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What is Rotating Memory Frame Buffer in computer graphics?

This is the situation when we use Screen resolution less than the maximum screen resolotion supported by the Visual Display Unit (PC Screen - VDU). In case of maximum screen resolotuin the frame buffer memory is fully utilized and only one page is available for display. For such a resolution when it is less than the maximum resolution, more than one page is available, which we often use for animation using page flipping. We keep drawing on to one page which is hidden and flash it altogether when the drawing is complete with the existing one on the screen. This avoids showing of the partially drawn images. For any particular case even 3-4 pages may be available. So the system is termed as "Rotating frame buffer" in Computer Graphics. We keep rotating the pages (full frame buffer parts) to generate animation. A different situation where the frame buffer is literally rotated to generate a rotated display of any image is also sometimes referred to as Rotating frame buffer. Just changing the signs and interchanging the X-Y coordinates may generate such an effect

What is Frame Buffer


DINESH THAKUR

A frame buffer is a large, contiguous piece of Computer memory. At a minimum there is one memory bit for each pixel in the rater; this amount of memory is called a bit plane. The picture is built up in the frame buffer one bit at a time. You know that a memory bit has only two states, therefore a single bit plane yields a black-and white display. You know that a frame buffer is a digital device and the CRT is an analog device. Therefore, a conversion from a digital representation to an analog signal must take place when information is read from the frame buffer and displayed on the raster CRT graphics device. For this you can use a digital to analog converter (DAC).Each pixel in the frame buffer must be accessed and converted before it is visible on the raster CRT. N-bit colour Frame buffer Color or gray scales are incorporated into a frame buffer rater graphics device by using additional bit planes. The intensity of each pixel on the CRT is controlled by a corresponding pixel location in each of the N bit planes. The binary value from each of the N bit planes is loaded into corresponding positions in a register. The resulting binary number is interpreted as an intensity level between 0 (dark) and 2n -1 (full intensity). This is converted into an analog voltage between 0 and the maximum voltage of the electron gun by the DAC. A total of 2N intensity levels are possible. Figure given below illustrates a system with 3 bit planes for a total of 8 (2 3) intensity levels. Each bit plane requires the full complement of memory for a given raster resolution; e.g., a 3-bit plane frame buffer for a 1024 X1024 raster requires 3,145,728 (3 X 1024 X1024) memory bits. An increase in the number of available intensity levels is achieved for a modest increase in required memory by using a lookup table. Upon reading the bit planes in the frame buffer, the resulting number is used as an index into the lookup table. The look up table must contain 2N entries. Each entry in the lookup table is W bit wise. W may be greater than N. When this occurs, 2W intensities are available; but only 2N different intensities are available at one time. To get additional intensities, the lookup table must be changed.

Because there are three primary colours, a simple color frame buffer is implemented with three bit planes, one for each primary color. Each bit plane drives an individual color gun for each of the three primary colors used in color video. These three primaries (red, green, and blue) are combined at the CRT to yield eight colors.

Types of Curves (3)


Parametric Curve
Parametrically defined curve in three/two dimensions Parametrically defined surface in three is given by three/two univariate functions: dimensions is given by three bivariate x = f(u) functions: y = g(u) x = f(u,v) ( z = h(u) ) y = g(u,v) z = h(u,v) where u varies between two explicit values

Parametric surface

(could be [0;1] or [x = x0 + r cos y = y0 + r sin [ 0 ; 2 ] x = x0 + (x1 - x0)t y = y0 + (y1 - y0)t z = z0 + (z1 - z0)t t [;+ ]

;+

])

where u an v vary between two explicit values (could be [0;1] or [;+ ])


x=u y=v z = - (Au + Bv + D) / C x = x0 + r . cos u . cos v y = y0 + r . sin u . cos v z = z0 + r . sin v u [ 0 ; 2 ] / v [ - /2; /2]

Bzier Curves
another Spline class that has more intuitive controls

A Cubic Bzier Spine has four control points, two of which are knots.

Could have more than 2 control point, (but then no more cubic) Second and next to last point define the tangent to the curve
Bezier spline is a way to define a curve by sequence of two end points and one or more control points which control the curve. Two end points are called Anchor Points. The bezier splines with two control points are called Cubic Bezier Spline.

Basis and Geometry Matrices for Bezier Splines

Knowing this we can formulate a Bezier spline in terms of the Hermite geometry spec

And substituting gives:

Image Types
Vector / object / line art

PowerPoint, Adobe Illustrator Graphics shapes, type, styles / attributes Logos, for print, scale-independent

Graphics / drawings / logos


MS Paint limited colors, flat GIF files

Full-color / photos / continuous-tone


Grayscale and color Adobe Photoshop Scanned, digital photos, painting effects

Animations
Animated GIF flip-book Flash scripted, programmed

Graphic File Formats


There is a wide variety of graphics formats in use today. The following list contains most of them. The formats are in order by extension name under bitmapped or vector category. Some formats appear in both categories because they can hold both raster and vector images. See graphics conversion and extension.
MOST POPULAR Common Bitmapped Formats BMP GIF JPG PNG Windows & OS/2 CompuServe JPEG Portable Network Graphics TIF TIFF

Common Vector Formats AI DXF Adobe Illustrator AutoCAD

PS WMF

PostScript Windows Metafile

JPG KFX

JPEG Kofax Group IV LaserView Group IV MacPaint Same as GP4 extension Microsoft Paint Navy Image File Portable bitmap PhotoCD PC Paintbrush Inset Systems (HiJaak) Portable Network Graphics Unix portable bitmap Unix portable bitmap Photoshop native format Sun SGI Alpharel document imaging Image Systems Various RLE-compressed formats GTX Runlength IBM StoryBoard Silicon Graphics RGB Sun Targa TIFF WordPerfect image X Window bitmap X Window pixelmap X Window dump

ALL BITMAPPED FORMATS (RASTER GRAPHICS) AG4 ATT BMP BRK CAL CIT CLP CMP CMP CPR CT CUT DBX DCM DCX DX ED5 ED6 EPS FAX FMV FPX GED GDF GIF GP4 GX1 GX2 ICA ICO IFF IGF IMG JFF Access G4 document imaging AT&T Group IV Windows & OS/2 Brooktrout fax CALS Group IV Intergraph scanned images Windows Clipboard Photomatrix G3/G4 scanner format LEAD Technologies Knowledge Access Scitex Continuous Tone Dr. Halo DATABEAM DICOM medical image Intel fax Autotrol document imaging EDMICS (U.S. DOD) EDMICS (U.S. DOD) Encapsulated PostScript Fax FrameMaker FlashPix Arts & Letters IBM GDDM format CompuServe CALS Group IV - ITU Group IV Show Partner Show Partner IBM IOCA (see MO:DCA) Windows icon Amiga ILBM Inset Systems (HiJaak) GEM Paint JPEG (JFIF)

LV MAC MIL MSP NIF PBM PCD PCX PIX PNG PNM PPM PSD RAS RGB RIA RLC RLE RNL SBP SGI SUN TGA TIF WPG XBM XPM XWD

ALL VECTOR GRAPHICS FORMATS 3DS 906 AI 3D Studio Calcomp plotter Adobe Illustrator

CAL CDR CGM CH3 CLP CMX DG DGN DRW DS4 DSF DXF DWG EMF EPS ESI FMV GCA GEM G4

CALS subset of CGM CorelDRAW Computer Graphics Metafile Harvard Graphics chart Windows clipboard Corel Metafile Exchange Autotrol Intergraph Micrografx Micrografx Micrografx AutoCAD AutoCAD drawing format Designer 2.x, 3.x Designer 4.x Designer 6.x

IGF IGS MCS MET MRK P10 PCL PCT PDW PGL PIC PIX PLT PS RIS RLC SSK SVG WMF WPG WRL

Inset Systems (HiJaak) IGES MathCAD OS/2 metafile Informative Graphics markup file Tektronix plotter (PLOT10) HP LaserJet Macintosh PICT drawings HiJaak HP plotter Variety of picture formats Inset Systems (HiJaak) HPGL Plot File PostScript Level 2 AUCOTEC CAD format Image Systems "CAD Overlay ESP" vector files overlaid onto raster SmartSketch Scalable vector graphics (XML) Windows Metafile WordPerfect graphics VRML

Enhanced Windows Metafile Encapsulated PostScript Esri plot file (GIS mapping) FrameMaker IBM GOCA GEM proprietary GTX RasterCAD - scanned images into vectors for AutoCAD

HPGL HP graphics language

Graphics Conversions Are Problematic It takes years to perfect graphics conversion algorithms, especially when switching between vector and raster formats. Just because an application imports or exports a particular format does not mean it does so 100% correctly. If exact replication is required, be sure to test the application's import/export filters.

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