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Contents
Contributors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .vReviewers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .viForeword . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .viiPreface from the First Edition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .viiiPreface to the Second Edition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .xAcknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .xii
PART I: BIOMECHANICAL PRINCIPLES
1
1
Introduction to Biomechanical Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3
2
Mechanical Properties of Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .21
3
Biomechanics of Bone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .36
4
Biomechanics of Skeletal Muscle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .45
5
Biomechanics of Cartilage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .69
6
Biomechanics of Tendons and Ligaments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .84
7
Biomechanics of Joints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .103
PART II: KINESIOLOGY OF THE UPPER EXTREMITY
117
Unit 1: Shoulder Unit: The Shoulder Complex
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
8
Structure and Function of the Bones and Joints of the Shoulder Complex . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .120
9
Mechanics and Pathomechanics of Muscle Activity at the Shoulder Complex . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .150
10
Analysis of the Forces on the Shoulder Complex during Activity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .188
Unit 2: Elbow Unit
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
11
Structure and Function of the Bones and Noncontractile Elements of the Elbow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .198
12
Mechanics and Pathomechanics of Muscle Activity at the Elbow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .219
13
Analysis of the Forces at the Elbow during Activity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .243
Unit 3: Wrist and Hand Unit
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253
14
Structure and Function of the Bones and Joints of the Wrist and Hand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .255
15
Mechanics and Pathomechanics of the Muscles of the Forearm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .294
16
Analysis of the Forces at the Wrist during Activity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .331
17
Mechanics and Pathomechanics of the Special Connective Tissues in the Hand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .339
18
Mechanics and Pathomechanics of the Intrinsic Muscles of the Hand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .351
19
Mechanics and Pathomechanics of Pinch and Grasp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .370
PART III: KINESIOLOGY OF THE HEAD AND SPINE
389
Unit 4: Musculoskeletal Functions within the Head
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 390
20
Mechanics and Pathomechanics of the Muscles of the Face and Eyes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .391
21
Mechanics and Pathomechanics of Vocalization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .412
22
Mechanics and Pathomechanics of Swallowing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .423
23
Structure and Function of the Articular Structures of the TMJ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .438
24
Mechanics and Pathomechanics of the Muscles of the TMJ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .452
25
Analysis of the Forces on the TMJ during Activity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .466
Unit 5: Spine Unit
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 472
26
Structure and Function of the Bones and Joints of the Cervical Spine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .473
27
Mechanics and Pathomechanics of the Cervical Musculature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .492
28
Analysis of the Forces on the Cervical Spine during Activity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .511
29
Structure and Function of the Bones and Joints of the Thoracic Spine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .520
30
Mechanics and Pathomechanics of the Muscles of the Thoracic Spine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .538
31
Loads Sustained by the Thoracic Spine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .556
32
Structure and Function of the Bones and Joints of the Lumbar Spine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .563
33
Mechanics and Pathomechanics of Muscles Acting on the Lumbar Spine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .587
 
34
Analysis of the Forces on the Lumbar Spine during Activity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .601
35
Structure and Function of the Bones and Joints of the Pelvis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .620
36
Mechanics and Pathomechanics of Muscle Activity in the Pelvis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .654
37
Analysis of the Forces on the Pelvis during Activity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .676
PART IV: KINESIOLOGY OF THE LOWER EXTREMITY
685
Unit 6: Hip Unit
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 686
38
Structure and Function of the Bones and Noncontractile Elements of the Hip . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .687
39
Mechanics and Pathomechanics of Muscle Activity at the Hip . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .705
40
Analysis of the Forces on the Hip during Activity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .727
Unit 7: Knee Unit
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 737
41
Structure and Function of the Bones and Noncontractile Elements of the Knee . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .738
42
Mechanics and Pathomechanics of Muscle Activity at the Knee . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .767
43
Analysis of the Forces on the Knee during Activity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .791
Unit 8: Ankle and Foot Unit
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 806
44
Structure and Function of the Bones and Noncontractile Elements of the Ankle and Foot Complex . . . . . .807
45
Mechanics and Pathomechanics of Muscle Activity at the Ankle and Foot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .838
46
Analysis of the Forces on the Ankle and Foot during Activity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .865
PART V: POSTURE AND GAIT
873
47
Characteristics of Normal Posture and Common Postural Abnormalities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .875
48
Characteristics of Normal Gait and Factors Influencing It . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .892Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .919
 
STRUCTURE OF SKELETAL MUSCLE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .46Structure of an Individual Muscle Fiber . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .46The Connective Tissue System within the Muscle Belly . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .48FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE A MUSCLE’S ABILITY TO PRODUCE A MOTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .48Effect of Fiber Length on Joint Excursion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .48Effect of Muscle Moment Arms on Joint Excursion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .50Joint Excursion as a Function of Both Fiber Length and the Anatomical Moment Arm of a Muscle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .51FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE A MUSCLE’S STRENGTH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .52Muscle Size and Its Effect on Force Production . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .52Relationship between Force Production and Instantaneous Muscle Length (Stretch) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .53Relationship between a Muscle’s Moment Arm and Its Force Production . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .56Relationship between Force Production and Contraction Velocity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .58Relationship between Force Production and Level of Recruitment of Motor Units within the Muscle . . . . . . . . . . . . .60Relationship between Force Production and Fiber Type . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .61ADAPTATION OF MUSCLE TO ALTERED FUNCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .62Adaptation of Muscle to Prolonged Length Changes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .62Adaptations of Muscle to Sustained Changes in Activity Level . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .63SUMMARY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .64
Biomechanics of Skeletal Muscle 
4
C H A P T E R
CHAPTER CONTENTS 
45
 S 
keletal muscle is a fascinating biological tissue able to transform chemical energy to mechanical energy. Thefocus of this chapter is on the mechanical behavior of skeletal muscle as it contributes to function and dysfunc-tion of the musculoskeletal system. Although a basic understanding of the energy transformation from chemi-cal to mechanical energy is essential to a full understanding of the behavior of muscle, it is beyond the scope of thisbook. The reader is urged to consult other sources for a discussion of the chemical and physiological interactions thatproduce and affect a muscle contraction [41,52,86].Skeletal muscle has three basic performance parameters that describe its function:
I
Movement production
I
Force production
I
EnduranceThe production of movement and force is the mechanical outcome of skeletal muscle contraction. The factors thatinfluence these parameters are the focus of this chapter. A brief description of the morphology of muscles and the
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