity will have slope β. The shorter the proof, the
simultaneity in S. On the other hand, if we travel along
better.
the S-observer’s line of constant position, we find that we
also encounter ticks of the S clock less freqently than lines
3.6 Transforming space and time axes of simultaneity in S 0 . That is, both observers find that the
other’s clock is going slow. There is no contradiction.
One extremely useful way of representing the boost trans- This point is subtle enough and important enough
formation between two frames on spacetime diagrams is that the reader is advised to stare at Figure 3.11 until
to plot the space and time axes of both frames on both it is understood.
diagrams. This requires us to utilize two trivial facts:
(a) the spatial axis of a frame is just the line of simultane-
ity of that frame which passes through the origin event
(x, ct) = (0, 0) and (b) the time axis is just the line of con-
stant position which passes through (0, 0). So if we (arbi-
trarily) identify origin events in the two frames,¶ we can
plot, in frame S 0 , in addition to the x0 and ct0 axes, the
locations of the x and ct axes of frame S (Figure 3.10(a)).
We can also plot both sets of axes in frame S. This re-
quires boosting not by speed +βc but rather by −βc and,
as you have undoubtedly figured out, this slopes the lines
in the opposite way, and we get Figure 3.10(b). Again
we see that the transformation is a shear. Note that the
boost transformation is not a rotation, at least not in the
traditional sense of the word!
§ The directions along which the squash and expansion take place

are the eigenvectors of the transformation. The ambitious reader is

invited to calculate the two corresponding eigenvalues.
¶ The zero of time and space are arbitrary, so, with no loss of gen-

erality, we can assign these values so that the origin events coincide.
18 Chapter 3. The geometry of spacetime

ct ct

Figure 3.11: Spacetime diagram in frame S, showing the

spacetime grids drawn by the observer at rest in S (solid) and
the observer at rest in S 0 (dotted). The S-observer’s clock
ticks with solid dots and the S 0 -observer’s with open dots.
Note that when travelling along a dotted line of constant
position, clock ticks are encountered less frequently than
solid lines of simultaneity and when travelling along a solid
line of constant position, clock ticks are encountered less
frequently than dotted lines of simultaneity. This explains
how both observers can observe the other’s clock to run
slow.
Chapter 4
The Lorentz transformation
In this Chapter the invariant interval is introduced
and the Lorentz transformation is derived and discussed.
There is a lot of algebra but it is straightforward and the
results are simple. The “twin paradox” is explained in
terms of geodesics.
4.1 Proper time and the invariant interval
In 3-dimensional space, two different observers can set up
different coordinate systems, so they will not in general
assign the same coordinates to a pair of points P1 and P2 .
However they will agree on the distance between them.
If one observer measures coordinate differences ∆x, ∆y
and ∆z between points A and B, and another, with a
different coordinate system, measures ∆x0 , ∆y0 and ∆z 0 ,
they will both agree on the total distance ∆r, defined by
(∆r)2 ≡ (∆x)2 + (∆y)2 + (∆z)2
= (∆x0 )2 + (∆y0 )2 + (∆z 0 )2 . (4.1)
We would like to find a similar quantity for pairs of events:
some kind of ‘length’ in 3+1-dimensional spacetime that
is frame-independent, or the same for all observers. There
is such a quantity, and it is called the invariant interval
or simply interval, it is symbolized by (∆s)2 and defined
by
(∆s)2 ≡ (c ∆t)2 − (∆r)2
≡ (c ∆t)2 − (∆x)2 − (∆y)2 − (∆z)2 , (4.2)
where ∆t is the difference in time between the events, and
∆r is the difference in space or the distance between the
places of occurence of the events.
To demonstrate this, recall Section 2.1 in which we
considered the flashes of a lightclock carried by D. In D’s
frame the flashes are separated by time c∆t = 1 m and
distance ∆x = 0. The interval between flashes is therefore
(∆s)2 = (c∆t)2 − (∆x)2 = 1 m2 . In E’s frame c∆t0 =
γ (1 m) and ∆x = γ u (1 m)/c, so the interval is (∆s0 )2 =
γ 2 (1 − u2 /c2 ) (1 m2 ). Since γ ≡ (1 − u2 )−1/2 , (∆s0 )2 =
(∆s)2 = 1 m2 . Any other observer moving at any other
speed w with respect to D will measure different time and
space separations, but a similar argument will show that
the interval is still 1 m2 .
The proper time ∆τ between two events is the time
experienced by an observer in whose frame the events
19
take place at the same point if there is such a frame. As
the above example shows, the square root of the invariant
interval between
p the two events is c times the proper time,
or c ∆τ = (∆s)2 . The proper time is the length of time
separating the events in D’s frame, a frame in which both
events occur at the same place. If the interval is positive,
there always is such a frame, because positive interval
means |c ∆t| > |∆r| so a frame moving at vector velocity
v = (∆r)/(∆t), in which the events take place at the
same point, is moving at a speed less than that of light.
If the interval between two events is less than zero,
i.e., (∆s)2 < 0, it is still invarant even though there is no
frame in which both events take place at the same point.
There is no such frame because necessarily it would have
to move faster than the speed of light. To demonstrate the
invariance in this case, consider the clock-synchronizing
procedure described in Section 3.4: two flashes are emit-
ted together from a point halfway between the clocks, sep-
arated by one meter. The clocks start when the flashes
arrive, two events which are simultaneous in their rest
frame. In the rest frame the two starting events are
separated by c ∆t = 0 and ∆x = 1 m. The interval
is (∆s)2 = −1 m2 . In the frame moving at speed u
with respect to the rest frame, the clocks are separated
by (1 m)/γ and they are moving so the light takes time
(0.5 m)/[γ(c+u)] to get to one clock and (0.5 m)/[γ(c−u)]
to get to the other so c ∆t0 is c times the difference be-
tween these, or γ u (1 m)/c. Light travels at c so the
displacement ∆x0 is the c times the sum, or γ (1 m). The
interval is (∆s0 )2 = −1 m2 , same as in the rest frame.
Since any other relative speed w could have been used,
this shows that the interval is invariant even if it is neg-
ative.
Sometimes the proper distance ∆λ is defined to be
the distance separating two events in the frame in which
they occur at the same time. It only makes sense if the
interval
pis negative, and it is related to the interval by
∆λ = |(∆s)2 |.
Of course the interval (∆s)2 can also be exactly equal
to zero. This is the case in which (c ∆t)2 = (∆r)2 , or
in which the two events lie on the worldline of a photon.
Because the speed of light is the same in all frames, a
interval equal to zero in one frame must equal zero in all
frames. Intervals with (∆s)2 = 0 are called “lightlike” or
“null” while those with (∆s)2 > 0 are called “timelike”
20 Chapter 4. The Lorentz transformation

and (∆s)2 < 0 are called “spacelike”. They have different We also know that between any two events, the inter-
causal properties, which will be discussed in Chapter 5. val ∆s2 is the same in all frames. When ∆y = ∆z = 0,
(∆s)2 = (c ∆t)2 − (∆x)2 . Combined with the above two
4.2 Derivation of the Lorentz transformation matrix elements, the requirement that (∆s)2 = (∆s)02
implies
It would be nice to have algebraic formulae which allow
us to compute the coordinates (ct0 , x0 , y0 , z 0 ) of an event in Lt0 x = −γ β
one frame given the coordinates (ct, x, y, z) of the event in Lx0 x = γ (4.7)
some other frame. In this section we derive these formu-
So we find that the transformation of the coordinates
lae by assuming that the interval is invariant and asking
from one frame F to another G that is moving in the
“what kind of boost transformation will preserve the in-
x-direction at relative speed +u = β c is given by
terval?”, making one or two appeals to common sense on
 0    
the way. ct γ −γ β 0 0 ct
We want to find the linear∗ transformation that takes  x0   −γ β γ 0 0   
 0 =   x  (4.8)
the coordinates (ct, x, y, z) of a 4-displacement in frame  y   0 0 1 0  y 
F to the coordinates (ct0 , x0 , y0 , z 0 ) it has in frame G so z0 0 0 0 1 z
that the interval is invariant and G is moving at speed
u = β c in the x-direction with respect to F. 4.3 The Lorentz transformation
In Section 2.3, we argued that there are no length
distortions in the directions perpendicular to the direction
The Lorentz transformation (hereafter LT) is very im-
of motion. This means that the y- and z-coordinates of portant and deserves some discussion. The LT really
an event in F must be the same as those in G; transforms differences (c ∆t, ∆x, ∆y, ∆z) between the
0 coordinates of two events in one frame to differences
y = y
(c ∆t0 , ∆x0, ∆y0 , ∆z 0 ) in another frame. This means that
z0 = z (4.3) if one is going to apply the LT directly to event coor-
Linearity requires that the x0 and t0 components must dinates, one must be very careful that‡ a single event is
be given by at the origin (0, 0, 0, 0) of both frames. In the previous
section, we placed event P at the origin of both frames.
c t0 = Lt0 t c t + Lt0 x x A simple consistency check we could apply to the LT
0 is the following: If we boost to a frame moving at u, and
x = Lx0 t c t + Lx0 x x (4.4)
then boost back by a speed −u, we should get what we
where the Li0 j are constants; or, in matrix† form, started with. In other words, LTs with equal and opposite
 0     speeds should be the inverses of one another. If we change
ct Lt0 t Lt0 x ct
= (4.5) u → −u, we have β → −β and γ → γ, so boosting the
x0 Lx0 t Lx0 x x
coordinates (ct0 , x0) in frame K back to H and giving the
From the previous chapter, we know that two events new coordinates double-primes, we have
that occur in F at the same place (so ∆x = 0) but
ct00 = γ ct0 + β γ x0
separated by time c ∆t occur in G separated by time
c ∆t0 = γ c ∆t and therefore separated in space by ∆x0 = = γ (γ ct − β γ x) + β γ (−β γ ct + γ x)
−β c ∆t0 = −β γ c ∆t, where, as usual γ ≡ (1 − β 2 )−1/2 . = γ 2 (ct − β x − β 2 ct + β x)
This implies = γ 2 (1 − β 2 ) ct
Lt0 t = γ = ct (4.9)
00 0 0
Lx0 t = γβ (4.6) x = β γ ct + γ x
∗ The reader may ask: why need the transformation be linear? It = β γ (γ ct − β γ x) + γ (−β γ ct + γ x)
needs to be linear because straight worldlines (i.e. constant-velocity = γ 2 (β ct − β 2 x − β ct + x)
worldlines) in one frame must transform into straight worldlines in
all other frames. = γ 2 (1 − β 2 ) x
† For a review of matrix algebra, see the excellent textbook by
= x, (4.10)
Strang (1976). In short, a column vector multiplied by a matrix
makes another column vector according to the rule
     so indeed, the boost of −u is the inverse of the boost of
y1 a11 a12 a13 a14 x1 u.
 y2 = a21 a22 a23 a24  x2  The LT as defined above has the primed frame (K)
y3 a31 a32 a33 a34 x3
y4 a41 a42 a43 a44 x4 moving at speed +u with respect to the unprimed frame
  (H). This is not a universal convention, but I will try to
a11x1 + a12 x2 + a13 x3 + a14 x4
stick to it.
= 
a21x1 + a22 x2 + a23 x3 + a24 x4
a31x1 + a32 x2 + a33 x3 + a34 x4 ‡ There is a more general class of transformations, Poincaré tran-
a41x1 + a42 x2 + a43 x3 + a44 x4 formations, which allow translations of the coordinate origin as well
This is easily generalized to larger or smaller dimensions. LTs (which include boosts and, as we will see, rotations).
4.4. Velocity addition 21

The group of all LTs includes all linear transforma- • Problem 4–5: Denote by E the event on the ct-axis
tions that preserve the interval§ . This means that LTs of a spacetime diagram that is a proper time cτ from the
include space rotations with no boost, for example origin. What is the locus of all events on the spacetime
  diagram that are separated from the origin by the same
1 0 0 0 proper time?
 0 cos θ − sin θ 0 
  (4.11) The answer should be a hyperbola that asymptotes to
 0 sin θ cos θ 0 
the line ct = x but which is horizontal on the spacetime
0 0 0 1 diagram right at E.
LTs also include boosts in arbitrary directions, not just • Problem 4–6: Denote by F the event on the x-axis of
the x-direction. For an arbitrary relative velocity u = a spacetime diagram that is a distance ` from the origin.
(ux , uy , yz ) of frame S 0 with respect to S, the correspond- What is the locus of all events which are separated from
ing LT is the origin by the same interval as F ?
 
γ −γ βx −γ βy −γ βz
 −γ β 1 + (γ−1) βx2 (γ−1) βx βy (γ−1) βx βz  4.4 Velocity addition
 x 
 β2 β2 β2

 −γ β (γ−1) βy βz 
2
(γ−1) βx βy (γ−1) β
 y 1 + β2 y We are now in a position to derive the correct velocity

β2 β2
(γ−1) βx βz (γ−1) βy βz addition law that replaces the simple but incorrect one
(γ−1) βz2
−γ βz β 2 β 2 1 + β 2
suggested in Section 1.2: If A moves at speed +u in the
(4.12)
x-direction with respect to B, and A throws a cantaloupe
where we define at speed +v in the x-direction relative to himself, at what
βx ≡ ux/c speed w does B observe the cantaloupe to travel? The
simple but incorrect answer is w = u + v. The correct
βy ≡ uy /c answer can be quickly calculated with a Lorentz trans-
βz ≡ uz /c formation. Call the throwing event T and put it at the
β ≡ βx + βy + βz
2 2 2 2 origin of both frames, so (ctT , xT ) = (ct0T , x0T ) = (0, 0),
where A’s frame gets the primes. Now imagine that at
γ ≡ (1 − βx2 − βy2 − βz2 )−1/2 (4.13)
some time t0 later in A’s frame, the cantaloupe explodes,
0 0
(see, e.g., Jackson, 1975, Chapter 11). And, of course, this explosion event E must occur at coordinates (ct , vt )
any composition of arbitrary LTs is also an LT. in A’s frame. In B’s frame, by definition, T occurs at the
origin, but by applying the LT with speed −u (defining
• Problem 4–1: Transform the events A (ct, x) = β ≡ u/c and γ accordingly) E now occurs at
(0, 0), B (0, 1 m), C (1/2 m, 1/2 m), D (1 m, 0), and E
(1 m, 1 m) into a frame S 0 moving at speed +0.6c in ct = γ ct0 + β γ vt0
the x-direction with respect to the unprimed frame S.
x = β γ ct0 + γ vt0 (4.14)
Draw spacetime diagrams of both frames showing the five
events. The speed w measured by B is simply x/t or
To check your answer: notice that A, C, and E all lie
on a 45◦ worldline, as do B, C, and D. The LT must β γ ct0 + γ vt0
transform 45◦ worldlines to 45◦ worldlines because the w = c
γ ct0 + β γ vt0
speed of light is c in all frames. u+v
= (4.15)
• Problem 4–2: Write down the transformation from a 1 + uv/c2
0
frame S to a frame S moving at +0.5c in the x-direction
and then to another frame S 00 moving at +0.5c in the which is less than u + v. Spacetime diagrams for this
x-direction relative to S 0 . What is the complete trans- calculation are shown in Figure 4.1.
formation from S to S 00 ? What relative speed between
frames S and S 00 does your answer imply? ct ct
E
• Problem 4–3: Show that the transformations given E
A A
for a coordinate rotation and for a boost in an arbitrary B
direction preserve the interval. B C C
• Problem 4–4: Do space reflections and time-reversals
T
preserve the interval? T
(a) x (b) x
§ In fact, the astute reader will notice that there are linear trans-
formations which preserve the interval but involve reversing the di-
rection of time or reflecting space through a plane. These do indeed
satisfy the criteria to be LTs but they are known as “improper” LTs Figure 4.1: Spacetime diagrams of the throw T and explo-
because they do not correspond to physically realizable boosts. On
the other hand, they do have some theoretical meaning in relativis-
sion E of C by A, as observed by (a) A and (b) B for the
tic quantum mechanics, apparently. purposes of computing the velocity addition law.
22
• Problem 4–7: In an interplanetary race, slow team X
is travelling in their old rocket at speed 0.9c relative to the
finish line. They are passed by faster team Y, observing
Y to pass X at 0.9c. But team Y observes fastest team Z
to pass Y’s own rocket at 0.9c. What are the speeds of
teams X, Y and Z relative to the finish line?
The answer is not 0.9c, 1.8c, and 2.7c!
• Problem 4–8: An unstable particle at rest in the
lab frame splits into two identical pieces, which fly apart
in opposite directions at Lorentz factor γ = 100 relative
to the lab frame. What is one particle’s Lorentz factor
relative to the other? What is its speed relative to the
other, expressed in the form β ≡ 1 − ?
• Problem 4–9: Determine the transformation law for
an arbitrary 3-vector velocity v = (vx , vy , vz ).
4.5 The twin paradox
Lin (L) and Ming (M) are twins, born at the same time,
but with very different genes: L is an astronaut who likes
to explore outer space, and M is a homebody who likes
to stay at home on Earth and read novels.¶ When both
L and M turn 20, L leaves on a journey to a nearby star.
The star is ` = 30 light years away and L chooses to travel
out at speed u = 0.99c and then immediately turn around
and come back. From M’s point of view, the journey will
take time T = 2`/u ≈ 60 yr, so L will return when M is
80. How much will L have aged over the same period?
In Section 2.1 we learned that moving clocks go slow,
so L will have aged by T 0 = T /γ, where γ ≡ (1 − β 2 )−1/2
and β ≡ u/c. For u = 0.99c, γ = 7, so L will have
aged less than 9 yr. That is, on L’s arrival home, M will
be 80, but L will only be 28! Strange, but in this special
relativistic world, we are learning to live with strangeness.
During his journey, Ming starts to get confused about
this argument. After all, there is no preferred reference
frame. If one looks at the Earth from the point of view
of Ming’s rocket, one sees the Earth travel out at speed u
and come back. So isn’t L’s clock the one that runs slow,
and won’t L the one who will be younger upon return?
How can this be resolved?
In Figure 4.2, the worldlines of L and M are plot-
ted in the rest frame of the Earth (frame S), with L’s
departure marked as event D, L’s turnaround at the dis-
tant star as T and her return home as R. You will re-
call that in Section 4.1 we saw that along a worldline,
the proper time, or time elapsed for an observer travel-
ling along the worldline, is the square root of the interval
(∆s)2 = (c ∆t)2 − (∆x)2 . M does not move, so ∆x = 0
and the proper time for him is just ∆tDR . L moves very
quickly, so (∆x) is not zero, so her proper time out to
event T and back again will be much smaller than simply
∆tDR . Smaller, of course, by a factor 1/γ.
Let’s draw this now in L’s frame. But we have a prob-
lem: just what frame do we choose? Do we choose the
¶ Do not regard this statement as a position on the na-
ture/nurture debate.
Chapter 4. The Lorentz transformation
ct R
L
M T
D x
Figure 4.2: Worldlines of the twins L and M in frame S,
with L’s departure marked as D, turnaround as T and return
home as R.
frame S 0 that is L’s rest frame on her way out to the
star, or the frame S 00 that is L’s rest frame on the way
back? We cannot choose both because they are differ-
ent frames: L changes frames at event T . This breaks
the symmetry and resolves the paradox: M travels from
event D to event R in a single frame with no changes,
while L changes frames. L’s worldline is crooked while
M’s is straightk .
It is easy to show that given any two events and a set
of worldlines that join them, the worldline corresponding
to the path of longest proper time is the straight line. Just
as in Euclidean space the straight line can be defined as
the shortest path between two points, in spacetime the
straight worldline can be defined as the path of longest
proper time. This is in fact the definition, and straight
worldlines are called geodesics.
• Problem 4–10: Prove that the straight worldline
joining any two events E and F is the line of maximum
proper time. Hint: begin by transforming into the frame
in which E and F occur at the same place.
• Problem 4–11: Imagine that every year, on their re-
spective birthdays, each twin sends the other a radio mes-
sage (at the speed of light). Re-draw Figure 4.2 on graph
paper and draw, as accurately as possible, L’s birthday
messages in red and M’s birthday messages in blue. How
many messages does each twin receive? At what ages to
k Another, fundamentally incorrect, but nonetheless useful, way
to distinguish the twins is to imagine that despite their genetic dif-
ferences, they are both avid coffee drinkers. If they each spend the
entire time between events D and R drinking coffee, L experiences
no trouble at all, but M finds that he spills his coffee all over him-
self at event T. After all, his spaceship suffers a huge acceleration at
that time. L experiences no such trauma. This explanation is fun-
damentally flawed because if we allow for gravitational forces, there
are many ways to construct twin paradoxes which do not involve
this asymmetry.
4.5. The twin paradox 23

they receive them?

• Problem 4–12: Imagine that rather than taking one
long trip out and back, Ming in fact takes five shorter
trips out and back, but all at the same speed β, and
elapsing the same total time (on Lin’s clock) for all the
trips, as in the single-trip case. What effect does this have
on Ming’s aging relative to Lin’s, as compared with the
single-trip case? Estimate how much less a commercial
airline pilot ages relative to her or his spouse over her or
his lifetime.
24 Chapter 4. The Lorentz transformation
Chapter 5
Causality and the interval
The sign of the interval (∆s)2 (i.e., whether it is posi-
tive or negative) is discussed in terms of causality in this
Chapter. If one event can affect another causally, the in-
terval between them must be positive. By preserving the
interval, therefore, the Lorentz transformation preserves
also the causal structure of the Universe, provided that
nothing travels faster than light. This is the reason for
that universal speed limit.
5.1 The ladder and barn revisited
Recall the “ladder and barn” paradox discussed in Sec-
tion 3.3, in which N is at rest with respect to a barn, and
P is carrying a long ladder but running so that it will be
length contracted and therefore fit.
Confused by the discussion of relativity of simultane-
ity in Chapter 3, N decides to prove that ladder does
indeed fit into the barn by replacing the back door with
an incredibly strong, rigid, and heavy back wall that does
not open. Now when P enters the barn, he cannot leave,
and the question is: does the front door ever close at all?
If it closes, the ladder must be really inside the barn in
all frames because there is no back door through which
it can be exiting. Thus instead of asking whether event
C happens before or after D, a frame-dependent ques-
tion, we are asking whether C happens at all. This is a
frame-independent question.∗
In N’s frame, event C, the closing of the front door,
must happen because the front of the ladder does not hit
the back wall until event C has occurred. That is, the
ladder does not even “know” that the back door has been
replaced by a brick wall until event C has occurred, so
if event C, the closing of the front door, happened when
the back door was open, it must still happen now that
the back door is no longer there.
In P’s frame the front of the ladder hits the back of
the barn before the back of the ladder enters, as we saw
in Section 3.3. But does this mean that the ladder will
stop and event C will no longer happen? To answer this
question, we will have to actually do some Physics for the
∗ Events are frame-independent entities in the sense that if an
event occurs in one frame, it must occur in all. One cannot
“undo” the fact that one sneezed by changing frames! On the other
hand, relationships between events such as simultaneity are frame-
dependent or relative.
25
first time in these notes.
If I am standing at one end of a long table of length
` and I push on the table to move it, how quickly can
someone standing at the other end feel the table move?
My pushing on the table sets up a compression wave that
travels at the speed of sound cs in the table. The person
at the other end feels the push when the wave gets there,
at a time `/cs after I push. In everyday experience, this
time is fairly short, so we are not aware of the time delay
between the push at one end and the feeling at the other.
But if we stand at opposite ends of a very long, stretched
slinky, this time delay is easily observable.
Because, as we will see, no object or piece of matter
can ever travel faster than the speed of light and because
all information is transferred via either matter or light
itself, no information or signal or, in particular, compres-
sion wave, can ever travel faster than the speed of light.
This means that no matter how rigid and strong I build
my table, the earliest possible time that the person at the
other end can feel my push is at a time `/c after I push,
where c is now the speed of light.
Why this digression? Because it applies to the prob-
lem at hand. Sure, in P’s frame, the front of the ladder
hits the back of the barn before the back of the ladder
enters, but this information cannot reach the back of the
ladder until some finite time after the collision. So the
back of the ladder doesn’t know that anything has gone
awry at the front and it continues to move. When does
the back of the ladder learn of the front’s collision? To
answer this we need to draw spacetime diagrams. Fig-
ure 5.1 shows the spacetime diagrams in the two frames.
Event D is the collision of the ladder with the back wall,
and we have added event E, the earliest possible mo-
ment at which the back of the ladder can learn of the
collision at the front. This event is separated from the
collision event by a photon trajectory, because the max-
imum speed at which the information can travel is the
speed of light. In both frames we see that the back of the
ladder enters the barn and event C occurs before the back
of the ladder learns about the collision. In other words,
the back of the ladder makes it into the barn and the
door closes behind it. What does this imply? It implies
that the ladder must be compressible or fragile. The fact
that the speed of sound in the ladder cannot exceed the
speed of light ensures that all materials are compressible.
26 Chapter 5. Causality and the interval

ct (a) N’s frame ct (b) P’s frame B in all frames. After all, it is impossible for R to catch
G E J the ball before Q throws it!
J H If indeed events A and B are the throwing and catch-
E C ing of a ball, we can say something about their x and
C G t coordinates. The spatial separation ∆x between the
D
K
D events must be less than the time (in dimensions of dis-
H K l
l l 2l 2 tance) c ∆t between the events because the ball cannot
x x
travel faster than the speed of light. For such a pair of
events the interval
Figure 5.1: Same as Figure 3.5 but now event D is a collision
(∆s)2 = (c ∆t)2 − (∆x)2 (5.1)
rather than an exit. The news of the collision cannot travel
faster than the speed of light so it cannot reach the back of must be positive. Events with positive interval must oc-
the ladder before event E. cur in the same order in all frames because activity at the
earlier event can affect activity at the later event. Such
Loosely speaking, this is because a totally incompress- a pair of events has a timelike spacetime separation, and
ible substance has an infinite sound speed, and that is it is sometimes said that A is in the causal history of B,
not allowed. There are many fun problems in relativity or B is in the causal future of A.
based on this type of argument, discussion of which is In the case of events C and D in the ladder-and-barn
prevented by lack of space. One important application is paradox, the interval between the events is negative, and
a proof that dark (i.e., not burning nuclear fuel), compact any signal or information or matter traveling between the
objects more massive than about three times the mass of events would have to travel faster than the speed of light.
the Sun must be black holes: any other material, even a Thus activity at each of these events is prevented from
crystal composed of pure neutrons, can only hold itself affecting activity at the other, so there is no logical or
up under that kind of pressure if it is so rigid that the physical inconsistency in having a boost transformation
speed of sound in the material would necessarily exceed change their order of occurence. Such a pair of events
the speed of light! has a spacelike spacetime separation. They are causally
disconnected.
• Problem 5–1: Imagine a plank of length ` supported For completeness we should consider events D and E
at both ends by sawhorses in a gravitational field of ac- in the ladder-and-barn paradox. These events are sep-
celeration g. One support is kicked out. What is the arated by a photon world line or (c ∆t)2 = (∆x)2 , so
minimum time the other end of the plank could “know” the interval is zero between these events. Such a pair of
that the one end has lost its support? Roughly speaking, events is said to have a lightlike or null spacetime sepa-
what distance ∆y will the one end fall before the other ration. Two events with a null separation in one frame
can know? How much does the board bend, and, to or- must be have a null separation in all frames because the
der of magnitude, what does this tell you about, say, the speed of light is the same in all frames.
Young’s modulus of the board?
• Problem 5–2: Imagine a wheel of radius R consisting 5.3 Nothing can travel faster than the speed of
of an outer rim of length 2π R and a set of spokes of light
length R connected to a central hub. If the wheel spins
so fast that its rim is travelling at a significant fraction of
The well-known speed limit—nothing can travel faster
c, the rim ought to contract to less than 2π R in length than the speed of light—follows from the invariant causal
by length contraction, but the spokes ought not change structure of the Universe. If one event is in the causal
their lengths at all (since they move perpendicular to their
history of another in one frame, it must be in that causal
lengths). How do you think this problem is resolved given history in all frames, otherwise we have to contend with
the discussion in this Section? If you find a solution to some pretty wacky physics.† For instance, reconsider the
this problem which does not make use of the concepts above example of Q and R playing catch. Imagine that
introduced in this Section, come see me right away! Q and R are separated by ` in their rest frame S, and
Q throws the ball to R at twice the speed of light. The
spatial separation between events A and B is ∆x = ` and
5.2 Causality
the time separation is c∆t = `/2. Now switch to a frame
S 0 moving at speed v in the direction pointing from Q to
Event order is relative, but it is subject to certain con-
R. Applying the Lorentz transformation, in this frame
straints. By changing frames in the ladder-and-barn para-
dox, we can make event D precede, be simultaneous with,  
0 1
or follow event E. But we cannot make any pair of events ∆t = γ ` −v (5.2)
2
change their order simply by changing frames. For in-
stance, if Quentin (Q) throws a ball to Rajesh (R), the † The reader who objects that special relativity is already fairly

event of the throw A must precede the event of the catch wacky will be ignored.
5.3. Nothing can travel faster than the speed of light 27

which is less than zero if v > 1/2. In other words, in

frames S 0 with v > 1/2, event B precedes event A. I.e.,
in S 0 R must catch the ball before Q throws it. A little
thought will show this to be absurd; we are protected
from absurdity by the law that nothing, no object, signal
or other information, can travel faster than the speed of
light. Thus we have been justified, earlier in this chapter,
and elsewhere in these notes, in assuming that nothing
can travel faster than the speed of light.
28 Chapter 5. Causality and the interval
Chapter 6

Relativistic mechanics
6.1 Scalars also discuss the 3-displacement r separating P and Q.
Again, they may disagree on the coordinate values of this
A scalar is a quantity that is the same in all reference 3-vector, but they will agree that it is equal to the vector
frames, or for all observers. It is an invariant number. that separates points P and Q. They will also agree on
For example, the interval (∆s)2 separating two events A the length of r and they will agree on the angle it makes
and B is a scalar because it is the same in all frames. with any other vector s, say the vector displacement be-
Similarly, the proper time ∆τ between two events on a tween P and R (Richmond, VA). In this sense the points
worldline is a scalar. In Chapter 2, the number of ticks of and 3-vector are frame-independent or coordinate-free ob-
D’s clock in going from planet A to planet B is a scalar jects, and it is in the same sense that events and 4-vectors
because although observers disagree on how far apart the are frame-independent objects.
ticks are in time, they agree on the total number. With each 4-displacement we can associate a scalar:
It is worth emphasizing that the time interval ∆t be- the interval (∆s)2 along the vector. The interval associ-
tween two events, or the distance ∆x between two events, ated with ~x is
or the the length ` separating two worldlines are not
scalars: they do not have frame-independent values∗ . (∆s)2 = (c ∆t)2 − (∆x)2 − (∆y)2 − (∆z)2 (6.2)

Because of the similarity of this expression to that of the

6.2 4-vectors dot product between 3-vectors in three dimensions, we
also denote this interval by a dot product and also by
Between any two distinct events A and B in spacetime, |~x|2 :
there is a time difference c ∆t and three coordinate differ-
ence ∆x, ∆y and ∆z. These four numbers can be written 2
~x · ~x ≡ |~x| ≡ (c ∆t)2 − (∆x)2 − (∆y)2 − (∆z)2 (6.3)
as a vector ~x with four components, which is called a 4-
vector : and we will sometimes refer to this as the magnitude or
~x = (c ∆t, ∆x, ∆y, ∆z) (6.1) length of the 4-vector.
We can generalize this dot product to a dot product
The 4-vector† ~x is actually a frame-independent object, between any two 4-vectors ~a = (a , a , a , a ) and ~b =
t x y z
although this is a fairly subtle concept. The components (b , b , b , b ):
t x y z
of ~x are not frame-independent, because they transform
by the Lorentz transformation (Section 4.3). But event ~a · ~b ≡ at bt − ax bx − ay by − az bz (6.4)
A is frame independent: if it occurs in one frame, it must
occur in all frames, and so is event B, so there is some It is easy to show that this dot product obeys the rules
frame-independent meaning to the 4-vector displacement we expect dot products to obey: associativity over addi-
or 4-displacement between these events: it is the 3+1- tion and commutativity. The nice result is that the dot
dimensional arrow in spacetime that connects the two product produces a scalar. That is, the dot product of
events. any two 4-vectors in one frame equals their dot product
The frame-independence can be illustrated with an in any other frame.
analogy with 3-dimensional space. Different observers set When frames are changed, 4-displacements transform
up different coordinate systems and assign different coor- according to the Lorentz transformation. Because 4-
dinates to two points P and Q, say Pittsburgh, PA and displacements are 4-vectors, it follows that all 4-vectors
Queens, NY. Although both observers agree that they transform according to the Lorentz transformation. This
are talking about Pittsburgh and Queens, they assign provides a simple (though slightly out-of-date) definition
different coordinates to the points. The observers can of a 4-vector: an ordered quadruple of numbers that
∗ Forget high school—where all single-component numbers were
transforms according to the Lorentz transformation.
probably referred to as “scalars.”
Because scalars, by definition, do not change under
† The convention in these notes is to denote 4-vectors with vector a Lorentz transformation, any 4-component object which
hats and 3-vectors with bold face symbols. transforms according to the Lorentz transformation can
29
30 Chapter 6. Relativistic mechanics

be multiplied or divided by a scalar to give a new four-
component object which also transforms according to the
Lorentz transformation. In other words, a 4-vector mul-
tiplied or divided by a scalar is another 4-vector.
• Problem 6–1: Show that the 3+1-dimensional dot
product obeys associativity over addition, i.e., that
where (vx , vy , vz ) are the components of the 3-velocity
v = dr/dt. Although it is unpleasant to do so, we often
write 4-vectors as two-component objects with the first
component a single number and the second a 3-vector. In
this notation
~u = (γ c, γ v) (6.9)

What is the magnitude of ~u? There are several ways

~a · (~b + ~c) = ~a · ~b + ~a · ~c (6.5)
to derive it, the most elegant is as follows. The magnitude
|~u|2 must be the same in all frames because ~u is a four-
and commutativity, i.e., that ~a · ~b = ~b · ~a.
vector. Let us change into the frame in which the object
• Problem 6–2: Show that the dot product of two in question is at rest. In this frame ~u = (c, 0, 0, 0) because
4-vectors is a scalar. That is, show that for any two 4- v = (0, 0, 0) and γ = 1. Clearly in this frame |~u|2 = c2
vectors ~a and ~b, their dot product in one frame S is equal or |~u| = c. It is a scalar so it must have this value in all
to their dot product in another S 0 moving with respect frames. Thus |~u| = c in all frames. This trivial “proof”
to S. is a good model for problem-solving in special relativity:
• Problem 6–3: Show that 4-vectors are closed under identify something which is frame-independent, transform
addition. That is, show that for any two 4-vectors ~a and into a frame in which it is easy to calculate, and calculate
~b, their sum ~c = ~a + ~b (i.e., each component of ~c is just it. The answer will be good for all frames.
the sum of the corresponding components of ~a and ~b) is The reader may find this a little strange. Some par-
also a 4-vector. Show this by comparing what you get by ticles move quickly, some slowly, but for all particles, the
Lorentz transforming and then summing with what you magnitude of the 4-velocity is c. But this is not strange,
get by summing and then Lorentz transforming. because we need the magnitude to be a scalar, the same in
all frames. If I change frames, some of the particles that
were moving quickly before now move slowly, and some
6.3 4-velocity of them are stopped altogether. Speeds (magnitudes of
3-velocities) are relative; the magnitude of the 4-velocity
What is the 3+1-dimensional analog of velocity? We
has to be invariant.
want a 4-vector so we want a four-component object that
transforms according to the Lorentz transformation. In • Problem 6–4: Apply the formula for the magnitude
3-dimensional space, 3-velocity v is defined by of a 4-vector to the general 4-velocity (γ c, γ vx , γ vy , γ vz )
to show that its magnitude is indeed c.
∆r dr
v ≡ lim = (6.6)
∆t→0 ∆t dt
6.4 4-momentum, rest mass and conservation
where ∆t is the time it takes the object in question to laws
go the 3-displacement ∆r. The naive 3+1-dimensional
generalization would be to put the 4-displacement ∆~x Just as in non-relativistic 3-space, where 3-momentum
in place of the 3-displacement ∆r. However, this in it- was defined as mass times 3-velocity, in spacetime 4-
self won’t do, because we are dividing a 4-vector by a momentum ~p is mass m times 4-velocity ~u. Under this
non-scalar (time intervals are not scalars); the quotient definition, the mass must be a scalar if the 4-momentum
will not transform according to the Lorentz transforma- is going to be a 4-vector. If you are old enough, you may
tion. The fix is to replace ∆t by the proper time ∆τ have heard of a quantity called “relativistic mass” which
corresponding to the interval of the 4-displacement; the increases with velocity, approaching infinity as an object
4-velocity ~u is then approaches the speed of light. Forget whatever you heard;
that formulation of special relativity is archaic and ugly.
∆~x
~u ≡ lim (6.7) The mass m of an object as far as we are concerned is its
∆τ→0 ∆τ rest mass, or the mass we would measure if we were at
rest with respect to the object.
When we take the limit we get derivatives, and the proper
Rest mass is a scalar in that although different ob-
time ∆τ is related to the coordinate time ∆t by γ ∆τ =
servers who are all moving at different speeds with respect
∆t (where, as usual, γ ≡ (1 − β 2 )−1/2 and β ≡ |v|/c), so
to the object may, depending on the nature of their mea-
d~x suring apparati, measure different masses for an object,
~u = they all can agree on what its mass would be if they were
dτ 
dt dx dy dz at rest with respect to it. In this respect rest mass is like
= c , , , the proper time scalar: the only observers whose clocks
dτ dτ dτ dτ
  actually measure the proper time between two events are
dt dx dy dz the observers for whom the two events happen in the same
= cγ ,γ ,γ ,γ
dt dt dt dt place. But all observers agree on what that proper time
= (γ c, γ vx , γ vy , γ vz ) (6.8) is.
6.5. Collisions
The 4-momentum ~p is thus
p~ ≡ m ~u
= (γ m c, γ m vx , γ m vy , γ m vz )
= (γ m c, γ m v)
Again, by switching into the rest frame of the particle, we
find that |~p| = m c. This is also obvious because ~p = m ~u
and |~u| = c. As with 4-velocity, it is strange but true
that the magnitude of the 4-momentum does not depend
on speed. But of course it cannot, because speeds are
relative.
Why introduce all these 4-vectors, and in particu-
lar the 4-momentum? In non-relativistic mechanics, 3-
momentum is conserved. However, by Einstein’s princi-
ple, all the laws of physics must be true in all uniformly
moving reference frames. Because only scalars and 4-
vectors are truly frame-independent, relativistically in-
variant conservation of momentum must take a slightly
different form: in all interactions, collisions and decays
of objects, the total 4-momentum is conserved. Further-
more, its time component is energy E/c (we must divide
by c to give it the same dimensions as momentum) and its
spatial components make up a correct, relativistic expres-
sion for the 3-momentum p. We are actually re-defining
E and p to be
E ≡ γ m c2
p ≡ γ mv
Please forget any other expressions you learned for E or
p in non-relativistic mechanics. Those other expressions
are only good when speeds are much smaller than the
speed of light.
A very useful equation suggested by the new, correct
expressions for E and p is
p c2
v=
E
By taking the magnitude-squared of ~p we get a rela-
tion between m, E and p ≡ |p|,
 2
E freedom. In relativistic mechanics, 4-momentum, and in
|~p|2 = m2 c2 = − p2
c particular the time component or energy, is conserved in
which, after multiplication by c2 and rearrangement be-
comes
E 2 = m2 c4 + p2 c2 (6.14)
This is the famous equation of Einstein’s, which becomes
E = m c2 when the particle is at rest (p = 0).‡
If we take the low-speed limits, we should be able to
reconstruct the non-relativistic expressions for energy E
and momentum p. In the low-speed limit β ≡ v/c  1,
‡ A friend of mine once was passed by a youth-filled automobile,
the contents of which identified him as a physicist and shouted “Hey
nerd: E = mc2 !” What has just been discussed explains why he
ran down the street after the automobile shouting “Only in the rest
frame!”
31
and we will make use of the fact that for small , (1+)n ≈
1 + n . At low speed,
p = m v (1 − β 2 )−1/2
(6.10) 1 v2
≈ mv + m 2 v
2 c
≈ mv
E = m c2 (1 − β 2 )−1/2
1
≈ m c2 + m v2 (6.15)
2
i.e., the momentum has the classical form, and the energy
is just Einstein’s famous m c2 plus the classical kinetic
energy m v2 /2. But remember, these formulae only apply
when v  c.
Conservation of 4-momentum is just like conservation
of 3-momentum in non-relativistic mechanics. All the 4-
momenta of all the components of the whole system un-
der study are summed before the interaction, and they
are summed afterwards. No matter what the interaction,
as long as the whole system has been taken into account
(i.e. the system is isolated), the total 4-momentum ~p be-
fore must equal the total 4-momentum ~q after. In effect
this single conservation law ~p = ~q summarizes four indi-
vidual conservation laws, one for each component of the
4-momentum.
6.5 Collisions
(6.11)
It is now time to put conservation of 4-momentum into
use by solving some physics problems. The essential tech-
nique is to sum up the total 4-momentum before and
total 4-momentum after and set them equal. But just
as in non-relativistic mechanics, there are tricks to learn
and there are easy and difficult ways of approaching each
problem.
In non-relativistic mechanics, collisions divide into
(6.12) two classes: elastic and inelastic. In elastic collisions,
both energy and 3-momentum are conserved. In inelastic
collisions, only 3-momentum is conserved. Energy is not
conserved because some of the initial kinetic energy of the
bodies or particles gets lost to heat or internal degrees of
(6.13)
all collisions; no distinction is made between elastic and
inelastic collisions. As we will see, this is because the cor-
rect, relativistic expression we now use for energy takes
all these contributions into account.
In Figure 6.1, a ball of putty of mass m is travelling
at speed v towards another ball of putty, also of mass
m, which is at rest. They collide and stick forming a
new object with mass M 0 travelling at speed v0 . In a
non-relativistic world, M 0 would be 2m and v0 would be
v/2, a solution that conserves non-relativistic momentum
but not non-relativistic energy; classically this collision
is inelastic. But in a relativistic world we find that the
non-relativistic predictions for v0 and M 0 are not correct
and both energy and 3-momentum will be conserved.
32 Chapter 6. Relativistic mechanics

(a) (b) a tourist becomes less massive as he or she burns calo-

m m M ries climbing the steps of the Eiffel Tower.§ Or, a spin-
v v ning football hits a football player with more force than
a non-spinning one. All these statements are true, but
it is important to remember that the effect is very very
Figure 6.1: (a) A ball of putty of mass m travels at speed
small unless the internal energy of the object in question
v towards an identical ball which is at rest. (b) After the
is on the same order as m c2 . For a brick of 1 kg, that
collision the balls are stuck together and the combined lump
energy is 1020 Joules, or 3 × 1013 kWh, or my household
has mass M 0 and speed v0 .
energy consumption over about ten billion years (roughly
the age of the Universe). For this reason, macroscopic
Before the collision, the 4-momentum of the moving objects (like bricks or balls of putty) cannot possibly be
ball is ~pm = (γ m c, γ m v, 0, 0), where I have aligned the put into states of relativistic motion in Earth-bound ex-
x-axis with the direction of motion, and of course γ ≡ periments. Only subatomic and atomic particles can be
(1−v2 /c2 )−1/2 . The 4-momentum of the stationary ball is accelerated to relativistic speeds, and even these require
~ps = (m c, 0, 0, 0), so the total 4-momentum of the system huge machines (accelerators) with huge power supplies.
is • Problem 6–5: Suppose the two balls of putty in Fig-
p~ = p~m + ~ps = ([γ + 1] m c, γ m v, 0, 0) (6.16) ure 6.1 do not hit exactly head-on but rather at a slight
perpendicular displacement, so in the final state the com-
After the collision, the total 4-momentum is simply
bined lump is spinning? How will this affect the final
0 0
0 0 0 0 0
~q = (γ M c, γ M v , 0, 0) (6.17) speed v ? And the final mass M ? Imagine now that you
stop the combined lump from spinning—will its mass be
0
where γ ≡ (1 − v /c )02 2 −1/2
. greater than, equal to, or less than M 0 ?
By conservation of 4-momentum, ~q = ~p, which means
that the two 4-vectors are equal, component by compo- 6.6 Photons and Compton scattering
nent, or
Can something have zero rest mass? If we blindly substi-
γ 0 M 0 c = [γ + 1] m c tute m = 0 into Einstein’s equation E 2 = m2 c4 +p2 c2 we
0 0 0
γ M v = γ mv (6.18) find that E = p c for a particle with zero rest mass (here
p is the magnitude of the 3-momentum). But v = p c2 /E,
0 so such massless particles would always have to travel at
The ratio of these two components should provide v /c;
we find v = c, the speed of light. Strange.
0 γv v Of course photons, or particles of light, have zero rest
v = > (6.19)
γ +1 2 mass, and this is “why” they always travel at the speed
The magnitude of ~q should be M 0 c; we find of light. The magnitude of a photon’s 4-momentum is
zero, but this does not mean that the components are
v 2 all zero; it just means that when the magnitude is calcu-
M 02 = [γ + 1]2 m2 − γ 2 m2 2 lated, the time component squared, E 2 /c2 , is exactly can-
  c 
v 2 celled out by the sum of the space components squared,
= 1 + 2 γ + γ2 1 − 2 m2 p2x + p2y + p2z = |p|2 . Thus the photon may be mass-
c
2
less, but it carries momentum and energy, and it should
= 2 (γ + 1) m obey the law of conservation of 4-momentum. This was
0
p
M = 2 (γ + 1) m beautifully predicted and tested in the famous Compton
> 2m (6.20) scattering experiment. We outline the theory behind this
experiment here.
So the non-relativistic answers are incorrect, and most Figure 6.2 shows the schematic for Compton scatter-
0 ing. A photon of initial 3-momentum magnitude Q (or
disturbingly, the mass M of the final product is greater
than the sum of the masses of its progenitors, 2 m. energy Qc) approaches an electron of mass m that is es-
Where does the extra rest mass come from? The an- sentially at rest. The photon scatters off of the electron,
swer is energy. The collision is classically inelastic. This leaving at some angle θ to the original direction of motion,
means that some of the kinetic energy is lost. But en- and with some new momentum Q0 (or energy Q0 c). The
ergy is conserved, so the energy is not actually lost, it is electron leaves at some other angle φ and some speed
just converted into other forms, like heat in the putty, or v. The idea of the experiment is to beam photons of
rotational energy of the combined clump of putty, or in known momentum Q at a target of stationary electrons,
0
vibrational waves or sound traveling through the putty. and measure the momenta Q of the scattered photons
Strange as it may sound, this internal energy actually as a function of scattering angle θ. We therefore want to
increases the mass of the product of the collision. derive an expression for Q0 as a function of θ.
The consequences of this are strange. For example, a § Relativity does not provide the principal reason that one can

brick becomes more massive when one heats it up. Or, lose weight by excercising; you do the math.
6.7. Mass transport by photons 33

6.7 Mass transport by photons

Q
before after
θ Consider a box of length L and mass m at rest on a
frictionless table. If a photon of energy E  m c2 is
Q m emitted from one end of the box (as shown in Figure 6.3)
and is absorbed by the other, what is the reaction of the
φ box?
v

Figure 6.2: Before and after pictures for Compton scattering. E

v

Before the collision the 4-momenta of the photon and m

electron are
p~γ = (Q, Q, 0, 0) (6.21) Figure 6.3: A thought experiment to demonstrate that there
2
~pe = (m c, 0, 0, 0) (6.22) is a mass µ = E/c associated with a photon of energy E.
respectively, and after they are
We know the previous section that a photon of energy
~qγ = (Q0 , Q0 cos θ, Q0 sin θ, 0)(6.23) E carries momentum E/c, so to conserve momentum, the
emission of the photon must cause the box to slide back-
~qe = (γ m c, γ m v cos φ, −γ m v sin φ, 0) (6.24) wards at a speed v given by m v = −E/c (where it is
respectively, where we have aligned coordinates so the okay to use the classical formula m v for momentum be-
initial direction of the photon is the x-direction, and the cause we stipulated E  m c so γ  1). The photon
2

scatter is in the x-y plane. The conservation law is is absorbed a time ∆t later, and the box must stop mov-
ing (again to conserve momentum). In time ∆t, the box
~pγ + ~pe = ~qγ + ~qe (6.25) moves a distance
but there is a trick. We can move both the photon 4- E
momenta to one side and both the electron momenta to ∆xb = v ∆t = − ∆t (6.31)
mc
the other and square (where ~a2 is just ~a · ~a):
and then stops, while the photon moves a distance
(~pγ − ~qγ )2 = (~qe − ~pe )2 (6.26)
E
~pγ · ~pγ + ~qγ · ~qγ − 2 ~pγ · ~qγ = ~pe · ~pe + ~qe · ~qe − 2 ~pe · ~qe (6.27) ∆xp = c ∆t = L − ∆t (6.32)
mc
For all photons ~p · ~p = 0 and for all electrons ~p · ~p = m2 c2 . and then gets absorbed. Because the forces associated
Also, in this case, p~γ · ~qγ = Q Q0 − Q Q0 cos θ and ~pe · ~qe = with the emission and absorption of the photon are to-
γ m2 c2 , so tally internal to be box, we do not expect them to be
−2 Q Q0 (1 − cos θ) = 2 (1 − γ) m2 c2 (6.28) able to transport the center of mass of the box (see, e.g.,
Frautschi et al., 1986, Chapter 11 for a non-relativistic
0
But by conservation of energy, (γ − 1) m c is just Q − Q , discussion of this—it is a consequence of conservation
and (a − b)/ab is just 1/b − 1/a, so we have what we are of momentum). But because the box moved, the cen-
looking for: ter of mass can only have remained at rest if the photon
transported some mass µ from one end of the box to the
1 1 1
− = (1 − cos θ) (6.29) other. To preserve the center of mass, the ratio of masses,
Q0 Q mc µ/m must be equal to the ratio of their displacements
This prediction of special relativity was confirmed in a ∆xb/∆xp , so
beautiful experiment by Compton (1923) and has been re- ∆xb E
µ=m = 2 (6.33)
confirmed many times since by undergraduates in physics ∆xp c
lab courses. In addition to providing quantitative con- The transmission of the photon thus transports a mass
firmation of relativistic mechanics, this experimental re- µ = E/c2 .
sult is a beautiful demonstration of the fact that photons,
This does not mean that the photon is massive. The
though massless, carry momentum and energy.
rest mass of a photon is zero. It only shows that when
Quantum mechanics tells us that the energy E of a
a photon of energy E is emitted, the emitter loses mass
photon is related to its frequency ν by E = h ν, and we
∆m = E/c2 and when it is absorbed the absorber gains
know that for waves travelling at speed c, the frequency
mass ∆m = E/c2 .
ν and wavelength λ are related by λ = c/ν, so we can re-
write the Compton scattering equation in its traditional • Problem 6–6: In Chapter 5 we learned that no signal
form: can travel through a solid body at a speed faster than that
0 h of light. The part of the box which absorbs the photon,
λ −λ= (1 − cos θ) (6.30)
mc therefore, won’t know that a photon has been emitted
34 Chapter 6. Relativistic mechanics

from the other end until the photon actually arrives¶ ! Re- The speed is just the ratio of x and t-components, so
cast this argument for mass transport by photons into a
form which does not rely on having a box at all. v0 γ2 γ1 m v1 + γ2 γ1 m v2
=
c γ2 γ1 m c + γ2 γ1 m v1 v2 /c
v1 + v2
6.8 Particle production and decay v0 = (6.37)
1 + v1 v2 /c2
• Problem 6–7: A particle of mass M , at rest, decays
This is a much simpler derivation than that found in Sec-
into two smaller particles of masses m1 and m2 . What
tion 4.4!
are their energies and momenta?
Consider now a photon in S with 4-momentum ~q =
Before decay, the 4-momentum is (E/c, p) = (M c, 0).
(Q, Q, 0, 0). In frame S 0 the 4-momentum is
After, the two particles must have equal and opposite 3-
momenta p1 and p2 in order to conserve 3-momentum. v2 v2
Define p ≡ |p1 | = |p2 |; in order to conserve energy E1 + q~0 = (γ2 Q + γ2 Q, γ2 Q + γ2 Q, 0, 0) (6.38)
c c
E2 = E = M c2 or
q q Clearly this is still travelling at the speed of light (as it
p2 + m21 c2 + p2 + m22 c2 = M c (6.34) must) but now its new 3-momentum is
 r
This equation can be solved (perhaps numerically—it is 0 v2  1 + v2
p Q = γ2 1 + Q= Q (6.39)
apquartic) for p and then E1 = m21 c4 + p2 c2 and E2 = c 1 − v2
m22 c4 + p2 c2 .
This change in momentum under a boost is the Doppler
• Problem 6–8: Solve the above problem again for the shift, and is discussed in more detail in the next Chapter.
case m2 = 0. Solve the equations for p and E1 and then
take the limit m1 → 0.
6.10 4-force
• Problem 6–9: If a massive particle decays into pho-
tons, explain using 4-momenta why it cannot decay into We now have 4-velocity and 4-momentum, and we know
a single photon, but must decay into two or more. Does how to use them. If we want to construct a complete,
your explanation still hold if the particle is moving at high invariant dynamics, analogous to Newton’s laws but valid
speed when it decays? in all reference frames, we are going to need 4-acceleration
• Problem 6–10: A particle of rest mass M , travelling and 4-force. Recall that we defined a 4-vector to be a
at speed v in the x-direction, decays into two photons, four component object that transforms according to the
moving in the positive and negative x-direction relative Lorentz transformation. For this reason, the 4-velocity
to the original particle. What are their energies? What ~u and 4-momentum ~p are defined in terms of derivatives
are the photon energies and directions if the photons are with respect to proper time τ rather than coordinate time
emitted in the positive and negative y-direction relative t. The definitions are ~u ≡ d~x/dτ and ~p ≡ m~u, where ~x is
to the original particle (i.e., perpendicular to the direction spacetime position and m is rest mass.
of motion, in the particle’s rest frame). For this same reason, if we want to define a 4-vector
form of acceleration, the 4-acceleration ~a, or a 4-vector
~
6.9 Velocity addition (revisited) and the force, 4-force K, we will need to use
Doppler shift
d~u
~a ≡ (6.40)
The fact that the 4-momentum transforms according to dτ
the Lorentz transformation makes it very useful for de- ~ ≡ d~p
K (6.41)
riving the velocity addition law we found in Section 4.4. dτ
In frame S, a particle of mass m moves in the x-direction
Because ~p = (E, p), we have
at speed v1 , so its 4-momentum is
 
p~ = (γ1 m c, γ1 m v1 , 0, 0) (6.35) ~ = dE , dp .
K (6.42)
dτ dτ
where γ1 ≡ (1 − v12 /c2 )−1/2 . Now switch to a new frame
S 0 moving at speed −v2 in the x-direction. In this frame Because ∆t = γ ∆τ (where, as usual, γ ≡ (1 −
the 4-momentum is v2 /c2 )−1/2 ), the spatial part of the 4-force is related to
 Newton’s force F , defined as F ≡ dp/dt, by
v2
~p0 = γ2 γ1 m c + γ2 γ1 m v1 ,
c  dp
v2 =γF (6.43)
γ2 γ1 m v1 + γ2 γ1 m c, 0, 0 (6.36) dτ
c
¶ I acknowledge French (1966) for pointing out this problem with Also, if the rest mass m of the object in question is a
the above argument. constant (not true if the object in question is doing work,
6.10. 4-force 35

because then it must be using up some of its rest energy!),

we have that

~p · p~ = m2 c2
d
(~p · p~) = 0
dτ
d~
p d~ p
· p~ + ~p · = 0
dτ dτ
p~ · K~ = 0 (6.44)

i.e., if the rest mass is not changing then ~p and K ~ are

orthogonal. In 3+1-dimensional spacetime, orthogonality
is something quite different from orthogonality in 3-space:
it has nothing to do with 90◦ angles.
The 4-force is only brought up here to whet the
reader’s appetite. We will actually have to make use of it
in the (currently non-existent) Chapter on electricity.
36 Chapter 6. Relativistic mechanics
Chapter 7

Optics and apparent effects: special

relativity applied to astronomy

Up to now, we have always stipulated that observers light at intervals of proper time ∆τe, and that its distance
making measurements are endowed with divine knowl- from us D is much greater than c ∆τe. The question we
edge and excellent data analysis skills (recall Section 2.2). want to answer is this: If the light pulse emitted at time
For example, in Chapter 2, when E measured the rate 0 arrives at Earth at time t = D/c, how much later does
of D’s clock, she did not simply measure the time be- the next pulse arrive?
tween light pulses she received, she corrected them for The next pulse is emitted a time ∆te = γ ∆τe , later
their light-travel times in getting from D’s clock to her (where γ ≡ (1 − β 2 )−1/2 , β ≡ v/c, and v ≡ |v|), at which
eyes. The corrections E made to the arrival times were time the object is ∆x = v ∆te cos θ further away, so the
only possible because E was informed of D’s trajectory flash takes additional time ∆x/c to get to us. The time
before the experiment. Unfortunately, in many experi- interval ∆tr between reception of the flashes is therefore
ments, we do not know in advance the trajectories of the v
objects we are studying. This is especially true in as- ∆tr = ∆te + ∆te cos θ
c
tronomy, a subject which, among other things, attempts
= (1 + β cos θ) γ ∆τe . (7.1)
to reconstruct a 3+1-dimensional history of the Universe
from a set of 2-dimensional telescope pictures which span If the motion is basically away from the Earth (θ < π),
a very brief duration in time (in comparison with the age the time interval ∆tr is longer than ∆τe . The analysis
of the Galaxy or Universe). still holds if we take the two events not to be flashes, but
In this chapter we discuss the appearance of objects successive crests of an electromagnetic wave coming from
to real observers. the object. The observed period is longer than the rest-
frame period; the observed frequency is lower than the
7.1 Doppler shift (revisited) rest-frame frequency; the light is shifted to the red.
It is customary in astronomy to define a dimensionless
Consider an object moving with respect to the Earth redshift z by
and which we are observing from Earth. Without loss
of generality, we can choose the coordinate system for ∆tr
(1 + z) ≡
the Earth’s rest frame that puts the Earth at the spatial ∆τe
origin, the moving object a distance D away on the pos- = γ (1 + β cos θ) . (7.2)
itive x-axis, and puts the object’s trajectory in the x-y
plane. Its velocity vector v makes an angle θ with the In the simple case θ = 0 (radial motion) the redshift is
line of sight, as shown in Figure 7.1. given by
s
v 1+β
(1 + z) = γ (1 + β) = , (7.3)
1−β
θ
and when θ = π (inward radial motion) the redshift z is
D negative, we call it a blueshift and it is given by
s
Figure 7.1: An object moving at relativistic velocity v with 1−β
(1 + z) = γ (1 − β) = . (7.4)
respect to the Earth (symbolized by “⊕”) at an angle θ to 1+β
the line of sight. Note that this is a diagram of space rather
than spacetime. Even when the motion is perfectly tangential, θ =
π/2, there is a redshift which originates solely in the γ
Let us imagine that the moving object emits pulses of factor. This is known as the second-order redshift and
37
38 Chapter 7. Optics and apparent effects

it has been observed in extremely precise timing of high- where, as usual, β ≡ v/c and γ ≡ (1 − v2 /c2 )−1/2 . Since
velocity pulsars in the Galaxy. Of course all of these red- the photons also travel at speed c in V’s frame, we can
shift effects are observed and have to be corrected-for in re-write this in terms of the distance r0 to the star and
tracking and communication between artificial satellites. elevation angle θ0 in V’s frame:
Interestingly, the Doppler shift computed here, for the
ratio of time intervals between photon arrivals in two dif- ∆~x = (−r0 , r0 cos θ0 , r0 sin θ0 , 0) (7.9)
ferent frames, is just the reciprocal of the Doppler shift
formula computed in Section 6.9, for the ratio of photon Solving for θ0 ,
cos θ + β
energies in two different frames. In quantum mechanics, cos θ0 = (7.10)
the energy of a photon is proportional to the frequency of 1 + β cos θ
light, which is the reciprocal of the time interval between i.e., V observes the star to be at a different angular po-
arrivals of successive wave crests. Quantum mechanics sition than that at which U does, and the new position
and special relativity would be inconsistent if we did not does not depend on the distance to the star.
find the same formula for these two ratios. Does this mean This effect is stellar aberration and it causes the po-
that special relativity requires that a photon’s energy be sitions on the sky of celestial bodies to change as the
proportional to its frequency? Earth orbits the Sun.∗ The Earth’s orbital velocity is
−1 −4
• Problem 7–1: The [O ii] emission line with rest- ∼ 30 km s (β = 10 ), so the displacement of an ob-
frame wavelength λ0 = 3727 Å is observed in a distant ject along a line of sight perpendicular to the plane of the
−4
galaxy to be at λ = 9500 Å. What is the redshift z and orbit (i.e., cos θ = 0) is on the order of 10 radians or
recession speed β of the galaxy? ∼ 20 arcseconds, a small angle even in today’s telescopes.
Light travels at speed c, so the observed wavelength λ Despite this, the effect was first observed in a beautiful
†
is related to the observed period T by c T = λ. The rest- experiment by Bradley in 1729.
frame wavelength λ0 is related to the rest frame period τ Notice that as the speed v is increased, the stars are
by c τ = λ0 . So displaced further and further towards the direction of mo-
tion. If U is inside a uniform cloud of stars and at rest
T λ 9500 Å
(1 + z) ≡ = = ; (7.5) with respect to them, V will see a non-uniform distribu-
τ λ0 3727 Å tion, with a higher density of stars in the direction of her
z = 1.55. Assuming the velocity is radial, motion relative to the star cloud and a lower density in
s the opposite direction.
1+β
(1 + z) =
1−β 7.3 Superluminal motion
(1 + z)2 − β (1 + z)2 = 1+β
It is observed that two components of the radio galaxy
(1 + z)2 − 1
β = , (7.6) 3C 273 are moving apart at µ = 0.8 milliarcseconds per
(1 + z)2 + 1 year (Pearson et al 1981; recall that a milliarcsecond is
in this case we get β = 0.73. The galaxy is receding from 1/1000 of 1/3600 of a degree). From the known rate of
us at 0.73c. expansion of the Universe and the redshift of the radio
galaxy, its distance‡ D from the Milky Way (our own
7.2 Stellar Aberration galaxy) has been determined to be 2.6 × 109 light years
(a light year is the distance light travels in one year).
Imagine two observers, Ursula (U) and Virginia (V), both If we multiply µ by D we get the tangential component
at the same place, observing the same star, at the same of the relative velocity of the two components. Because
time, but with V moving in the x-direction at speed v rel- there can also be a radial component, the velocity com-
ative to U. In U’s frame, the star is a distance r away and ponent we derive will be a lower limit on the speed of the
at an elevation angle θ with respect to the x-axis. Light object. Converting to radians we find µ = 4 × 10−9 radi-
travels at speed c, so for any photon coming from the star, ans per year, so the tangential component of the velocity
the 4-displacement ∆~x between the event of emission E is roughly 10 light years per year! This is faster than
and observation O in U’s frame is twice the speed of light, the maximum relative speed at
which we should ever observe two objects to move. Rela-
∆~x = (c∆t, ∆x, ∆y, ∆z) tive speeds exceeding 2c have now been observed in many
= (−r, r cos θ, r sin θ, 0) (7.7) radio galaxies, and recently even in a jet of material flow-
where the time component is negative because emission ing out of a star in our own galaxy (Hjellming & Rupen
happens before observation. We apply the Lorentz trans- ∗ Do not confuse this effect with parallax, which also causes the

formation to get the components in V’s frame
∆~x = (c∆t0 , ∆x0, ∆y0 , ∆z 0 )
= (−γ r − γ β r cos θ, γ r cos θ + γ β r, r sin θ, 0)
(7.8)
positions to change, but in a manner which depends on distance.
† The paper is Bradley (1729); an excellent description and his-
tory of the experiment is Shankland (1964).
‡ In cosmology, there are many different ways of defining the “dis-
tance” betweeen two objects, reviewed by Weinberg (1972, Chap-
ter 14). The “proper motion distance” is used in this context.
7.4. Relativistic beaming 39

1995); the effect has been dubbed superluminal motion. (angular area, measured in square arcseconds, square de-
Is relativity wrong and can things really exceed the speed grees, or steradians) occupied by the object. The dimen-
of light? sions of brightness are energy per unit time per unit solid
Figure 7.2 depicts an object moving at a relativistic angle. Thus if two objects emit the same amount of light,
speed v = |v| at an angle θ to the line of sight. The the more compact one is brighter. Brightness is a useful
object is nearly moving directly towards the Earth, so θ quantity in astronomy because it is independent of dis-
is close to π radians or 180◦ . The object emits flashes at tance: as a lightbulb is moved away from an observer,
events A and B, which are separated in time by ∆te in the amount of light from the bulb entering the observer’s
the Earth’s rest frame. The distance between the events eye or telescope goes down as the inverse square of the
is much smaller than the distance D of the object from distance, but the solid angular size of the bulb also goes
the Earth. down as the inverse square of the distance. The bright-
ness is constant.
θ v Okay, the brightness of an object is independent of dis-
B
tance, but how does it depend on how the object is mov-
A ing relative to the observer? Doppler shift (Sections 6.9
D and 7.1) affects both the energy E (or momentum Q) of
the photons and the rate of production Γ of the photons
Figure 7.2: An object moving at relativistic velocity v on (i.e., number of photons emitted per unit time). In addi-
a trajectory that is nearly straight towards the Earth. The tion, the photon directions are different for the observer
object emits flashes at points A and B. than for someone in the rest frame of the object (as in
stellar aberation, Section 7.2), so the fraction of emit-
What is the time interval ∆tr between the receptions ted photons entering the observer’s eye or telescope will
of the two flashes at the Earth? Flash A takes time D/c also be affected by the object’s speed and direction. For
to get to us, but flash B takes only D/c + (v ∆te cos θ)/c the same reason that in stellar aberration (Section 7.2)
to get to us because the object is closer (note that cos θ observed star positions are shifted into the direction of
is negative). So motion of the observer, emitted photons are “beamed”
into the direction of motion of the emitter.
∆tr = ∆te + β ∆te cos θ , (7.11) Say the emitting object is at rest in frame S 0 , the
rest frame, but moving at speed v = βc in the positive
where β ≡ v/c. The tangential separation of events A x-direction in frame S, the frame of the observer. In its
and B as seen from the Earth is ∆y = v ∆te sin θ, so the rest frame, the object emits photons of energy E 0 = Q0 c
inferred tangential velocity component is at rate Γ0 (photons per unit time). A photon emitted
in a direction θ0 relative to the x-axis in frame S 0 has
∆y β sin θ
vinferred = = c, (7.12) 4-momentum
∆tr 1 + β cos θ
~p = (Q0 , Q0 cos θ0 , Q0 sin θ0 , 0) (7.13)
which can be much bigger than c if β ≈ 1 and cos θ ≈ −1.
(It is worthy of note that there are many other possible where the y-direction has been chosen to make pz = 0
explanations for observed superluminal motions. If the (Section 6.6). In frame S it will have some different mo-
radio galaxy contains a huge “searchlight” that sweeps mentum Q and angle θ and the 4-momentum will be
its beam across intergalactic material, the speed of the p~ = (Q, Q cos θ, Q sin θ, 0) (7.14)
patch of illumination can certainly exceed the speed of
light. Galaxies can act as gravitational “lenses” which but it must be related to the 4-momentum in S 0 by the
distort and magnify background objects; this magnifica- Lorentz transformation, so
tion can make slowly-moving objects appear superlumi-
Q0 = γ Q − γ β Q cos θ
nal. The moving patches could be foreground objects,
although this now appears very unlikely.) Q0 cos θ0 = γ Q cos θ − γ β Q (7.15)
• Problem 7–2: What is the minimum possible value The first equation is just the Doppler shift (Sections 4.4
of β that could account for the observed proper motion and 7.1); the ratio gives
in 3C 273? Assume that one component is not moving cosθ − β
tangentially with respect to the Earth and the other is. cos θ0 = (7.16)
1 − β cos θ
which is exactly the same as the stellar aberration equa-
7.4 Relativistic beaming
tion (Section 7.2).
Consider an object emitting photons in all directions In the rest frame S 0 the object emits isotropically, so
isotropically. The brightness of the object is proportional the rate per unit solid angle Ω (measured in steradians,
2
to the amount of radiation (energy per unit time) which or radians ) is just
the object emits into the pupil of the observer’s eye or dΓ0 Γ0
telescope, and inversely proportional to the solid angle 0
= (7.17)
dΩ 4π
40 Chapter 7. Optics and apparent effects

which is independent of θ. In the observer frame S, how-

β
ever, this will no longer be true. Consider the solid-
angular ring of angular width dθ at angle θ. This ring D A
has solid angle
dΩ = sin θ dθ (7.18)
X
but the photons emitted into that ring in S are emitted γ to observer
into a different ring in S 0 with solid angle

dΩ0 = sin θ0 dθ0 (7.19) C B

where θ and θ0 are related by (7.16). Taking the derivative Y

of (7.16)
Figure 7.3: A plank of rest dimensions X ×Y moves at speed
0 0 sin θ dθ (cos θ − β)(β sin θ dθ) β perpendicular to the line of sight to a distant observer.
sin θ dθ = +
1 − β cos θ (1 − β cos θ)2
 
1−β 2
= sin θ dθ • Problem 7–4: What is the apparent position of cor-
(1 − β cos θ)2
ner C to the observer in Figure 7.3 at the time that the
sin θ dθ light from corners A and B reach the observer? From this
= (7.20)
γ 2 (1 − β cos θ)2 information, as well as length contraction, compute the
apparent locations of all four corners.
so the ratio of solid angles is
• Problem 7–5: Why doesn’t the observer see corner
dΩ
= γ 2 (1 − β cos θ)2 (7.21) D?
dΩ0
the square root of which is the ratio of energies E 0 /E (by 7.6 A simpleminded cosmology
the Doppler shift) or the ratio of rates of photon produc-
We know that the Universe is expanding. In fact, we
tion Γ0 /Γ (by the same). Putting it all together, since the
know that except for a few, very close neighbours, other
inferred brightness is proportional to the energies times
galaxies are receding from our own and recession speed
the rate divided by the solid angle, the ratio of brightness
is proportional to distance from us. This effect is known
I/I 0 between the observer and rest frames is
as the Hubble flow, named after the astronomer who first
I −4
discovered it (Hubble, 1929). This Hubble flow is natu-
= [γ (1 − β cos θ)] (7.22) rally explained by a simple cosmological scenario in which
I0
the Universe begins with an explosion, and this scenario
or in terms of redshift, (1 + z)−4 ! does not require our galaxy to be at the center.
• Problem 7–3: Plot the observed brightness I as a Consider an infinite Lorentz frame S 0 with a small
function of angle θ according to an observer at rest in rock at rest at the origin. At time t0 = 0 in this frame, the
S observing an object radiating isotropically in its rest rock explodes into countless tiny fragments with masses
frame S 0 . small enough to ensure that gravitational forces do not
significantly affect the constant-velocity (speed and di-
rection) trajectories. At time t0 > 0, there is some dis-
7.5 The appearance of passing objects tribution of fragments in space, with the faster-moving
fragments further out from the explosion point. Because
Consider a rectangular plank of rest dimensions§ X × Y
all fragment world lines are constant-velocity and pass
moving at speed v = βc in the x-direction, perpendicular
through the event (0,0,0,0) in S 0 , the vector displacement
to the line of sight to a distant observer, as shown in
r0 in frame S 0 of a fragment with velocity v 0 is given by
Figure 7.3. The light coming from the corners marked A r0 = v 0 t0 .
and B get to the observer before the light coming from
Now consider another frame S which also has the ex-
corner C by a time interval Y /c. For this reason, at any
plosion at the origin, but which is moving along with one
instant of time, the plank will appear “rotated” to the
of the fragments not at rest in S 0 . In S, all the fragments
observer, as you will show in the problems. There is a nice
have constant-velocity worldlines that pass through the
discussion of this apparent rotation effect in French (1966,
event (0,0,0,0). Therefore in S also, the displacement r
pp. 149–152). The apparent rotation actually needs to be
at time t > 0 of a fragment with velocity v is given by
taken into account by astrophysicists modeling features in
r = v t. That is, at any time t > 0, recession speed is
relativistic jets emitted by radio galaxies and stars (e.g.,
proportional to distance from the origin even though the
Lind & Blandford 1985).
origin is not at (or even at rest with respect to) the center
§ The “rest dimensions” are the dimensions the object has in its of the explosion.
rest frame. If at time t = t0 (now) we live on a fragment (the
7.6. A simpleminded cosmology
Milky Way) ejected by a huge explosion (the Big Bang)
which occurred at time t = 0, and the fragments are not
heavy enough to have significantly affected each other’s
velocities via gravitational forces, then by the above ar-
gument we expect to see other nearby fragments (other
galaxies) receding from us, with their recession speeds
proportional to their distances from us; i.e. we expect a
spherically symmetric Hubble flow even if we are not at
the center of the Universe.
Of course when we look at an extremely distant object
now, we are not seeing the object at its current position
r(t0 ), but rather at its position r(te ) at time te when it
emitted the light that is now reaching us. Also, we have
no direct measure of the distance re = |r(te )|, but we
can infer it from the redshift z of the light that it emits
in, say, its hydrogen recombination lines (the rest-frame
frequencies of which we know). What is the relationship
between z and re ?
ct
ct o O
re
ct e
E mologists now believe that the expansion of the Universe
re
β
x
B re
Figure 7.4: The spacetime diagram used to derive the
redshift-distance relation in a simpleminded cosmology.
World lines of the Earth (vertical) and the fragment (slope
1/β) are shown. Event B is the big bang, E the emission
of light and O its observation now on Earth.
Figure 7.4 is the spacetime diagram for a fragment
moving in S (where S is our rest frame) at velocity v, with
coordinates aligned so that v points in the x-direction.
41
The Big Bang occurs at event B, the origin (c t = x = 0);
the fragment emits light at event E (c t = c te , x = re);
and we observe the light at event O, now (c t = c t0 ,
x = 0).
It should be obvious from the diagram that c t0 =
re/β + re , where β = |v|/c and that the proper time
τBE elapsed for the fragment between B and E is given
by (c τBE )2 = (re /β)2 − re2 . From these relations and
the fact that the redshift z is given by 1 + z = t0 /τBE
(Section 7.1) it is easy to show that
2z + z 2
re = c t0 (7.23)
2(1 + z)2
(the student is encouraged to show this). It should be
obvious, both from Figure 7.4 and the above equation,
that the maximum value for re is c t0 /2 when z → ∞,
and that for small z, re = c t0 z.
In addition to inference from redshift, the distance
to a fragment can be determined several other ways. If
one knows the size of the fragment, its angular diameter
can be measured, and the ratio of the quantities should
provide the distance re. For this reason, re is referred
to as the angular diameter distance¶ to the object, and
is often denoted dA . If the intrinsic luminosity L of a
fragment is known, its flux F can be measured, and the
relation F = L/(4πr2 ) can be used to determine a dis-
tance. However, the luminosity distance dL determined
in this way is different from dA by four factors of (1 + z)
because of the effect of redshift on brightness discussed
in Section 7.4.
The cosmology presented in this section is a simple
Milne cosmology, a more general version of which (in-
cluding gravity) is described by Milne (1934). Most cos-
is governed by general relativity, but it is nonetheless true
that most cosmological observations can be explained by
this simple kinematic model.
¶ Experienced cosmologists will notice that equation (7.23) is
identical in form to the equation derived, via general relativity, for
the angular diameter distance in a “spatially curved, isotropic, ho-
mogeneous, empty space.” See, e.g., Weinberg (1972) or Peebles
(1993) for the general-relativistic derivation.
42 Chapter 7. Optics and apparent effects
References

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Royal Society 35 637. properties. Physical Review D 50 1173–1825.
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auf die Ausbreitung des Lichtes. Annalen der Physik expérimentale et la physique mathématique.
35. (English translation: On the influence of Rapports présentés au Congrès International de
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Frautschi S. C., Olenick R. P., Apostol T. M. & McGraw-Hill, New York.
Goodstein D. L., 1986. The Mechanical Universe. Rossi B. & Hall D. B., 1941. Variation of the rate of
Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. decay of mesotrons with momentum. Physical
French A. P., 1966. Special Relativity. W. W. Norton & Review 59 223–228.
Co., New York. Shankland R. S., 1964. Michelson-Morley Experiment.
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of relativistic jets by the X-ray transient GRO
Strang G., 1976, Linear Algebra and its Applications.
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Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, San Diego.
Hubble E., 1929. A relation between distance and radial
Weinberg S., 1972. Gravitation and Cosmology:
velocity among extra-galactic nebulae. Proceedings
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of the National Acadamy of Sciences 15 168–173.
Relativity. John Wiley & Sons, New York.
Jackson J. D., 1975. Classical Electrodynamics, 2 ed.
John Wiley & Sons, New York.
Kleppner D. & Kolenkow R. J., 1973. An Introduction
to Mechanics. McGraw–Hill, New York.
Lind K. R. & Blandford R. D., Semidynamical models
of radio jets: Relativistic beaming and source counts,
Astrophysical Journal 295 358–367.
Lorentz H. A., 1904. Electromagnetic phenomena in a
system moving with any velocity less than that of
light. Proceedings of the Academy of Sciences of
Amsterdam 6. (Reprinted in Lorentz et al., 1923.)
Lorentz H. A., Einstein A., Minkowski H. & Weyl H.,
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Milne E. A., 1934. A Newtonian expanding universe.
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43
44 References
Index

Note that this index is in terms of Section numbers, compressibility, 5.1

not page numbers. compression waves, 5.1
3+1 dimensions, 6.2 Compton, 6.6
3-displacement, 6.2 Compton scattering, 6.6
3-force, 6.10 confirmation, experimental, 2.5, 6.5
3-momentum, 6.4, 6.5, 6.6 conservation of 4-momentum, 6.4, 6.5, 6.6, 6.7, 6.8
3-vector, 6.2 constant position, lines of, 3.2, 3.4, 3.5, 3.6
3-velocity, 6.3 contraction of length, 2.3, 2.5, 3.5, 3.2, 3.6
3C 273 (radio galaxy), 7.3 coordinates of events, 4.1, 4.2, 4.3
4-acceleration, 6.10 coordinate transformations, 4.2
4-displacement, 6.2 cosmic background radiation, 1.1
4-force, 6.10 cosmology, 7.3, 7.6
4-momentum, 6.4, 6.5, 6.6 decay, of particle, 6.8
4-vector, 6.2 Declaration of Independence, 3.1
4-velocity, 6.3 Denver, 2.5
aberration, stellar, 7.2 diagrams, spacetime, 3.1, 3.5, 3.6
absolute motion, 1.1, 1.2 dilation of time, 2.1, 2.2, 2.4, 2.5, 3.2, 3.5, 3.6
absolute time, 2.1 displacement, 6.2
addition of velocities, 1.2, 1.3, 4.4, 6.9 distances between events, 4.1
aether theory, 1.3 distances, in cosmology, 7.3, 7.6
Alpha Centauri, 2.4 Doppler shift, 2.2, 6.9, 7.1, 7.4
apparent rotation, of passing objects, 7.5 dot product, 6.2
apparent vs real effects, 2.2, 7.1, 7.2, 7.3, 7.4, 7.5 dynamics, 6.10
associativity, of dot product, 6.2 E = m c2 , 6.4, 6.7
astronomy, 7.1, 7.2, 7.3, 7.4, 7.6 Earth, gravitational field of, 1.4
barns, 3.3, 5.1 Earth, motion of, 1.1, 1.3, 1.4, 7.2
beaming, relativistic, 7.4 Echo Lake, 2.5
before and after, 6.4, 6.5, 6.6 Eiffel Tower, 6.5
big bang, 7.6 eigenvectors of boost transformation, 3.5
black holes, 5.1 Einstein, 1.2, 1.3
Blandford, 7.5 elastic collisions, 6.5
blueshift, 7.1 electromagnetism, 1.2
boost transformation, 3.2, 3.4, 3.5, 3.6, 4.2, 4.3 electrons, 6.6
boost transformation, eigenvectors of, 3.5 elevators, 1.4
Bradley, 7.2 emission line, 7.1
brightness, 7.4 empiricism, 1.1
café, interplanetary, 3.1 energy, 6.4, 6.5, 6.6, 6.10
cantaloupes, 1.2, 4.4 events, 3.1, 4.1, 5.2
causal history, 5.2, 5.3 events, order of, 5.2, 5.3
causal future, 5.2, 5.3 exercise, physical, 6.5
causality, 5.1, 5.2, 5.3, 6.7 expansion, of the Universe, 7.6
causally disconnected events, 5.2 experiments, 1.1, 1.2, 1.3, 2.2, 2.4, 2.5
center of mass, 6.7 experimental confirmation, 2.5, 6.5, 6.6, 7.2
centrifugal force, 1.4 flashlights, 1.2
clocks, 2.1 force, 6.10
clocks, synchronization of, 3.4, 3.5, 4.1 frame-independent vs frame-dependent, 3.3, 4.1, 6.1,
coffee, 4.5 6.2, 6.3
collisions, 6.4, 6.5, 6.6 free-fall, 1.4
commutativity, of dot product, 6.2 French, 6.7, 7.5
45
46 Index

frequency of light, 6.6, 7.1 Michelson experiment, 1.3

galaxies, radio, 7.3, 7.5 Michelson-Morley experiment, 1.3
Galaxy, 1.1, 1.3 Milne, 7.6
Galileo, 1.1, 1.2 Milne cosmology, 7.6
geodesic, 4.5 mirror, 1.3
gravitational lensing, 7.3 mean life, 2.4, 2.5
gravity, 1.4 mean range, 2.5
h (Planck’s constant), 6.6 momentum, 6.4, 6.5, 6.6
Hall, 2.5 Morley, 1.3
heat, 6.5 motion, relative and absolute, 1.1, 1.2
high school, 6.1 muons, 2.4, 2.5
Hjellming, 7.3 nature/nurture debate, 4.5
Hubble, 7.6 neutrinos, 3.1
Hubble flow, 7.6 neutron stars, 5.1
hyperbolae of constant interval, 4.3 New York, 2.4
incompressibility, 5.1 Newton, 1.3, 6.10
inelastic collisions, 6.5 null interval, 4.1, 5.2
inner product, 6.2 [O II] emission line, 7.1
interference (of light), 1.3 order of events, 5.2, 5.3
internal energy, 6.5 orthogonality, in 3+1 dimensions, 6.10
International Standards Organization, 2.1 paradox of the ladder and barn, 3.3, 5.1
interval, invariant, 4.1, 4.2 paradox of the twins, 2.4, 4.5
invariant interval, 4.1, 4.2 parallax, 7.2
invariant quantities, 4.1 particle decay, 6.8
inverse Lorentz transformation, 4.3 Pearson, 7.3
isolated system, 6.4 Philadelphia, 3.1
K-mesons, 2.5 photons, 6.6, 6.7, 6.8, 7.1
kinetic energy, 6.5 physics, 5.1, 5.3, 6.4, 6.5
ladder and barn paradox, 3.3, 5.1 pions, 2.5
law, civil, 1.1 pipe, 2.3
law, physical, 1.2 Pittsburgh, 6.2
length contraction, 2.3, 2.5, 3.2, 3.5, 3.6 Planck’s constant h, 6.6
length, of 4-vector, 6.2 Poincaré, 1.2
leptons, 2.5 police officer, 1.1
life, mean, 2.4, 2.5 Potier, 1.3
light as particles, 1.2, 6.6, 6.7 primed frame, 4.3
light as waves, 1.2, 1.3 principle of relativity, see relativity
light-clock, 2.1 proper distance, 4.1
light year, 7.3 proper motion, 7.3
lightlike interval, 4.1, 5.2 proper time, 4.1
limits, low and high-speed, 2.1, 6.4 putty, 6.5
Lind, 7.5 quantum mechanics, 6.6, 7.1
linearity of the boost transformation, 4.2, 4.3 Queens, 6.2
lines of constant position, 3.2, 3.4, 3.5, 3.6 radio galaxies, 7.3, 7.5
lines of simultaneity, 3.4, 3.5, 3.6 range, mean, 2.5
Local Group of galaxies, 1.1 redshift, 7.1, 7.6
Lorentz, 1.2, 1.3 reference frame, 2.1, 3.2
Lorentz contraction, 2.3 reflections of space axes, 4.3
Lorentz factor γ, 2.1 relative motion, 1.1
Lorentz transformation, 4.2, 4.3, 6.9 relativistic beaming, 7.4
Lorentz transformation, in definition of 4-vector, 6.2 relativistic mass, 6.4
Los Angeles, 2.4 relativity, galilean, 1.1, 1.2
magnitude, of 4-vector, 6.2 relativity of simultaneity, 3.3, 3.4
mass, 6.4 relativity, principle of, 1.1, 1.2, 1.3, 1.4
matrix algebra, 4.2 rest frame, 3.2, 6.4
media (for waves), 1.2, 1.3 rest mass, 6.4, 6.5, 6.6
meter sticks, 2.3 reversal of time axis, 4.3
Michelson, 1.3 Richmond, 6.2
Index 47

rigidity, 5.1
Rossi, 2.5
rotation, apparent, of passing objects, 7.5
rotational energy, 6.5
rotations of space axes, 4.3
ruler stick, 2.3
Rupen, 7.3
sailors, 1.1, 1.2, 1.3
scalars, 6.1, 6.2
scattering, 6.6
seeing vs observing or measuring, 2.2, 7.1, 7.2, 7.3, 7.4
Shankland, 7.2
shear, boost transformation as, 3.5, 3.6, 4.2
siblings, 2.4
simultaneity, lines of, 3.4, 3.5, 3.6
simultaneity, relativity of, 3.3, 3.4, 3.5
slinkies, 5.1
sneezes, 1.1
sound, speed of, 5.1
soup, 1.2
space reflections, 4.3
space rotations, 4.3
Space Shuttle, 1.4, 2.4
spacelike interval, 4.1, 5.2
spacetime diagram, 3.1, 3.2, 3.6
speed of light as conversion factor, 2.1, 3.1
speed of light in vacuum, 1.2, 1.4, 2.1, 6.6
speed of light as speed limit, 5.1, 5.3, 7.3
speed of light in air, glass, etc, 1.4
speed of sound, 5.1
spinning wheel, 5.1
stars, positions of, 7.2
stellar aberration, 7.2
straight lines, 4.2, 4.5
Sun, motion of, 1.1, 1.3
superballs, 1.1
superluminal motion, 7.3
swimming, 1.1
symmetry arguments, 2.1, 2.3, 3.6, 4.3, 4.5, 6.3
synchronization of clocks, 3.4, 3.5, 4.1
time dilation, 2.1, 2.2, 2.4, 2.5, 3.2, 3.5, 3.6
time reversals, 4.3
timelike interval, 4.1, 5.2
twin paradox, 2.4, 4.5
ugliness, 6.4
Universe, expansion of, 7.6
vector, 6.2
velocity, 3- and 4-, 6.3
velocity addition, 1.2, 1.3, 4.4
velocity, relative and absolute, 1.1, 1.2, 1.3, 6.3
wave, compression, 5.1
wave theory of light, 1.2, 1.3
wavelength of light, 6.6, 7.1
Weinberg, 7.3, 7.6
wheel, spinning rapidly, 5.1
work, 6.10
worldlines, 3.1
wristwatches 2.1