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three theories could be discussed; nonetheless, theirtenetsareratherrepresentative.Expectancyandreflec-tion theory provide some ground for results-orientedpay, in particular regarding the importance of un-ambiguous performance leading to pay perceptions.Yet it is not clear how these perceptions should bestructured in the case of group performance; possiblyequity theory’s notion on contribution—inducementratios should also be considered. The belief embeddedintheconceptofbasepay—thatstabilityandpredicta-bility ofpay maycause employeesand managers to befocused more upon the content of their work—doesnot take full account of the meanings of pay (putforward in reflection theory) relative to the meaningsof nonmaterial work characteristics. This is clearly inneed of more research. Continued research on cafe-teria plans, including perquisites, is vital, in order tolearn whether this compensation component meets itsexpectations. All in all, however, beliefs and expecta-tions about compensation in practice are not so muchmissing the point as more outspoken than psycho-logical theory would require them to be.
Seealso
:MoneyandFinances,Psychologyof;Money:Anthropological Aspects; Psychological Climate inthe Work Setting
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H. Thierry
Peace
Themajorcasesofviolenceandpeacerelatetothewaythe human condition is cut through by fault lines,dividing humans and nature, normal people fromdeviants, different genders, generations, races, classes,nations, states. Each border defines at least twocategories, self and other. The violence can be directviolence intended by the self to attack the basic needsof the other; or structural violence, also preventable,not intended, usually slower, but at least equallydevastating.Iftheotherisdehumanizedtoacategory,we end up with genocide—massive category killing.With two types of violence and eight fault lines we geta 16-fold discourse, as shown in Table 1.Mostofthetimeandinmostplacesthereis‘narrowpeace’ or an absence of direct violence across mostfault lines, but not ‘broad peace’ or an absence of direct and structural violence. Different cultures viewpeace differently as descriptive (how is peace possible)or prescriptive (how could peace be possible).The following is a review of the theories of peace of sixmacrocultures,orcivilizations.Ofthesix,threearefrom the Occident, defined here as the cultural spacespannedbytheAbrahamiticreligionsoftheBook,the
kitab
,orOldTestament:Judaism,Christianity,Islam.We start with two Europes, secular Europe—theEurope of antiquity—and then Christian Europe. Wethen move East to West Asia (I have not designatedthisasthe‘MiddleEast,’whichisaWesternEuropeanperspective) with Judaism, Islam, and the cradle of Christianity. Continuing eastward we come to SouthAsia, with what is conveniently called ‘Hinduism’ anditsoffspring,JainismandBuddhism.Andfurthereast,in East Asia there are the Chinese and Japanesecultural amalgams with a Confucian core, Buddhism,and then Taoism in China and Shinto in Japan. We11134
Pay and Compensation, Psychology of 
 
Table 1
Classification of violenceNo. Fault lines Direct violence Structural violence[1] Nature slaughter of ‘beasts,savages, wilderness’depletionpollution[2] Gender killing women:abortion,infanticide,witch-burningpatriarchy asprison of women,putting them‘in their place’[3] Generation
Pri 
ileging
abortioneuthanasia
middle
-
aged 
schools as ghetto‘homes’ as ghetto[4] Deviance
Controlling dangerous persons
 —criminal —mental —somaticcapital punishmenteuthanasiaeuthanasiainstitutioninstitutioninstitution[5] Race
Controlling dangerous races
eradicationslaverycolonialismslavery[6] Class
Controlling dangerous classes
 —military —economic —political —culturalelimination exploitation-bodyrepression-mindalienation-spirit[7] NationCultureIdeology‘genocide’ asnarrowly definedthe state as aprison of nationsrun by ‘majority’[8] StateCountryTerritorywar (killing for food, sacrifice,conquest)imperialismisolating‘pariah’ states
then move into Pacific American African spaces,picking up a Polynesian, an Amerindian, and anAfrican tradition, ending south of Europe.
1. Europe: Pax and Eirene—The Roman
\
Greekand Modern Traditions
Peacecanbeinterpretednarrowlyas
absentia belli 
,theabsence of organized violence between groups definedbythefaultlines.Internationalorexternalpeaceistheabsence of external wars: intercountry, interstate, orinternational (in the sense of intercultural). Social orinternalpeaceistheabsenceofinternalwars:national,racial, class, or ideological groups challenging centralgovernance or each other. This concept is carried bythe Roman
pax
, related to pact, as in
pacta suntser
anda
, ‘treaties must be observed.’ Peace as acontractual, mutually agreed relation is the source of Western international law.Another Roman legacy,
si 
is pacem
,
para bellum
,‘if you want peace prepare for war,’ is the source of Western military peace theory. Peace is obtained bythe balance of power, deterring the aggressor at homewith defensive defense, and abroad with offensivedefense. Offensive offense (attack
\
aggression) anddefensive offense (pre-emptive warfare) are not peaceconcepts.Aggression is controlled from above by pacts—theRomanEmpirewascapableofenforcingsuchpacts—and
\
orbythebalanceofpower.Abetterwordforthiskindofpeaceissecurity.Andthereisabasicdilemma:themilitarycapabilityusedtodetercanalsobeusedtoattack, even if the motivation is defensive. The resultcanbeanarmsrace,acoldwar,orevenanactualwar.A basic problem with the Roman
pax
is its insensi-tivity to flagrant injustice and inequality, the RomanEmpire itself being an example. The Greek
eirene
iscloser to ‘peace with justice’: absence of direct andstructuralviolence,amongGreeks.Butwhichparthaspriority? What if they think justice can only beobtainedthroughwar?ThatideawaspickedupbytheMarxist tradition as class war, national and inter-national, legitimized as necessary and sufficient toobtain a just, socialist society. The Roman thinkingled to the liberal tradition, tolerant of enormousinequalities, nationally and internationally, butstrongly against war, both internally and externally.And Roman warfare was picked up by the conserva-tive tradition, extolling still more inequality through11135
Peace
 
wars, provided they could be won, and even throughempire-building. In the year 2000 these views stillprevail.
2. Europe: Agape and Bellum Iustum: TheChristian Traditions
The three main divisions of Christianity (Orthodoxy
\
Roman Catholicism
\
Protestantism) and the manysmaller sects had Paradise and Hell as archetypes thatbecame models for peace and war, making peaceremote and static, and war a highly dynamic hell onearth.Peaceis seenasordainedby aGodwhose law isthe only valid law, and valid for all of humanity. Butwho is God, and how does he relate to human beingsin search of peace?Atheologicaldistinctionisveryusefulhere,betweenGod as immanent, inside us, making us godlike,sacred, and God as transcendent, above us, saving,choosing some persons and peoples, rejecting andcondemning others. We may even talk about soft andhardChristianity,dependingonwhichGod-conceptispicked up, in what proportion. They do not excludeeach other.
Agape
(Greek for ‘love’) can be used as a name forthe peace of a soft Christianity based on an immanentconception of God. There is God’s love for human-kind, through Jesus Christ; the human love for God;andtheloveofone’sfellowbeingsasbeingGod-loved.The Lord’s Supper and the Eucharist are close to thisconcept:acommunityofhumans,God-enlightened,
in
God. The face-to-face
corpus mysticum
is based on anidentitywithotherssostrongthatthereisalimittothenumber of members. This may be a reason why veryegalitarian, interactive, direct peace concepts springoutofsmallerChristiansects,liketheQuakersandtheMennonites.Then there is the transcendent God, conceived assome male person residing above our planet, and hisrelationtononbelievers,pagans,andworsestill,totheheretics who have rejected God. This is where hardChristianity enters, administering Hell and torture(the Inquisition) and Holy War to the heretics.As some kind of peace concept it takes the form of 
bellum iustum
, in the Augustine-Aquinas just wartradition:(a) Wars must be waged by a lawful authority.(b) Wars must be waged for a just cause, to correctinjustice.(c)Warsmustbewagedwiththerightintention,notvengefully.(d) Wars must be waged as a last resort and withprospects of success.(e) Wars must be waged with proportionality andminimum force.(f) Wars must be waged only against combatants.The first five are
ius ad bellum
; the last two are
ius inbello
.This can be seen as an effort to limit war even if accepting war as the last resort. But there is nononviolent alternative, and it may be used to attackanykindofinjusticehoweverdefined.Inaddition,itisnot biblical but derives from St. Augustine and St.Thomas Aquinas. But this cost-benefit thinking is stillwith us.
3. West Asia: Shalom
\
Sala’am—The Judaic and Islamic Traditions
Looking at some famous quotes from the basic texts(see Table 2, Christianity is included as a familymember for comparison) one conclusion may be thatambiguity is the message. It is neither unconditionalpeace,norunconditionalwar.Itispeaceundercertainconditions and war under certain conditions. Theproblem is to spell out those conditions. One readingof the Judaic
shalom
and the Arab
sala’am
is peacewith justice. Without justice, no peace; hence war for justice is legitimate. The contradiction is mirrored inthe quotes shown in Table 2.Ifwe definejusticeasabsence ofstructuralviolencewhereby people, nations, and states are repressed,exploited,alienated,butnotbyanactor,thenthismaylead to
bellum iustum
as injustice abounds.
Jihad 
,however, translates as ‘exertion’ for the faith. Defend-ing the faith by violence, against Crusades, Zionism,communism, is the fourth stage of 
Jihad 
.
4. South Asia: Shanti and Ahimsa—TheHindu
\
Jainist
\
Buddhist Traditions
Thereisatrendinallthreefaithstowardunconditionalpeace by
ahimsa
, nonviolence. The major carrier of this message of all times, Mohandas K. Gandhi(1869–1948) used the formula ‘There is no way topeace, peace is the way.’ This is a strong stand, rulingout violence as immoral and unproductive. Thestruggle against violence, direct or structural, is bynonviolence. And, as becomes clear from Gandhi’sadulation of the small social unit, the village, peace inthe sense of absence of direct violence, cannot be builttop-down by heavy international and national hier-archies, in the
pax
and Hobbesian traditions.This, in turn, is related to
shanti 
, inner peace.
Ahimsa
has
shanti 
as a necessary condition: with noinner peace, no nonviolence. ‘Unprocessed traumas’will be acted out aggressively. If nonviolence does notlead to change of heart in the other, it is for lack of change of heart in self. Nonviolence then turns intoself-purification, practiced in the little community of believers, the
sangha
, which is like a monastery.Gandhi left behind a theory and practice of 
satyagraha
, clinging to truth as he called it. Look atthe list of nonviolent action: to play a major role indeliveringthenonwhiteworldfromwhitecolonialism,11136
Peace
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