F A Concise Syntax of Classical Greek EvEB April 08 1

A
CONCISE SYNTAX OF
Classical Greek
Evert van Emde Boas
TABLE
1. AGREEMENT
1.1. Subject - Finite Verb 1.2. Noun - Adjective/Pronoun 1.3. Antecedent - Relative Pronoun 1.4. Apposition
OF
CONTENTS
7.6.1. Present 7.6.2. Aorist, imperfect, historic present 7.6.3. Aorist and imperfect: overview 7.6.3. Future 7.6.4. Perfect, pluperfect, future perfect 40 40 42 43 43
4
4 5 5 6
7.7. Other Moods in Main Clauses

7.7.1. Modal indicative 7.7.2. Optative 7.7.3. Subjunctive 7.7.4. Imperative 7.7.5. Overview of the uses of moods in main clauses
43
43 44 45 46 46
2. THE ARTICLE
2.1. Meaning of the Definite Article 2.2. Position of the Article and Adjectival Phrases 2.3. Pronominal Uses of the Article
7
7 9 11
3. PRONOUNS
3.1. The Three Uses of the Intensive Pronoun 3.2. Demonstrative Pronouns 3.3. Personal Pronouns 3.4. Possessive Pronouns 3.5. Reflexive Pronouns 3.6. The Reciprocal Pronoun 3.7. and 3.8. The Indefinite Pronoun
12
12 13 14 15 16 16 16 17
8. THE VERB: VOICE

8.1. The Greek Voice System 8.2. Passive 8.3. Middle 8.4. Deponent Verbs
47
47 47 48 49
9. THE INFINITIVE
9.1. Dynamic and Declarative Infinitives 9.2. The Declarative Infinitive 9.3. The Dynamic Infinitive 9.4. Tense and Aspect of Declarative and Dynamic Infinitives 9.5. Verbs Taking Both Constructions 9.6. The Infinitive with Verbs of Preventing and Denying 9.7. The Articular Infinitive 9.8. Other Uses of the Infinitive
50
50 50 51 52 53 54 55 55
4. CASES
4.1. Meanings and Labels 4.2. The Genitive
4.2.1. As required supplement with verbs/adjectives 4.2.2. With nouns (attributively) 4.2.3. With sentences (adverbially)
18
18 18
18 19 20
4.3. The Dative

4.3.1. As required supplement with verbs/adjectives 4.3.2. With nouns (attributively) 4.3.3. With sentences (adverbially)
21
21 21 22
10. THE PARTICIPLE

10.1. Tense and Aspect of Participles 10.2. The Supplementary Participle
10.2.1. Verbs taking either participle or infinitive
56
56 56
58
4.4. The Accusative

4.4.1. As required supplement with verbs 4.4.2. Internal object 4.4.3. With sentences (adverbially) 4.4.4. Apposition to a sentence
23
23 24 24 24
10.3. The Attributive Participle 10.4. The Circumstantial Participle 10.5. Periphrastic Uses of the Participle
58 59 61
11. IMPERSONAL CONSTRUCTIONS

11.1. Introduction, Weather Terms 11.3. Other Impersonal Verbs and Their Constructions 11.4. Accusative Absolute 11.5. Verbal Adjectives
62
62 62 63 63
5. TIME AND SPACE

5.1. Temporal Modifiers 5.2. Spatial Modifiers
25
25 26
6. PREPOSITIONS
6.1 Frequent Uses of the Prepositions 6.2. Some Other Words Used as Prepositions
28
28 37
12. INDIRECT DISCOURSE

12.1. Indirect Speech and Thought 12.2. With a Declarative Infinitive 12.3. With a /-Clause 12.4. Subordinate Clauses in Indirect Discourse
64
64 65 65 67
7. THE VERB: TENSE & ASPECT, MOOD

7.1. Introduction to Tense and Aspect 7.2. The Greek Tense System 7.3. The Greek Aspect System 7.4. Synthesis: the 7 Indicatives 7.5. Narrative and Non-Narrative Texts 7.6. The Indicative in Main Clauses
38
38 38 38 39 39 40
13. QUESTIONS
13.1. Introduction 13.2. Direct Yes/No-Questions and Alternative Questions 13.3. Direct Specifying Questions 13.4. The Use of Moods in Direct Questions
68
68 68 69 69
Table of Contents
13.5. Indirect Questions 13.6. The Use of Moods in Indirect Questions 13.7. Is That a Question?
70 71 71
21. CONDITIONAL CLAUSES

21.1. Introduction 21.2. Neutral Conditions 21.3. Prospective Conditions 21.4. Potential Conditions 21.5. Counterfactual Conditions 21.6. Habitual Conditions 21.7. Some Additional Comments 21.8. Overview of Conditionals
87
87 87 88 89 89 90 90 92
14. COMMANDS & EXHORTATIONS, WISHES

14.1. Directives (Commands and Exhortations) 14.2. Wishes
72
72 73
15. INTRODUCTION TO SUBORDINATE CLAUSES 75

15.1. Predicates, Subordination and Clauses 15.2. Types of Subordinate Clause 15.3. 75 76 76
22. RELATIVE CLAUSES

22.1. Introduction 22.2. Antecedent, Agreement, Attraction and Connection 22.3. Moods and Tenses in Relative Clauses
93
93 94 95
16. VERBS OF FEARING AND EFFORT

16.1. Verbs of Fearing and Apprehension 16.2. Verbs of Effort, Precaution and Contriving 16.3. Some Additional Comments
77
77 78 78
23. OVERVIEW OF SUBORDINATE CLAUSES 24. PARTICLES

24.1. Introduction 24.2. Particles that Play a Role in Structuring a Text 24.3. Particles of Scope 24.4. Interactional Particles
97 99
99 99 103 104
17. TEMPORAL CLAUSES

17.1. Introduction 17.2. Temporal Clauses Referring to the Present or Past 17.3. Temporal Clauses Referring to the Future 17.4. Temporal Clauses Referring to a Habitual Occurrence 17.5. 17.6.
79
79 80 80 81 81 82
25. NEGATIVES
25.1. Introduction 25.2. Multiple Negatives 25.3. In Main Clauses 25.4. In Questions 25.5. With Infinitives 25.6. With Participles 25.7. In Subordinate Clauses
107
107 107 108 108 108 109 109
18. CAUSAL CLAUSES

18.1. Introduction 18.2. The Causal Use of Temporal Clauses 18.3. and
83
83 83 83
19. PURPOSE CLAUSES

19.1. Introduction 19.2. Construction of Purpose Clauses
84
84 84
26.
26.1. As a Conjunction 26.2. As an Adverb 26.3. As a Preposition
110
110 110 111
20. RESULT CLAUSES

20.1. Introduction 20.2. Construction of Result Clauses
20.2.1. With the moods of independent sentences 20.2.2. With the infinitive
85
85 85
85 86
1. AGREEMENT
1.1. SUBJECT - FINITE VERB
Basic rule: a finite verb agrees in person and number with its subject:
the ship is setting out (third person singular) the ships are setting out (third person plural) we are setting out (first person plural)
Note:
If the role of the finite verb is preformed by a periphrastic construction with a participle, tbat participle agrees in case (nominative), number and gender with the subject (see 1.2 below): ... (Xenophon, Hellenica 1.1.11) But when he learned that the Peloponnesian ships were on their way (had set out) from Abydus, ...
There are various exceptions to the basic rule: The verb may agree with the meaning of the subject rather than its grammatical form (the so-called construction or ad sensum (according to sense)); for example, when the subject is singular but refers to a collective, the verb may be plural in form:
. (Xenophon, Hellenica 3.3.4) The city, when it had heard such arguments, elected Agesilaus king. . (Thucydides 4.32.2) At daybreak the rest of the army disembarked as well.
When the subject is neuter plural, the verb is usually singular (but the plural form of the verb may be used to emphasise the fact that the subject consists of various individual members):
... , . (Antisthenes, fr. 14.4) No coward would use weapons typical of a coward, knowing that the weapons expose his cowardice. ... . (Xenophon, Anabasis 4.2.20) When they began to descend towards the others, where they were halted under arms (lit.: where their weapons lay).
When the subject is dual, the verb may be either dual or plural:
. (Plato, Phaedrus 256c) [The two of them] made a choice and executed it.
When there are multiple subjects, the verb will either be plural (when all subjects are viewed as equally important) or singular (agreeing with the most important subject). The same holds in cases where one of the subjects is a first or second person (the person of the verb changes accordingly):
... (Thucydides 4.46.1) After their arrival in Corcyra, Eurymedon and Sophocles made an attack on ... ... (Thucydides 4.38.2) Styphon said, as did his company, that ... ... (Plato, Laws 661b) You and your friends are not the first to have ... ... (Thucydides 4.38.2) I am present, and so are this man Phryniscus and Polycrates ...
1. Agreement
1.2. NOUN - ADJECTIVE/PRONOUN

Basic rule: an adjective (participle, pronoun) agrees in case, number and gender with the noun it refers to. This is true regardless of the position of the adjective (attributive or predicative, see 2.2):
() the wise man (nominative singular masculine) to the wise men (dative plural masculine) the wise woman (nominative singular feminine) The woman is wise. (nominative singular feminine, predicative position) of those wise women (genitive plural feminine, pronoun in predicative position)
There are various exceptions to the basic rule: An adjective in predicative position which agrees with a masculine or feminine abstract noun may stand in the neuter (especially in proverbs, general truths, etc.):
, . (Plato, Republic 364a) Temperance and justness are a beautiful thing, yet difficult and laborious.
A demonstrative pronoun followed by a predicate noun generally agrees with that noun, but may also stand in the neuter (see also 3.2):
. (Xenophon, Cyropaedia 8.7.24) Learn from what happened before, for that is the best source of teaching. . (Plato, Republic 432b) This is what we call justice.
Note:
A demonstrative pronoun or form of referring back to an antecedent (anaphoric use, see 3.1-2) is very frequently formed according to the meaning rather than the grammatical form of that antecedent ( , see 1.1 above): ... (Xenophon, Cyropaedia 3.3.14) After calling an assembly of his men, he recommended to them that...
1.3. ANTECEDENT - RELATIVE PRONOUN

Basic rule: a relative pronoun agrees in number and gender with its antecedent, but its case is determined by its syntactical function in the relative clause (see 22.2):
, the ship which is putting out to sea
singular and feminine as the antecedent, nominative according to the function in the relative clause (subject).
the ships are putting out to sea (third person plural). singular and feminine as the antecedent, accusative according to the function in the relative clause (object). ,
There are various exceptions to the basic rule: The construction (see 1.1 above) is very frequent with relative pronouns:
... , . (Thucydides 6.80.1) ... as help will come from the Peloponnesians (lit.: from the Peloponnese), who are stronger than these men.
For relative attraction, see 22.2.
1. Agreement
1.4. APPOSITION
Apposition is the placement of two words or word groups (usually nouns) parallel to each other, one (the appositive) defining or modifying the other. The appositive agrees in case with the word it belongs to, but has its own number and gender:
, (Aeschines 3.133) Thebes, our neighbouring city , ... ... (Xenophon, Cyropaedia 5.2.7) He brought out his daughter, an impressive creature in beauty and stature, and spoke as follows: ...
A few special cases should be noted: An appositive to a possessive pronoun (or an adjective equivalent to a possessive) stands in the genitive:
(Plato, Republic 364a) the life of me, miserable me , (Plato, Apology 29d) being a citizen of Athens (lit.: an Athenian), the greatest city
An appositive to a whole clause or sentence usually stands in the accusative (occasionally the nominative):
... ... , . (Plato, Gorgias 507e) ... while attempting to satisfy his desires an unceasing evil. ..., | . (Euripides, Heraclidae 71-2) We are victims of violence a disgrace to the city and insult to the gods.
2. THE ARTICLE
2.1. MEANING OF THE DEFINITE ARTICLE
English has an indefinite and a definite article:
The student went to university and attended a Greek syntax class.
Greek only has a definite article (, , ). The Greek equivalent of an indefinite article is the lack of an article. The article is definite because it refers to something that is defined, or identifiable. In other words, the article expresses that it is clear whom/what is meant, and that it can be distinguished from other people/things:
the sun night (generally) / the night (which was mentioned previously or is well known) man (as a species) / the man (who was mentioned previously or is well known) lions (as a species) / the lions (which were mentioned previously, etc.)
When something is mentioned for the first time, it will normally be without the article. When it has been mentioned before or is well known, it is identifiable and therefore gets the article:
. ... ... (Aesopus 12.1) A fox and a leopard were engaged in a beauty contest. While the leopard was making his case with the speckled fur on his body, the fox interrupted and said: ... , . (Herodotus 7.225.2) The hill is at the mouth (of the pass), where the (famous) stone lion dedicated to Leonidas now stands.
A species or class in its entirety is also identifiable and gets the article. This use is called generic:
an informant is a vile thing good men are held in esteem
Abstract nouns (identifiable as a discrete concept) usually take the article:

... . (Plato, Phaedo 69c) Restraint and justice and wisdom itself may well be some form of purification. (For ... , see 7.7.3.) . (Xenophon, Cyropaedia 4.1.5) Valour rather than flight saves lives.
The principle article = identifiable is also valid for words that are in apposition. If an appositive has an article, it means that the word(s) to which it is appended is/are identifiable:
' (...) . (Herodotus 5.36.2) But Hecataeus the historian advised them not to start a war against the king of Persia. . (Thucydides 1.1.1) Thucydides, an Athenian, has recorded the war between the Peloponnesians and the Athenians.
In the first example, the addition of distinguishes this Hecataeus from others with the same name. In the second example, Thucydides introduces himself for the first time to his readers; would have meant Thucydides the Athenian (already known as such).
2. The Article
The article can stand where English would use a possessive pronoun, when there is no doubt as to the possessor:
. (Demosthenes 40.61) For about those things you will now cast your vote. . (Xenophon, Anabasis 1.8.3) Cyrus stepped off his chariot and put on his breastplate.
The article will make any word or words to which it is prefixed into a noun: Adjectives:
the wise man justice
Participles (in any case, number, tense, voice), often with the generic article whoever (see 10.3):
any chance comer the dead
( ...), . (Xenophon, Cyropaedia 4.2.40) ..., so that we have people to provide (lit.: who will make provisions) for us as well.
Infinitives (translate with an English gerund):

(the) being led by pleasures . We have conquered through speaking.
Adverbs:
the people inside the people of long ago, our forebears
Prepositional phrases:
those in power (the government) those in the prime of their youth
Whole clauses:
. (Menander, Sententiae 1.730) The saying know yourself is useful on every occasion.
Note:
In quite a few cases Greek uses the article where English would not (e.g. the generic article, abstract nouns, etc.). In Greek prose, the lack of an article is usually significant and should not be overlooked when translating into English.
Note:
Proper names (of people and places) will normally not take an article the first time they are mentioned (unless the person or place is considered extremely well-known). Even after the first mention, the article is often omitted.
Note:
= many; = the majority, the mass.
2. The Article
2.2. POSITION OF THE ARTICLE AND ADJECTIVAL PHRASES

When a noun with the article is combined with an adjectival phrase, the words can be placed in two ways: Attributive position of the adjective (the adjectival phrase is directly preceded by the article) in this case, the adjective is presented as an attribute or characteristic belonging very closely to the noun:
(rare) the just man
Predicative position of the adjective (the adjectival phrase stands outside the article-noun combination) in this case, the adjective is used to say something about the noun in relation to the rest of the sentence (in English, understand a form of to be or translate as an adverb):
the man is just, or: the man, being just, ...
Note:
The predicative position is used when an adjectival phrase or noun is used as predicate after a form of to be, to become, to be called, to be judged, etc.: hence the translation the man is just above ( is elided); compare = the man is called just (not * ).
Note:
In attributive position, the adjective will as a rule preceed the noun only when it expresses the most important aspect of the combined noun-adjective phrase. Thus, when you are saying something about a man who happens to be just, is the normal order; when the justness of the man is the entire reason for his being mentioned (e.g. when a just man is being contrasted with an unjust one), we find . The order is very rare, and occurs when the adjective provides additional information needed to identify the man.
Adjectives in predicative position must be translated differently from those in attributive position:
. They will leave behind the immortal memory of themselves. . (Isocrates 9.3) They will leave behind the memory of themselves to be immortal.
This is especially important with participles (see 10.2-3):

. I see the sick man. . I see that the man is sick.
Note also the different interpretation of prepositional phrases:

. The women in the city are running. . The women are running in the city.
2. The Article
Some words always take the predicative position:

this this (here) that (there) each each of two both
The distinction between attributive and predicative position is not made when the adjectival phrase is another noun in the genitive:
(rare) the people of Athens
However, partitive genitives (see 4.2.2) are always in predicative position, and genitives of personal pronouns (, , , etc.) used as a possessive (see 3.3) always follow their noun in predicative position:
the rich among the citizens the majority of them his book
When used as a possessive, the genitives of demonstrative pronouns (, , , etc., see 3.2), of the reflexive pronoun (, etc., see 3.5), and of the reciprocal pronoun (, see 3.6) always stand in attributive position:
her book his own book their mutual book
The word (and , ) in the singular means (as a) whole when it stands with the article (usually in predicative position). Without the article, it usually means each/every:
/ each/every city (sometimes: an entire city) the whole city (which was mentioned before, is well known, etc.)
In the plural, it means each/every/all, with emphasis on the collective nature of the group if the form of is in attributive position:
/ each/every city, all cities all the cities (which were mentioned before, are well known, etc.) the whole group of cities, the cities collectively
Adjectives that determine a location, such as (high); (middle); (utmost, extreme), have different meanings when in attributive or predicative position:
in the middle marketplace (of three or more) in the middle of the marketplace to the high mountain to the top of the mountain
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2. The Article
2.3. PRONOMINAL USES OF THE ARTICLE

In Classical Greek, the article normally does not have the force of a pronoun (as it does in Homer), with two exceptions: The article, without a noun, is combined with the particles and to contrast individuals, groups, etc.:
... ... ... the one ... the other ... some ... others ... on the one hand ... on the other hand ...
(but he, and he) at the start of a sentence (topic switch): the article with is here used to refer back to someone or something mentioned in the previous sentence who was not the topic (the person or thing a clause is about usually the subject) of that sentence. That person or thing becomes the topic of the new sentence:
... . . (Lysias 3.12) Simon here was dragging the boy along. He, however, flung off his cloak and ran away. ... ... (Lysias 1.12) I was telling my wife to go away, but she, at first, did not want to.
The first sentences are about Simon and the I, respectively, but mention other people involved (the boy, the wife); in the second sentences, these others are the new topics and are referred to by article + .
Note:
(acc. ) means the same as (topic shift); (acc. ) = such and such; = previously.
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3. PRONOUNS
3.1. THE THREE USES OF THE INTENSIVE PRONOUN
In predicative position or by itself, means self:
, . (Antiphon 4.1.7) You have heard the testimony of the witnesses, who were present with the drunkard himself. . (Thucydides 1.114) They themselves seized the land.
In attributive position (always with the article), means the same:

; (Euripides, Heracles 816) Have we become victims of the same attack of fear? These same things
Forms of are used to represent the oblique cases of the personal pronoun in the third person (him, her, it). The form of always refers back to someone or something introduced before (this is called anaphoric):
. (Plato, Apology 21b) For I suppose that he is not lying, at any rate, since that is not allowed to him. . I have not forgotten him.
Some idiomatic translations of , self: By itself, in itself, unaided, alone, bare:

the naked truth
Just, merely:
merely these things
With ... and all (with the dative of accompaniment, see 4.3.3):
. (Xenophon, Cyropaedia 3.3.40) He told them to come to their posts with crowns and all
With ... others (with ordinals):

... . (Polybius 8.19.8) After that, he led onwards with four others (lit.: himself the fifth).
Note:
Be mindful of the close look-alikes / and / !
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3. Pronouns
3.2. DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS (, , )

The three demonstrative pronouns can either stand by themselves or as an adjectival pronoun with nouns. In the latter case, they all normally take the article, and predicative position (see 2.2):
/ / / this man (here) this man that man (there)
Their meanings differ as follows: refers to something immediately near/present to the speaker (physically or mentally). It is used in Tragedy to announce characters coming onstage. It can even (in poetry) refer to the speaker himself. You can almost always imagine the speaker/writer pointing at something or someone:
; (Plato, Apology 26d7) Do you so despise these gentlemen and think that they are so unversed in letters? . (Sophocles, Antigone 155) But here comes the king. ... (Sophocles, Trachiniae 305) While I still live.
refers to something near to the speaker (physically or mentally). One of its most frequent uses is to refer to something just mentioned (anaphoric use). It is used sometimes to refer to celebrated, famous people/things, and (very infrequently) to address someone (you there):
. (Plato, Apology 18c4) These accusers (just mentioned) are many and have been making their accusations already for a long time. (Plato, Hippias Major 282) The famous Gorgias , . (Aristophanes, Frogs 198) You there, what are you doing?
refers to something relatively remote from the speaker (physically or mentally):

[ ] . (Plato, Apology 22d8) This folly (just mentioned) of theirs also seemed to me to obscure that wisdom.
As a general rule of thumb, refers to what precedes (anaphoric), and refers to what follows (cataphoric):
... ... having said these things ... ... he said the following: ...
There are, however, many exceptions to this rule ( may refer forward, backward). When referring back to two persons/groups/things just mentioned, the former... the latter... in Greek is represented by ... / (but also often simply by ... , see 2.3):
. (Plato, Apology 18e3) And you have heard the former make their accusations earlier and with much more vehemence than these men here who accused me later. (Socrates has just distinguished two groups among his accusers.)
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3. Pronouns
A demonstrative pronoun will either agree with a noun predicated of it, or stand in the neuter (see 1.2):
... (Demosthenes 9.9) But if anyone understands that to be peace, ... ; (Aristophanes, Frogs 21) Is that not insolence?
3.3. PERSONAL PRONOUNS (, , X; , , X)

Personal pronouns are either contrastive (emphatic) or non-contrastive:
Contrastive: Non-contrastive: , , , ; , , , , , ; , , (the nominative does not exist)
The contrastive pronouns are used almost exclusively in contrastive emphasis (when a specific distinction is made between two people/groups).
Note:
Non-contrastive personal pronouns are enclitics: they have no accent of their own (but can get one from a following enclitic or the preceding word), and cannot stand first in a clause, or in the word-group they belong to.
In the nominative, the personal pronoun is used only in contrastive emphasis. Normally the person-ending of the verb is sufficient (the personal pronoun is omitted):
. You have educated the children. , . (Xenophon, Anabasis 1.3.6) Since you do not wish to be persuaded, I will follow you.
In the oblique cases (accusative, genitive, dative), the non-contrastive pronouns are used unless there is contrastive emphasis.
. (Antiphon 3.10) As such, the things of which I stand accused are all false. ; (Demosthenes 18.196) Why do you accuse me of these things rather than I you?
There is no personal pronoun for the third person. In the nominative, when a form is required for contrastive emphasis, a demonstrative pronoun or a nominative of (he himself) is used:
[] , (Isaeus 6.59) He says that these men are rich, but he himself is poor.
In the oblique cases (accusative, genitive, dative), the role of non-contrastive third-person pronouns is performed by forms of (see 3.1).
Note:
In Homer, there are still non-contrastive third-person pronoun forms in the oblique cases: /, , ; , , , etc. In Herodotus: , , /; , , . In Tragedy, and are frequently found for the accusative third person.
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3. Pronouns
3.4. POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS (, , X; , , X)

The possessive pronouns mean exactly the same thing as the genitives of personal pronouns. So:
Possessive = = = = Personal
Of these, the possessives usually take attributive position, the genitives of the personal pronoun always take the predicative position following the noun (see 2.2):
/ my friend
There is no possessive pronoun for the third person. Instead, we find the genitive of (in predicative position) or the genitive of demonstratives (in attributive position) (see 2.2):
... . (Isocrates 16.31) For her father Hipponicus set his heart upon making my father related to him by marriage. her money
Note:
In Homer, there is still a possessive pronoun for the third person: /, /, /.
If the subject and the possessor are the same, the genitive of the reflexive pronoun (see 3.5) is often preferred (in attributive position, see 2.2):
. (Thucydides 2.101) He gives his own sister in marriage to Seuthes.
Remember that when the possessor is beyond doubt, the article can suffice to express a possessive relationship (see 2.1).
. He gives his sister in marriage to him.
Possessive pronouns may have the force of a subjective or objective genitive (see 4.2.2):
out of my friendship (for someone else) / out of friendship for me
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3. Pronouns
3.5. REFLEXIVE PRONOUNS (, , /; , , /)

The reflexive pronoun means himself, herself, etc.: the pronoun refers back to the subject of the main clause of the sentence. When the pronoun is itself in the main clause, it is called a direct reflexive, when it is in a subordinate clause (or accusative and infinitive construction, etc.), an indirect reflexive:
Direct: . (Thales?/Chilon?/Solon?) Know thyself. Indirect: . (Xenophon, Anabasis 2.5.29) Clearchus wanted the entire army to be favourable to himself.
For indirect reflexives in the dative, (singular) and (plural) are occasionally found instead of the reflexive pronoun:
. (Antiphon 1.16) He asked her if she would be willing to do him a service.
Note:
The reflexive pronoun does not have a nominative. Reflexive actions can also be expressed in Greek by the middle voice, but only with certain verbs pertaining to the body: = I wash myself, = I shave (myself). For sentences like he killed himself the reflexive pronoun is required: (see 4.7).
3.6. THE RECIPROCAL PRONOUN ()

The reciprocal pronoun means each other:
. (Aeschylus, Seven Against Thebes 812-3) The earth is drenched with the blood of our two kings, who stem from the same stock, due to their mutual bloodshed. . (Homer, Odyssey 9.55) They hit each other with bronze spears.
Note:
The reciprocal pronoun does not have a nominative and is always plural. Reciprocal actions can also be expressed in Greek by the middle voice ( = They conversed with each other), by the reflexive pronoun ( = they used to hit themselves/each other), and by repetition of the noun ( = men slew each other (Homer, Iliad)).
3.7. AND
Both , other (of several) and , other (of two) can be used by themselves or as adjectival pronouns:
/ / another man the other man (of two)
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3. Pronouns
is sometimes used loosely where one would expect (and as such it can appear without the article which it otherwise always has): this conveys a sense of difference:
another (different) dignitary
(with the article) means the rest, the other(s):

the rest of Greece the other teachers / the rest of the teachers
Sometimes this is found with a noun that has to be interpreted as an appositive, in which case gets the meaning: besides, moreover:
... . (Xenophon, Hellenica 2.4.9) They summoned the hoplites and the cavalry besides (=and the others, namely the cavalry).
followed by another form of expressed the same as English different... different, or a twofold statement one.... one, another... another:
, , . . (Xenophon, Anabasis 2.1.16) As for them, Clearchus, one says one thing and another says another. You must tell us what your opinion is. , . (Plato, Symposium 215a) Still, if in my reminiscences I mention different things from different sources, you ought not in any way be surprised.
3.8. THE INDEFINITE PRONOUN ()

The indefinite pronoun (some, a(n)) refers to someone/something that is not identifiable as a specific individual, in other words, when the word it modifies could refer to any number of people/things. can be used by itself or as an adjectival pronoun with nouns:
someone says some man says
The indefinite pronoun can convey a collective sense, where someone is short for every someone (cf. German man, French on). The combinations and are also found with this meaning:
but people detest that man but people (<every someone) detest that man
The indefinite pronoun can be added to adverbs and numerals to weaken their force:
pretty nearly, virtually roughly/around/some eighty
Note:
The indefinite pronoun is an enclitic: it has no accent of its own (but can get one from a following enclitic or the preceding word), and cannot stand first in a clause or in the word-group it belongs to.
17
4. CASES
4.1. MEANINGS AND LABELS
Though it is tempting to ascribe a basic meaning to Greek cases, very often a case is used simply because it is obligatory. For example, the verb (be angry at) can be supplemented only by the dative; it is pointless in such cases to think about why there is a dative: Greek does not have any other option, the case here has no intrinsic meaning (in general the axiom having meaning implies choice applies). The commonest way to talk about the various uses of the Greek cases is to use labels, like of quantity, of respect, etc. These labels are useful, but it is important to realise that they often do not distinguish between actually different uses, but to different nuances of a more general function. For example, the genitive simply expresses a close relationship between two nouns, regardless of the precise nature of that relationship:
a disease caused by a sorcerer a disease afflicting a sorcerer a disease consisting of a sorcerer (?), etc.
Note:
For a long time, the uses of a case were labelled in Latin, and you may come across the Latin names frequently. They are given below in parentheses.
4.2. THE GENITIVE

4.2.1. As required supplement with verbs/adjectives
The genitive is the required case to supplement the following verbs (some of these also take the accusative):
perceive hear someone (+ acc. hear something) miss be removed from grab hold of, touch lead, rule over begin rule over taste there is a lack of, ... is needed strive lack, need long for, desire forget () take care of, ensure strive, long for border on lead (+ 2x acc. consider X Y) condemn, convict (+ acc.) cease from ... matters to me take part in remember cease from be superior to, overcome be ahead of, beat, surpass happen upon be concerned about
18
4. Cases
It is also required, together with an accusative, with the following verbs (X marks the genitive):
accuse (someone) of X remove/release (something) from X rob (someone) of X charge (someone) with X make (someone) stop with X fill (something) with X fill (something) with X
The following adjectives are supplemented by a genitive:

worth(y of) free from experienced in consecrated to (taking/having) part of lacking knowledgeable of deserted by, lacking filled with filled with
The genitive of comparison (genitivus comparationis) is used to supplement comparatives (also , which is compulsory when a genitive or dative follows in these cases the genitive of comparison cannot be used):
. (Euripides, Medea 86) Every man loves himself more than his kin. . I trust no one more than you.
takes the dative; * is impossible.
4.2.2. With nouns (attributively)

The genitive of possession (possessivus) denotes ownership, belonging, possession, etc. It can be used with as predicate noun (in predicative position, see 2.2):
. the house of his father the house belongs to his father
The partitive genitive (also of the divided whole, partitivus) denotes a whole to which something belongs as a part. It may be used as predicate noun (with ):
.
lit: the good among the people (= the good people)

he happened to be part of the council
Remember that the partitive genitive, when used with a noun, always takes predicative position: or , but not * or * (see 2.2). The genitive of quality (qualitatis) is used (usually as a predicate) to express a certain characteristic, manner of being, etc.:
(Herodotus 1.107.2) being of peaceful disposition (Thucydides 1.113.2) everyone who held the same opinion
19
4. Cases
To measure time, space, degree, age, the genitive of quantity or measure (quantitatis) can be used (usually with numbers). It may also be used as a predicate noun:
a wall 8 stades in length being 20 stades in size a man 20 years of age (N.B. for of age an expression with and the accusative of duration of time is more common: = (lit.) having been born since 20 yrs. = 20 yrs. of age)
With nouns that express an action (so-called action nouns), the genitive is used for the subject or object of that action subjective or objective genitive (subiectivus/obiectivus):
. . the battle of (fought by) the soldiers the building of the wall the fear of the enemies (ambiguous, interpretation depends on the context)
Other relations between nouns: material/contents (materiae), price/value (pretii), elaboration (explicativus), etc.
. . . the foundation consists of large blocks I am defendant in a lawsuit involving a thousand drachmas a charge of burglary the word virtue
4.2.3. With sentences (adverbially)

With verbs that express an emotion, the genitive of cause (causae) denotes the reason for that emotion:
... . (Euripides, Hippolytus 1409) I bewail you for your error.
The price of something is expressed in the genitive genitive of price/value (pretii):

. (Epicharmus, fr. 287) The gods sell us everything that is good at the price of labour.
The genitive is the case used in the genitive absolute construction (see 10.4). For the genitive of time (temporis), the genitive of space (spatii), and the genitive of separation (separativus), see 5.1-2.
20
4. Cases
4.3. THE DATIVE

4.3.1. As required supplement with verbs/adjectives
The dative is the required case to supplement the following verbs:
threaten please, satisfy help converse with yield to, shrink from it is possible apply oneself to, attack follow it profits, it is best fight get angry at recommend (something) to persuade approach trust, believe make war against it is fitting forgive, pardon it profits be envious of, bear ill will to be angry at use, treat with (N.B. + gen. = lack)
It is also required, together with an accusative, with the following verbs (X marks the dative):
give X (something) order/command X (something) entrust X (with something)
Note:
(aid), (injure) and (hate), though similar to some of the verbs above, take an accusative!
The following adjectives are supplemented by a dative:

opposite, contrary to well-disposed towards hostile to, hated by equal to, the same as shared with similar to, equal to friendly with, loved by the same as
also:
The dative of the possessor (dativus possessivus) is used to supplement existential and , denoting possession, or immediate interest:
. (Plato, Republic 329e) It is said that rich people have much comfort (lit.: there is much comfort for rich people). . (Homer, Iliad 1.188) Achilles came to suffer (lit.: a hurt arose for the son of Peleus).
4.3.2. With nouns (attributively)

The dative of advantage or disadvantage (see 4.3.3) can be used with action nouns (nouns that express an action):
(Plato, Apology 30d) the gods gift to you
21
4. Cases

The dative of agent (auctoris) is used to express the agent of a passive construction, almost exclusively with passive verbs in the (plu)perfect and with verbal adjectives in - (see 11.4):
... (Thucydides 1.46) When preparations had been made by them, ... . (Herodotus 7.168.1) It is not to be endured by them that Greece is destroyed.
The dative of advantage (commodi) and disadvantage (incommodi) expresses in whose interest an action is performed:
, ... (Thucydides, 1.89) When the barbarians had left their country for them (for their benefit), ... . (Thucydides 2.12) This day will spell for the Greeks the beginning of great evils.
Very difficult to translate is the use of the so-called ethical dative (of feeling, ethicus): personal pronouns of the first or second person (, , , ) can loosely express the involvement of the speaker or hearer in the action:
. (Plato, Apology 27b) Please (for my sake), remember not to make a disturbance. ... . (Herodotus 5.92..4) There you have it, that is tyranny.
The dative of accompaniment (comitativus or sociativus), without preposition, is used almost exclusively with military terminology to denote accompaniment (for other cases, a preposition is normally used):
, ... (Herodotus 5.99.1) The Athenians arrived with 20 ships. . (Thucydides 4.14.1) They captured one ship with crews and all. (For , see 3.1.)
The dative of instrument (instrumentalis or instrumenti) expresses the instrument used in an action. Greek does not use a preposition here (hitting someone with a sword is never / ):
he hurls his axe at him he accomplished nothing by this
The dative of means (modi) expresses the method by which or the circumstances under which:
. (Xenophon, Anabasis 1.7.4) They will attack shouting with loud shouts. , . (Herodotus 1.87.3) I have done these things for your good fortune, but to my own detriment.
22
4. Cases
The dative of cause (causae) expresses reason or cause:

... ... ... , , . (Thucydides 7.75.5) The hoplites carried their food themselves, some for lack of servants, others from mistrust of them. . (Demosthenes 21.74) Doing this out of insolence, and not because he was drunk.
With comparatives and other expressions of comparison, the dative of measure of difference (mensurae) expresses the degree by which one thing differs from another:
a head shorter not many days later
For the dative of time (temporis) and the dative of place (loci), see 5.1-2.
4.4. THE ACCUSATIVE

4.4.1. As required supplement with verbs
The accusative is the standard case for the direct object with transitive verbs.
Note:
There are quite a few verbs that take a direct object in Greek, but not in English! Some examples: be ashamed of (also with dative) speak well of (be spoken well of = ) go unnoticed by swear by be afraid of be on guard against
The following verbs take a direct object and another supplement in the accusative (double accusative):
ask/demand X from Y take X from Y teach X to Y hide X from Y do X to Y
The following verbs also get double accusatives, but the second supplement is a predicate in the accusative (when these verbs are put in the passive, both supplements are put in the nominative, see 8.2):
appoint/select X to be Y think/consider X to be Y install X as Y name/call X Y name/call X Y think/consider X to be Y
The accusative is used in the accusative and infinitive, the accusative absolute and accusative and participle constructions (see 9.2-3, 10.2, 10.4, 11.3).
23
4. Cases
4.4.2. Internal object

With verbs that normally do not get an object (intransitive verbs), an accusative can be added to further specify the action. This accusative is usually modified by an adjective, and is always of kindred meaning and/or lexical origin with the verb form. This accusative is variously called internal or cognate:
he shared in their exile (lit.: he fled the flight with them) talking a lot of nonsense (lit.: talking nonsense a lot of nonsense) he performed the duty of trierarch on several occasions to go a long way he fell ill of this disease
Occasionally, the noun in the accusative is omitted:

. (Xenophon, Anabasis 5.8.12) They shouted that he had given that man too few blows. ( i.e. .)
With the noun omitted, the adjective is often put in the neuter and takes on the force of an adverb; this is the so-called adverbial accusative (adverbialis):
laugh sweetly in no way very, highly, much often, frequently

With intransitive verbs, passive verbs, and adjectives, the accusative of respect (accusativus respectus or limitationis) specifies the thing in respect to which the verb or adjective is limited (as concerns ..., in respect to)):
(Homer) he has a pain in his feet (=his feet hurt) man and woman differ by nature a river two plethra wide he smote him on the neck ( = him; part-whole relations like this one may be expressed by the accusative of respect - also with transitive active verbs like here)
For the accusative of extent (duration of time, distance travelled), and for the terminal accusative (of direction, in poetry), see 5.1-2:
4.4.4. Apposition to a sentence

When an apposition is added to an entire sentence, it normally stands in the accusative (see 1.4):
, . (Euripides, Orestes 1105) Let us slay Helen; a sore grief to Menelaus! , . (Euripides, Bacchae 1099) And other women threw their thyrsus staves through the air at Pentheus, a woeful aiming.
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5. TIME
5.1. TEMPORAL MODIFIERS
AND
SPACE
Genitive
time within which
Dative
time when
Accusative
time during which (extent)
Prepositions that can have temporal meaning (the commonest ones in bold): , , , , , , , , , , , , , , (see 6.1). The genitive expresses the time within which something takes place (it refers to an unspecified moment or period within the given timeframe):
(Xenophon, Anabasis 2.6.7) ... leading the army towards the enemy both during the day and during the night (Herodotus 3.134.4) These things will be fulfilled before long / within little time.
With the article, this genitive can be used distributively:

. (Thucydides 3.17.4) He earned a drachme per day.
The dative expresses the time when something takes place (it refers to a specific moment or period):
. (Thucydides 4.25.8) (on) the following day. . (Lysias 21.1) during/at the Great Panathenaia
In prose, the accusative (without preposition) can express the extent/duration of time (answering the question how long?). Usually, such accusatives are accompanied by a numeral:
. (Herodotus 6.135.1) Miltiades sailed away after having laid siege to Paros for 26 days. . (Thucydides 3.114) They made a treaty for a hundred years.
With an ordinal number (without the article), and often with a form of , the accusative expresses how long since:
. (Demosthenes 3.4) This is the third or fourth year since it was announced that Philip was besieging fort Heraeum.
25
5. Time and Space
5.2. SPATIAL MODIFIERS
Genitive
space within which / origin
Dative
place where
Accusative
space traversed (extent) / direction
Prepositions that can have spatial meaning: , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , (see 6.1). The genitive normally follows prepositions to refer to motion away from:
from the city from the king(s side) ( is often used with people)
The bare genitive of separation can also be used (though it is much less frequent):
. (Herodotus 2.80.1) They yield the way (=retreat from the way).
The bare genitive is sometimes used to express space within which an action takes place (see time within which in 5.2), which is often almost indistinguishable from the place at which an action takes place:
. (Xenophon, Anabasis 1.3.1) To go onwards (=through the space ahead). . (Aeschylus, Prometheus Bound 714) They dwell on the left hand.
Note that adverbial forms like (in that very place), (where?) and (nowhere) are all genitives originally. The dative is used following prepositions (especially ) to express place where:
in the city near/at the city
In poetry, is freely dropped. In prose, it can be omitted with the names of cities, etc.:
| , . (Sophocles, Oedipus Tyrannus 1265-6) And when the hapless woman lay on the ground, then the sequel was horrible to see. ( ) . (Plato, Menexenus 241b) They have been educated by those who fought at Marathon and those who were in the naval battle at Salamis.
In general, the accusative is used with prepositions to indicate motion towards:

to the city to the city to Pharnabazus ( is used as preposition only with people)
26
5. Time and Space
In poetry only, the bare accusative is sometimes used to express direction:

. (Sophocles, Electra 893) I came to the old grave of my father.
The bare accusative is also used to express extent of space / distance traversed, again often accompanied by a numeral (see extent/duration of time in 5.2):
. (Euripides, Helen 598) Wandering through all of this barbarian country. . (Xenophon,
Anabasis 1.4.9)
After that, Cyrus drove on for 4 marches and 20 parasangs to the river Chalus.
For measurements, Greek generally uses a combination of genitive of measurement (see 4.2.2) and accusative of respect (see 4.4.3) usually with article):
... . (Xenophon, Anabasis 3.4.11) A foundation fifty feet wide and fifty feet high. , . (Xenophon, Anabasis 1.2.23) Right through the citys middle there streams a river called Cydnus, two plethra wide.
For nouns of the first declension (in -/-), which have their dative plural in -, an older form of the dative plural, in - or -, is still used as a locative (denoting place where):
in Athens in Plataea
There also remain in classical Greek a few fossilised examples of an original locative (which has already disappeared completely as a productive case by the time of Homer):
(at) home on the ground
Several suffixes (small bits added to words) are used to form spatial modifiers: The suffix -/- indicates place to which:
in all directions to Athens (to) home
The suffix - indicates place from where:

from every direction from Athens from home
The suffix - indicates (with certain words only) place where:

(= ) elsewhere on both sides (=in both ways) in that very place
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6. PREPOSITIONS
6.1 FREQUENT USES OF THE PREPOSITIONS
The most frequent uses of prepositions are given here, limited to classical Greek. Some deviating uses in Homer, Herodotus and Tragedy have been left out. Only proper prepositions (those that appear in compound verbs) are included in the table, a list of some other words that are used prepostionally is given at the end. The table is largely based on A. Rijksbaron et al. (2000). Beknopte Syntaxis van het Klassiek Grieks. Lunteren: Hermaion, pp. 45-55.
SPATIAL
TEMPORAL
()
ABSTRACT
+accusative
around Cyrus and his followers (not: those around Cyrus)
around, about around midnight
(with numerals) about roughly two-thousand (!) or be occupied /concerned with something
() +accusative
(vertical) up along upstream up the mountain (horizontal) spread out over spread across the country (distributively) year by year, yearly (!) over time (with proportions) proportionately proportionate to his strength = with all his might
(, ) +genitive
(in compounds only) against position against/facing in exchange for; in place of for money enemy instead of friend
28
6. Prepositions
SPATIAL
TEMPORAL
(, )
ABSTRACT
+genitive
(away/originating) from from the ships (!) fight on horseback
since, from since the beginning (conjunction) from the moment that
(separation) otherwise than expected (origin) be named after based on the available means nothing was done on their part
() +genitive
through (clean) through the breastplate through, ... long all night long his whole life long (!) after a long time through, via, by means of to speak via an interpreter on his own strength with speed (!) be furious
+accusative
(causal) thanks to, on account of, owing to they won owing to their virtue because of this
/ +accusative
into, to, towards, against to throw in the water into the city to go into a house to Egypt to the side until, up to up to the evening, dusk (with a limited period) for for a year (limitation, goal) first in everything to look at someone to speak to Athenians err against the gods (with numerals) close on, about close on thirty
29
6. Prepositions
SPATIAL
/ +genitive
away from, out he fled from the battle
TEMPORAL
ABSTRACT
from, since from/since the beginning after that, since that time (conjunction) since
(origin) from, (out) of, from within from a good father (made) from wood judging from the possibilities (!) equally
+dative
(usually stationary) in, on, among in the house armed on an island in the presence of all (with motion) to fall in the sea in, during, on in one night on that crucial moment meanwhile (conjunction) while (circumstances, manner) quickly taking turns to be at a loss it depends on you
(, ) +genitive
(stationary) on (top of) to have something on ones shoulders (motion) bearing for, in the direction of sail off bearing for Egypt during, in the time of in peacetime the events of my lifetime (idiomatic) on my own, by myself, independently those in power
30
6. Prepositions
SPATIAL
+dative
(near)by, on to live on a river the wall by the sea
TEMPORAL
directly following on after that, subsequently
ABSTRACT
(sphere of influence) it is in your power, it is up to you (cause) to laugh at/over someone (condition) on that condition (motive, reason, end) in order to free the Greeks (addition) moreover, in addition
+accusative
(end point) up to, on to to climb on the horses (goal) towards, against to send to get water to go towards the enemies (with surfaces) extended over all over Europe
during for a long time
(idiomatic) as far as I am concerned in general, normally
(, ) +genitive
down from, down toward down from the mountain under to hide under the ground (!) to be in the enemys rear against, to the detriment of to speak against someone
31
6. Prepositions
SPATIAL
+accusative
(motion) following, with following the wind (downwards motion) downstream (with fixed points) off, near, opposite to position opposite the Greeks (with surfaces) spread out over, everywhere on in various places in the market
TEMPORAL
at the time of in the beginning (distributively) per, every per day, every day
ABSTRACT
(manner) conforming to, according to according to the laws according to means, as much as possible conforming to his strength = with all his might
(relation) with relation to in every respect as to me, as far as it concerns me (distributively) nation by nation, per nation
(, ) +genitive
(usually with people) together with, accompanied by together with the allies (in compounds only) after, in search of go to get someone after after the Persian wars afterwards, after that after (the) day(break), during the day (accompanying circumstance) with haste, hastily with the law on my side (with rank) after the best after someone
+accusative
() +genitive
(origin, with motion, usually with people) from (the side/quarter of) a messenger has come from the king (origin, usually with people) from (the side/quarter of) to get something from someone to hear/learn something from someone
32
6. Prepositions
SPATIAL
+dative
(usually with people) with, by (cf. French chez) those with you be a general in the service of Cyrus
TEMPORAL
ABSTRACT
in the eyes of in my opinion
+accusative
(end point, usually with people) to, at (the side of) to arrive at someones side to send to someone (with verbs meaning put, position) next to, with to sit down next to someone (of parallel extent) along, alongside, beside to sail alongside the mainland
during all the time, throughout time
(in comparisons) next to laughable as compared to him (exclusion) next to, apart from nothing other than that contrary to in violation of the laws
(never elided) +genitive

(with verbs of competition, strife, etc.) to fight for ones home country (with verbs of fearing and effort) to be very concerned about someone/something (with verbs of speaking, etc.) about, over to deliberate about the peace to hear about someone (relations) in relation to, concerning that which concerns virtue (!) to consider of great importance
33
6. Prepositions
SPATIAL
+accusative ( + acc.)
around he goes around Attica around the camp there were sentries Cyrus and his followers around
TEMPORAL
ABSTRACT
about, with respect to / to have an opinion about something/someone be occupied/concerned with something to err with respect to the gods
around that time
(never elided) +genitive

in front of in front of the wagons at ones feet before before the Persian wars in defence of, on behalf of to fight for the citizens in preference to to prefer something over something
+genitive
on the side of, facing the wall facing the west to flee to the Greeks side on the side of he is on our side from the side of, at the hands of to suffer at the hands of someone to hear from someone (!) by the gods!
+dative
at, near they position themselves near the city itself / right near the city
(addition) with , moreover, on top of that (!) to be occupied with something
34
6. Prepositions
SPATIAL
+accusative
(motion) towards, facing towards to bring to someone to look at someone (hostile) against , march against, wage war against
TEMPORAL
coming up to, about dusk
ABSTRACT
(direction, goal) towards, to to be educated/raised to bravery to say something to oblige someone/to someones benefit (comparison) in comparison to, according to to decide with a view to according to means/ability (!) violently (with verbs of speaking, etc.) to, addressing speak to the multitude (!) to make peace with someone (relations) concerning, with regard to he is concerned on that point in view of that, with regard to that useful with regard to something
/ +dative
together with, accompanied by wage war together with the exiles (very rare in Attic; usually + gen.) with a gods help including 2000 drachmas including those of Nicias (accompanying circumstance) with a loud scream
35
6. Prepositions
SPATIAL
+genitive
(stationary) above above the knees
TEMPORAL
ABSTRACT
in defence of, to protect ..., on behalf of in defence of (his) home country to answer on someones behalf (reason, purpose) about, in order to be grateful about something in order to get this
(motion) over they came down over the hilltops
+accusative
above, beyond those who live beyond the Hellespont
beyond beyond means surpassing expectation
(, ) +genitive
under the things under the earth (with passive verbs and verbs with passive meaning) by to be raised by someone to suffer something at the hands of someone (with causes) to perish from hunger (accompanying circumstance) with a trumpets blast
+dative
at the foot of, under under the walls of Troy (rare in prose)
(subjection) to subject to oneself in the course of, during in the course of that night under peacetime conditions (subjection) to subject to themselves
+accusative
(end point) to the foot of, to under he made the army halt at the foot of the hill
36
6. Prepositions
6.2. SOME OTHER WORDS USED AS PREPOSITIONS
+ dat. + gen. + gen. + gen. , + gen. + gen. + gen. (postpositive) + gen. + gen. + gen. + gen. + gen. + dat. + gen. + gen. + gen. () + gen. + gen. + gen. , + gen. , + gen. + gen. (postpositive) + gen. + acc.
together with (also temporal: at the same time with, = at daybreak) without, apart from in the way of, like near, close to inside opposite, in the presence of because of, owing to, on account of, for the sake of outside of, apart from within (also temporal) outside of, out (also abstract: = beside his wits) between (also temporal) up to (also temporal: up until, = until the moment that; also abstract: = this far) together with (also temporal: at the same time with) behind, at the rear of in front of, before (also temporal) near to, alongside further than, beyond, on the other side of (also abstract: = beyond
measure)
except (also used as a conjunction: = except that; = except if) near to far from, far in (also abstract: = to come far in philosophy) at the front of, before (also temporal) for the sake of apart from (also abstract: not considering) to (with people only)
37
7. THE VERB: TENSE & ASPECT, MOOD

7.1. INTRODUCTION TO TENSE AND ASPECT
Brief definitions of tense and aspect: Tense is the location of the action (this term will be consistently used below, even though a verb form may in fact refer to a state or uncontrolled event) in past, present or future (relative to the moment of speaking). In this regard, the Greek tense system has only absolute tenses (past, present, future) and no relative tenses (past-in-the-past, past-in-the-future): the Greek pluperfect is a simple past tense, the Greek future perfect a simple future tense! Aspect refers to the way in which the action is viewed: as complete (an action in its entirety) or notcomplete (an action that is ongoing or repeated).
Greek verb forms can express: Both tense and aspect: present indicative, imperfect, aorist indicative, perfect indicative, pluperfect, future perfect indicative. Only tense: future (the future is aspect-neutral) Only aspect: subjunctive/optative/infinitive/participle of present, aorist, perfect.
Note that apart from the Greek future, all verb forms express aspect. However, only the future and the indicatives of other stems express tense: e.g. the aorist subjunctive is not a past tense form!
7.2. THE GREEK TENSE SYSTEM
imperfect aorist indicative pluperfect

past
present indicative perfect indicative
future future perfect
moment of speaking
future
7.3. THE GREEK ASPECT SYSTEM

The Greek verb has the following aspectual values: The present stem (present, imperfect) signifies that an action is ongoing or repeated and is therefore not-complete. The aorist stem (aorist) is used to describe an action as a whole, it signifies that an action is complete. The perfect stem (perfect, pluperfect, (future perfect)) signifies that an action has been completed and that a state exists as a result.
38
7. The Verb: Tense & Aspect, Mood
7.4. SYNTHESIS: THE 7 INDICATIVES

Combining the temporal and aspectual values described above, the indicative in Greek can mean the following: The present indicative refers to an action, located at the present, that is ongoing or repeated (notcomplete): = I am acquiring / I (habitually) acquire. The imperfect (or secondary present indicative) refers to an action, located in the past, that is ongoing or repeated (not-complete): = I was acquiring / I (habitually) acquired. The future indicative refers to an action (either ongoing or as a single occurrence), located in the future: = I will be acquiring / I will acquire. The aorist indicative refers to an action, located in the past, viewed as a complete whole: = I acquired/I have acquired. The perfect indicative refers to a state, located at the present, that is the result of a completed action: = I possess (< I have acquired). The pluperfect (or secondary perfect indicative) refers to a state, located in the past, that is the result of a completed action: = I possessed (< I had acquired). The future perfect indicative refers to a state, located in the future, that is the result of a completed action: = I will possess (< I will have acquired).
7.5. NARRATIVE AND NON-NARRATIVE TEXTS

In translating Greek tenses, especially the aorist and imperfect, it is crucial to distinguish between narrative and non-narrative text: Narrative text is storytelling, relating a sequence of events as they happened, and how they are/were related to each other. It is in the past tense, and normally contains a mix of imperfects/pluperfects and aorists (plus an occasional historic present). Examples: Homer (apart from the speeches), historical descriptions, the re-telling of events in oratory, etc. Non-narrative text is everything else. Main verbs will normally be presents, aorists, perfects and futures. Examples: speeches (except for narrative passages within them), philosophical discussions (e.g. in Platos dialogues), evaluative conclusions by messengers in Tragedy, etc.
Narrative and non-narrative passages can come in quick succession or mixed together. Clearly distinguishing between the two is in some cases very difficult.
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7.6. THE INDICATIVE IN MAIN CLAUSES

7.6.1. Present
The present indicative (generally used in non-narrative text) can refer to an action which is ongoing at the moment of speaking:
(Lysias 13.72) I am telling the truth. , , ; (Herodotus 3.151.2) What are you sitting around for over there, Persians?
It is also used to refer to repeated or habitual actions:

, . (Demosthenes 19.46) For this man tends to drink water, whereas I normally drink wine.
Finally, it refers to general and timeless truths (see also 7.6.2. for the gnomic aorist):
. (Menander, Sententiae 11) Time brings the truth to light.
With several verbs, the present indicative may refer to the existing result of an action as well as to the action itself. Since this meaning is very similar to the perfect indicative, these presents are often called perfective:
hear / have heard arrive / be present suffer a defeat / be vanquished defeat / be victorious depart / be gone learn / be aware give birth / be parent flee / be in exile
Note:
Unlike in English (e.g. Im attending a class tomorrow), the present indicative in Greek cannot normally be used to refer to the future. However, in prophecies, where the future is sometimes seen as taking place in front of the prophets eyes, the present indicative may have the force of a future: . (Aeschylus, Agamemnon 126) In time, this expedition will take Priams city. Also note that the present indicative (I will go) should always be translated by an English future.
7.6.2. Aorist, imperfect, historic present

The aorist indicative should be translated differently in non-narrative and narrative text. In narrative text the simple past (he did this) is usually the best choice. In non-narrative text, the aorist is often used simply to observe that an action has been completed by the moment of speaking: in this case the English present perfect (he has done this) is to be preferred:
. (Herodotus 1.15) And he (=Ardys) took Priene and launched an attack on Miletus. , ... (Herodotus 7.8.2) I have now called you together, to ...
The first example comes from Herodotus narrative account of the conquests of Ardys. The second is the introduction of a speech (note the , which rules out a narrative context).
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In narrative texts, the imperfect (aspect: not-complete) and pluperfect are often used to set the stage or to create a background/framework in which main, highlighted events which push the story further take place: these main events will in turn appear in the aorist indicative (viewed in completion, as a simple occurrence):
, . ... . . ... (Herodotus 1.114.1-2) Now when the boy (Cyrus) was ten years old, the following occurrence revealed him for what he was. He was playing with others of his age. The boys while playing chose to be their king this one who was supposed to be the son of the cowherd. Then he assigned some of them to the building of houses The imperfect sets the stage for the events that take place (it forms the background against which the rest of the story is viewed). The aorists and are used to narrate the events that move the story along.
The present indicative is also used sometimes in narrative texts (the so-called historic present or narrative present). It is used to bring out decisive or main events in a narrative, often those that change the state of the narrated world.
( ...) . . , , . (Herodotus 1.10.1-2) ... the woman appeared as well. Gyges saw her come in and undress. And, as the woman was getting in bed and her back was turned to him, he slipped away and was on his way out, and the woman spotted him leaving.
The historic present marks the pivotal moment in the story that will have dramatic consequences for the woman, her husband the king, and his bodyguard (Gyges).
The historic present differs from other presents in aspect (it looks at single actions). It occurs only with verbs that, by virtue of their lexical meaning, express an action with a natural end-point: thus, the present indicative of verbs that express a state (without an end-point), like , , , etc., is never used as historic present. The aspect of the imperfect (not-complete) makes it suitable for referring to repeated events:
, . (Herodotus 3.160.2) He gave him gifts yearly, and he also gave him Babylon. , . (Xenophon, Anabasis 1.6.10) The very men who earlier used to prostrate themselves before him, prostrated themselves on that occasion too.
Note the aorists and , used to highlight single events.
Note:
To emphasise that an action occurred on repeated occasions, the word is sometimes added to the imperfect or aorist indicative in Attic; the difference between imperfect and aorist is aspectual: . (Aristophanes, Frogs 914) And the chorus would be hurling forth four strings of lyrics one after the other. . (Aristophanes, Frogs 927) And he would not say a single thing that was intelligible.
In this scene of the Frogs, Euripides is discussing dramatic techniques that Aeschylus used time and time again in his plays.
With verbs that, because of their meaning, express an action that is normally viewed in completion, like persuade (persuading someone has a natural end-point, viz. the moment of persuasion), the aspect of the imperfect (not-complete) often leads to a conative interpretation (of an incomplete attempt):
. (Xenophon, Anabasis 7.3.7) Messengers tried to persuade them to turn back, but they would not listen. . (Aeschines 3.83) He (=Philip) tried to give us Halonnesus, but he (=Demosthenes) forbade us from accepting it.
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With verbs that, because of their meaning, tend to express an incomplete action, like rule/be king (be king does not have a natural end-point), the aspect of the aorist (viewed as a whole in this case as a discrete point in time) often leads to an ingressive interpretation (of the beginning point of an action):
. (Herodotus 1.13.2) (This) the oracle ordained and Gyges thus became king.
The aorist of such verbs can, however, also be used (usually with an amount of time specified) as an expression of the entire period (viewed as a complete whole): this use of the aorist is called complexive (this use normally occurs in non-narrative text):
. He was king for 40 years.
Since Greek has no relative tenses, each of the three Greek past tenses can convey what in English would require the pluperfect (past-in-the-past):
. (Xenophon, Anabasis 3.4.7) There lay an abandoned city: in the past, Medes had lived there. , . (Thucydides 2.92.1) From there they set course to Panormus, from where they had sailed. . , . (Xenophon, Hellenica 6.5.50) The supplies were too scarce: some of them had been consumed, others had been plundered.
The aorist indicative is sometimes used (in non-narrative text) to express general tendencies, habits, procedures, etc. (see also 7.6.1). This use of the aorist is called gnomic ( = maxim).
. (Hesiod, Works and Days 218) A fool learns by experience.
The gnomic aorist only occurs with verbs that express actions with a natural end-point: it cannot be used with verbs that express a state (e.g. have, be, rule, etc.). For timeless truths (e.g. one plus one equals two) the present indicative must be used (see 7.6.1).
7.6.3. Aorist and imperfect: overview

AORIST INDICATIVE (AORIST STEM)
Aspect: complete (actions viewed as a whole). Used in non-narrative text simply to state that an action has been completed by the moment of speaking (translate with present perfect). When used in narrative text, marks highlighted events that push the narrative forward (translate with simple past). Used to express single actions. Ingressive or complexive interpretation with verbs that express actions without a natural end-point (e.g. rule). Gnomic use (general tendencies, habits, etc.) with verbs that express actions with a natural end-point.
IMPERFECT (PRESENT STEM)

Aspect: not-complete (actions viewed as ongoing or repeated). (Rarely used in non-narrative text.)
In narratives, marks background events or states that provide the framework in which highlighted events occur (aorists and historic presents). Often used to express repeated or habitual actions. Conative interpretation with verbs that express actions with a natural end-point. (e.g. persuade).
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7.6.3. Future
The future indicative (normally in non-narrative text) can be used for various purposes, like announcements, promises, threats, predictions, etc.:
... (Plato, Laws 637c) Everybody will say to the stranger who is surprised at ... (prediction) ... . (Aristophanes, Wasps 1366) You wont get away with this behaviour (threat)
7.6.4. Perfect, pluperfect, future perfect

The perfect indicative (normally in non-narrative text) is a present tense, and as such should be translated (if at all possible, which is certainly not always) with an English present tense: = I possess, = I am free, but = I have set loose. The pluperfect (used mainly in narrative text) is simply the past tense of the perfect, the future perfect simply the future tense:
. (Thucydides 5.26.1) Of this too the same Thucydides is the author (<has written). . (Herodotus 5.68.1) For these actions against Adrastus, he was responsible (<had been undertaken by him). (For , see 3.3.) . (Aristophanes, Lysistrata 1071) The door will be kept shut (<will have been closed).
With verbs that, by virtue of their lexical meaning, tend to express a state, like be afraid, believe, the perfect stem often gives rise to a so-called intensive interpretation (marking an extreme degree of the state): = I am very surprised (, wonder), = I am terrified (, fear), = I maintain complete silence (, be silent).
7.7. OTHER MOODS IN MAIN CLAUSES
7.7.1. Modal indicative

The indicative of past tenses (imperfect/pluperfect or aorist indicative) is used, either with or without , in various expressions of counterfactuality (or unreality): in these cases the past indicative (called modal) refers to an action that does not or did not in fact occur. The modal indicative is used without , but together with either or , to express an unrealisable wish (a wish for something that did not or cannot come true, see also 14.2):
. (Euripides, Alcestis 1072) Would that I had such power! (But I dont.) , , . (Xenophon, Memorabilia 1.2.46) If only, Pericles, I had met you then. (But I didnt.)
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The modal indicative with is used in statements to express that an action would under certain circumstances occur / have occurred, but in fact does not / did not. The condition under which the action would occur may be expressed by a conditional -clause (see 21.5), a participle, an adverb, or left unexpressed:
, . (Plato, Apology 32d) And perhaps I would have been put to death on account of these things, if the government had not swiftly fallen. (But it did.) . (Demosthenes 18.224) But then the case would have been decided on its own merits. (But it wasnt.)
Note:
The difference between the use of imperfect and aorist indicatives in these constructions is one of aspect, not of tense! As a general rule, however, the imperfect is used to refer to something which is not true of the present, and the aorist indicative to refer to something which failed to occur in the past (in the latter case the imperfect is also not uncommon). , . (Xenophon, Anabasis 7.6.16) If he (=Seuthes) were giving me (=Xenophon) anything, he would be giving it on the understanding that by giving a smaller sum to me he would not have to give a larger amount to you. (But hes not giving me anything.) . (Thucydides 8.87.4) For had he brought up the fleet, he would in all likelihood have given victory to the Spartans. (But hes didnt.)
The imperfect indicative refers to something that is not taking place at present: Seuthes is not paying anything to Xenophon (the aspect of the imperfect is also apt in suggesting repeated bribes). The aorist indicative refers to a single instance of giving which did not occur.
The imperfect of impersonal verbs expressing a necessity, obligation, or appropriateness (e.g. , (), , etc.) can be used without to express that a situation contrary to the one that exists or existed is desired/required. This use can refer both to the present and the past.
, ; , . (Euripides, Hippolytus 297) Ho, why do you keep silent? You shouldnt be silent, my child. (But you are.) . (Xenophon, Anabasis 7.6.23) We should have taken the fortified positions then. (But we didnt.)
7.7.2. Optative
The optative without is used in wishes (cupitive). The negative is :
, , | . (Sophocles, Ajax 550-1) Child, may you become happier than your father, but equal in all other respects. . (Sophocles, Antigone 928) May they suffer no more.
The optative with is used to express that the realisation of an action is possible (potential). This potential construction is used to describe actions that might arise in the future, or to cautiously state something (to make an assertion, weaker than with the indicative):
, , . (Plato, Republic 444d) Virtue, then, would as it appears be a kind of health and beauty and good condition. . (Xenophon, Cyropaedia 1.6.21) You might/can/may see that this is so.
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The negative potential optative, with (nearly always with aorist optatives), expresses an emphatic negation: it is not even possible that the action should occur.
. (Sophocles, Philoctetes 103) You can never take him by force.
The second person potential optative can express a cautious command (see 14.1):
, , , . (Aeschylus, Choephoroi 105-7) If you have a better way, explain it (lit.: you might say it). I will voice my inmost thoughts, since you command me. (Note the , which makes clear that the potential optative is felt to be a command.)
Note:
The difference between the use of present and aorist optatives in these constructions is one of aspect, not of tense! (see also 14.2) . (Plato, Charmides 162e) For my part I would greatly prefer to have you as partner in the inquiry as to whether what was said is true or not. , , ... (Plato, Meno 86c) But for my part I would like best of all to examine that question I asked at first, and hear your view.
The present optative refers to an ongoing examination: Socrates is suggesting an open discussion that will take a while. The aorist optative , on the other hand, refers to an examination viewed in completion, as a single event.
7.7.3. Subjunctive
The subjunctive is used in commands: Hortative, in the first person (usually plural), both in positive commands and in prohibitions (with ):
. (Euripides, Electra 962) Stop: let us change the subject. . (Plato, Charmides 159b) Let us see if there is something in what they say.
Prohibitive in prohibitions (with ) in the second (occasionally third person), always with the aorist subjunctive:
. (Thucydides 3.40.7) Do not, then, be traitors of your own cause! . (Sophocles, Philoctetes 486) No, dont leave me behind alone!
The subjunctive is used in questions (always first person), to express doubt about what to do or say (deliberative):
; ; (Euripides, Medea 1271) Woe, what should I do? To where should I flee from my mothers hands?
Note:
The subjunctive is sometimes used with to express a tentative, doubtful assertion (negative ). This occurs primarily in Plato: . (Plato, Gorgias 462e) I suspect its rather rude to tell the truth. . (Plato, Cratylus 436b) But I suspect that this is not the case.
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The combination + subjunctive expresses an emphatic denial, a strong belief that something will not be the case: . (Aristophanes, Wasps 394) I shall never ever piss or fart on your fence. . (Sophocles, Philoctetes 103) He will certainly not obey.
Note:
The difference between the use of present and aorist subjunctives in the constructions above is one of aspect, not of tense! ; (Euripides, Ion 758) Should we speak or keep silent?
The aorist subjunctive refers to the act of speaking in completion: it views the speech as a whole, and thus refers to a single event (a single utterance). The present subjunctive , on the other hand, refers to the continuous process of keeping silent, as an ongoing (not-complete) event.
7.7.4. Imperative
The imperative is used in commands (second or third person) The negative (for prohibitions) is .
. (Plato, Apology 34a) Let him say if he has something of that nature. , , . (Sophocles, Philoctetes 1399-1400) Do this for me, child, and do not delay.
In second person prohibitions, the imperative is used for the present stem, the prohibitive subjunctive for the aorist stem (see 7.7.3, 14.1) * is not Greek, nor is * ; the following are correct: , .
Note:
The difference between the use of present and aorist imperative is one of aspect, not one of tense! (see also 14.1) ... (Demosthenes 20.87) Look into the matter, and in your own minds come to a conclusion about whether or not ...
The present imperative refers to the open, continuous process of thinking, whereas the aorist imperative refers to an event viewed in completion, as a single whole, a definitive conclusion to be reached.
7.7.5. Overview of the uses of moods in main clauses

MOOD
indicative - modal past indicative + - optative + subjunctive imperative potential in statements and questions of possibility, cautious assertions (1) hortative (first person exhortations), (2) prohibitive (second person prohibitions, aorist only), (3) deliberative (first person doubtful questions) second and third person commands and prohibitions (second person prohibitions: present only) counterfactual statements and questions cupitive in wishes
MEANINGS / USES
statements and questions about present, past and future (1) unrealisable wishes, (2) imperf. of verbs of necessity/appropriateness
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8. THE VERB: VOICE

8.1. THE GREEK VOICE SYSTEM
The Greek verbal system has three voices: Active: e.g. Middle: e.g. Passive: e.g.
There is no formal distinction between the middle and the passive other than in the aorist () and future () tenses (but see the first note below). The middle-passive forms in the other tenses cover both middle and passive meanings. How to interpret them will depend on the context; sometimes the distinction is irrelevant.
Note:
In classical Greek (especially in poetry), the future middle still has passive meaning very frequently. There may be an aspectual distinction between this use of the future middle and the future passive: the middle, built off the present stem, is used for ongoing or repeated actions, the passive, built off the aorist stem, for actions viewed as a complete whole. In later Greek this use of the future middle disappears. , | . (Sophocles, Antigone 210-1) But whoever bears this city goodwill, he shall after his death or in life be held in esteem by me.
Note:
It is important to distinguish between middle and passive forms and middle and passive meanings! Not all passive forms, for example, have passive meaning: = I wanted (see 8.4).
When talking about voice, an important distinction to keep in mind is that between transitive and intransitive verbs: Transitive verbs normally get both a subject and an object, like English open, find, hit, write, etc. Intransitive verbs only have a subject, like English wake up, depart, assemble, stand, etc.
8.2. PASSIVE
Passive meaning occurs only with transitive verbs. What would be the object of the active verb (usually an accusative, sometimes genitive or dative) becomes the subject of the passive verb:
(active) (passive) The Athenians are preparing the ships. The ships are being prepared by the Athenians = ready, prepare takes an object in the accusative. . (Plato, Republic 417b) They will pass their entire life being plotted against. = plot against someone takes an object in the dative.
Intransitive verbs (without an object), in principle, do not have middle-passive forms (e.g. with = be ill, * does not exist).
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8. The Verb: Voice
The agent (the entity controlling the action) of a passive verb does not need to be expressed ( by itself is a complete sentence); it may, however, be expressed by: (sometimes or ) + genitive A dative of agent, almost exclusively with perfect passives and adjectives in - .
Note:
Some verbs have both an object and another complement in the accusative (double accusative, see 4.4.1), e.g. = ask something of someone. If such verbs are put into the passive, only the object (something) can be used as the subject of the passive verb (the second complement stays in the accusative): you ask him his opinion he is asked his opinion
However, some verbs take an object and a predicative supplement, which are both put in the nominative: I appoint Xenophon general. Xenophon was appointed general.
8.3. MIDDLE
Note:
There is no real scholarly agreement about the origin and basic meaning (if there is one) of the Greek middle. One attempt at a definition might be that the middle expresses subject-affectedness, in other words that the subject is in some way affected by the action expressed by the verb. This basic value is present in different meanings of the middle, which largely depend on different types of verb.
With transitive verbs that denote a habitual physical treatment, like (bathe), (shave), (adorn), (anoint), etc. so-called verbs of grooming the middle expresses that the subject applies the action to himself (direct-reflexive):
. (Xenophon, Hellenica 4.5.4) They all anointed themselves. . (Aristophanes, Wealth 85) He hasnt bathed since he was born
Active forms of these verbs express that the action is performed on someone other than the subject:
, . (Aristophanes, Wealth 656-7) First we took him to the sea, then we bathed him.
Note:
Only this category of verbs has a direct-reflexive middle: for example, never means he releases himself ( is not a verb of grooming; he releases himself is )!
With other transitive verbs, the middle expresses that the subject has a special interest in (i.e. benefits from) the action expressed by the verb (indirect-reflexive). Compare the following pairs:
. (Thucydides 3.85.3) Having procured ships and allies they crossed over to the island. (Thucydides 3.16.3) They prepared a fleet to send it to Lesbos.
The middle indicates that the subject has prepared the ships and allies for their own benefit they will use them; the active does not especially benefit the subject: they are preparing the fleet for someone else.
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8. The Verb: Voice
. (Herodotus 2.36.2) They make food from a coarse grain. . (Herodotus 7.119.2) The townspeople made wheat and barley meal.
The food prepared in the first sentence is used by the subject of themselves; the food in the second sentence is made by the townspeople for the Persian king.
Finally, with transitive verbs that (in the active) denote that the subject brings about a physical or mental change in an object (so-called causative verbs), the middle acquires the (intransitive) sense that the change is brought about in the subject (either by himself pseudo-reflexive or someone else pseudo-passive):
Active gather together (tr.) remove arouse make to stand, set up cause to lean carry, convey persuade, prevail upon shatter, break (tr.) dispatch, send turn about (tr.) cause to grow, nourish frighten, terrify Middle assemble (intr.) depart wake up stand up, stand still (from movement) recline, lean journey, travel be won over, listen, obey burst, break (intr.) set out, journey turn (intr.) grow up be affrighted, be seized by fear
8.4. DEPONENT VERBS

Some verbs have only middle-passive forms. This group may be divided in media tantum (deponent middle verbs: verbs that have only a middle aorist and future), and passiva tantum (deponent passive verbs: verbs that have only a passive aorist and future). Some deponent verbs are:
Media tantum (there are many more!)
- - - - - - - - - - - - arrive accept follow pray lead, believe gaze at acquire call to witness fight blame construct fly spare
Passiva tantum (there are a few more)

- - - - - - - - - - - - be ashamed deny, refuse want beg, lack (need) converse with be able ponder take care of/that know, be able to enjoy be weaker than, lose think, believe attempt
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9. THE INFINITIVE
9.1. DYNAMIC AND DECLARATIVE INFINITIVES
The use of the infinitive can be broadly divided into two categories: In indirect discourse, with verbs of speaking/hearing/thinking. This is called the declarative infinitive. The negative is nearly always . To supplement verbs meaning want, desire; command, request, suggest, decide; must, can, dare, try, be good at, teach how to, learn how to, etc. This is called the dynamic infinitive. The negative is .
9.2. THE DECLARATIVE INFINITIVE

The declarative infinitive is one of two possible constructions (see 12.2) after verbs of speaking, hearing, or thinking/believing, for example:
say, claim announce, report make clear judge reckon hear / , etc. believe think believe, trust think understand suspect
For verbs of denying, see 9.6.
The negative with the declarative infintive is (there are two exceptions: the verbs , , take as negative (see 9.5), and verbs of denying always have , which is left untranslated (see 9.6). The declarative infinitive can be modified by (see 12.2). When the subject of the infinitive and the verb of speaking/thinking/etc. are the same (co-referential), a simple infinitive without the subject expressed is used:
. (Xenophon, Anabasis 1.3.1) For they already suspected that they were on their way to the king.
This is also the case when the verb of speaking/thinking/etc. is passive (the nominative plus infinitive construction):
... . (Xenophon, Cyropaedia 5.3.30) It is reported that the Assyrian will invade the country (lit.: The Assyrian is reported ...)
When the subject of the infinitive is different from that of the verb of speaking/thinking/etc., it must be separately expressed and stands in the accusative (the accusative plus infinitive construction).
; (Euripides, Heracles 296) Do you think your son will return from beneath the earth?
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9. The Infinitive
9.3. THE DYNAMIC INFINITIVE

A selection of verbs that get a dynamic infinitive (there are countless more): Verbs of willing and desire:
choose plan to want, be willing decide be willing, wish make haste, strive
Verbs meaning command, request advise, compel, etc.:

force, compel it is necessary ask, require it seems right, it is decided command it is necessary
Also, most verbs of speaking can take on the meaning command: = order, = convey an order, etc. For verbs of preventing and hindering, see 9.6.
Verbs of competence:
be capable be able it is possible can, be able be competent
Verbs meaning learn how to, teach how to, etc.:

teach learn
Certain adjectives and nouns:

suitable competent, adequate it is time to a desire to
The negative with the dynamic infintive is . The dynamic infinitive cannot be modified by . When the subject of the action expressed by the infinitive and the main verb are the same (co-referential), a simple infinitive without the subject expressed is used.
. (Hdt. 4.189.3) And the Greeks have the knowledge of how to yoke four horses together from the Lybians.
This is also the case when the verb governing a dynamic infinitive is passive:
... . (Thucydides 2.83.1) They were compelled to make a naval attack upon Phormio.
If the subject of the dynamic infinitive is different from the subject of the main verb (or if the main verb is impersonal), it goes in the accusative:
. (Thucydides 6.29) It was decided that Alcibiades should sail.
However, if the of subject of the dynamic infinitive is the same as a complement of the main verb, it does not need to be expressed again, regardless of the case that complement goes in:
. (Euripides, Heraclidae 265) I do not want you to be at war with the Argives. . (Lysias 13.25) They asked him to leave Athens at all costs. ( takes a genitive, see 4.2.1.) ... . (Herodotus 3.21.3) The king of the Ethiopians counsels the king of the Persians to attack the Ethiopians. ( takes a dative, see 4.3.1.)
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9. The Infinitive
Note:
In this last case, words that agree with the (unexpressed) subject of the dynamic infinitive may either go in the accusative or attract into the same case as the complement of the main verb. . (Xenophon, Anabasis 7.1.21) Now it is possible for you to become a man. . (Thucydides 4.29) It is possible for you to become friends to the Spartans. ... . (Xenophon, Anabasis 3.1.5) Socrates advised Xenophon to go to Delphi and consult the god.
In the last two examples, and , which have to agree with the subject of the infinitive, go in the accusative. In the first example, is attracted into the same case as the complement of (the dative ).
9.4. TENSE AND ASPECT OF DECLARATIVE AND DYNAMIC INFINITIVES

In indirect speech (declarative infinitive), all tenses of the infinitive are used, depending on the tense of the verb as it would be in direct speech (see 12.2). In effect this means that the various tense-stems have the following force: The present infinitive normally refers to an action going on at the same time as the verb of speaking/thinking/etc. (simultaneous):
... ... ... ' . (Megasthenes, fr. 40 Mller) ... Megasthenes, who says that the Brachmanes marry as many wives as possible in order to produce many children.
The future infinitive refers to an action that will occur after the time of the verb of speaking/thinking/etc. (posterior):
, | . (Euripides, Orestes 1654-5) And the one who thinks he will marry her, Neoptolemus, will never marry her.
The aorist infinitive refers to an action completed before the verb of speaking/thinking/etc. (anterior):
. (Hellanicus, fr. 156 Jacoby) And Hellanicus says that Telemachus married Nausica, the daughter of Alcinos.
The perfect infinitive normally refers to a state at the same time as the verb of speaking/thinking/etc., resulting from a previous completed action (simultaneous):
, , . (Xenophon, Anabasis 2.2.15) Pamphilus, you will marry the daughter of Philo the ships-captain, and it is said that you are already married to her.
The dynamic infinitive is limited almost exclusively to the present and aorist. The difference between these tenses is purely aspectual: usually, the present infinitive refers to an ongoing/repeated process, the aorist to an action viewed as a single whole.
... ... . (Herodotus, 3.74.3) They ordered him to go up on a tower and declare that ... (Herodotus, 3.75.1) They brought him up on a tower and ordered him to (start) speak(ing).
Herodotus narrates twice how the same person (Prexaspes) is ordered to speak. The aorist infinitive looks at the speech that Prexaspes has to make as a whole (note that the content of that speech is given by the -clause that will follow). The present infinitive is used to refer to the process of speaking. Note that both infinitives have future reference, i.e. the speaking is meant to happen after the moment of ordering.
52
9. The Infinitive
Note:
The future infinitive does not normally occur as a dynamic infinitive, but note its use with forms of to express the future realization of a present or past (with ) intention or arrangement: , . (Plato, Apology 21b) I am going to tell you what the source of the prejudice against me is. ... . (Thucydides 3.115.5) As for Sophocles, him they were going to send out with the main body of the fleet. can also take the aorist or present infinitive (with aspectual distinction).
9.5. VERBS TAKING BOTH CONSTRUCTIONS

Some verbs can be followed either by a dynamic or by a declarative infinitive (as can be seen from the use of tenses and the negative): The verbs (hope, expect), (promise) and (swear, state under oath) are usually followed by a declarative infinitive (normally a future infinitive, because the expectation / promise / oath refers to the future; the subject of the infinitive and the main verb is always the same). However, these verbs sometimes take a dynamic infinitive. Either way, these verbs have negative :
. (Xenophon, Hellenica 4.4.5) They promised that they would suffer no harm. (Aristophanes, Wasps 1046-7) He swears by Dionysus that no one has ever heard any comic poetry better than that. ... ... (Xenophon, Hellenica 7.4.11) But the Greeks, who had pledged by oath to make peace took over the place and guarded it.
The first example has a declarative future infinitive (negative ): this is the most common construction. The second example has a declarative aorist infinitive (again, with ), the third example a dynamic aorist infinitive (referring to future peace-making, the aorist has aspectual significance only).
+ declarative infinitive = convince someone that something is the case; + dynamic infinitive = persuade someone to do something
... . (Herodotus 4.154.2) Finally, she convinced her husband that this was true. ... . (Herodotus 7.139.6) Nor did the frightful oracles move them to abandon Greece.
In the first example, the present declarative infinitive represents from direct speech; note the accusative plus infinitive construction ( is accusative merely because it is object with ). In the second example, the dynamic infinitive is aorist for reasons of aspect.
Most verbs of saying (+ declarative inf.) can be used as verbs of commanding (+ dynamic inf.):
(Xenophon, Cyropaedia 2.2.8) I gave instructions that no one of those behind should make a move.
+ declarative infinitive = judge; + dynamic infinitive = resolve, decide; + participle = know (see 10.2):
... ... (Herodotus 1.157.3) The Spartans that were there judged that Aristodemus had achieved great feats. (Herodotus 1.157.3) The Cymaeans resolved to make the god at Branchidae their judge as to what counsel they should take.
In the first example, the (declarative) aorist infinitive represents the aorist as it would be in direct speech. In the second example, the (dynamic) aorist infinitive refers to an action (viewed as a single whole aorist aspect) that is resolved upon.
53
9. The Infinitive
has various different constructions. As a verb with personal forms (e.g. ), it takes a declarative infinitive, meaning either think or (with the dative) seem. As an impersonal verb , and take a dative and a dynamic infinitive: the verb in this case means it seems good, it is resolved/decided:
(Euripides, Hecuba 778) If you think that I (lit.: if I seem to you to) have experienced things that are sanctioned by the gods | | (Sophocles, Oedipus Coloneus 747-9) Woe, I had not thought that she could fall to such a depth of misery. (Euripides, Hecuba 220-1) The Greeks have decided to kill your daughter Polyxena.
In the first two examples, the infinitives are declarative (, however, means seem in one and think in the other). The aorist infinitives represents and from direct speech. In the third example the (dynamic) aorist infinitive refers to an action (viewed as a single whole aorist aspect) that will be performed according to the Greeks decision.
9.6. THE INFINITIVE WITH VERBS OF PREVENTING AND DENYING

Some common verbs of preventing and hindering and verbs of denying are:
Preventing and Hindering (no present) (adv.) delay forbid forbid refrain from prevent prevent, cut off from prevent (lit.: be in the way) forbid beware of Denying (-/-) contradict, dispute deny deny
The normal construction with each of these verbs is + infinitive (verbs of preventing and hindering get a dynamic infinitive, verbs of denying get a declarative infintive). is not translated:
| . (Aristophanes, Acharnians 169-70) But I forbid having a meeting about paying wage to the Thracians. . (Euripides, fr. 67 Nauck) He prevents his mind from speaking what it wants.
When a verb of preventing/hindering/denying is itself negated, it is followed by (not translated):

. (Euripides, Hippolytus 658) I would not have refrained from divulging this to my father. ( ...) ... (Aeschines 1.136) ... nor do I deny that I myself have been a lover ... (declarative infinitive)
Some other infinitive-constructions with verbs of preventing/hindering/denying: With or + infinitive:

, | | ... . (Euripides, Phoenissae 1175-6) He boasted that not even the holy flame of Zeus could prevent him from taking the city.
54
9. The Infinitive
The same, but in the genitive ( or + infinitive):

. (Xenophon, Anabasis 3.5.11) For each wineskin will prevent two men from going under.
Sometimes, with a bare infinitive (without ):

, . (Thucydides 1.62.4) They sent a few men to Olynthus, to prevent the people there to come to aid.
Note:
The verb (prevent, hinder) is always construed with a simple infinitive, without : ; (Euripides, Iphigenia in Tauris 507) What hinders you from giving me this favour. , | ; (Aristophanes, Birds 462-3) Theres a special (lit.: one) speech whipped up for me, and nothing prevents me from kneading it into a cake.
9.7. THE ARTICULAR INFINITIVE

A neuter article can be added to an infinitive to make it into a noun, best translated by the gerund (-ing) in English. The negative is :
... . (Plato, Gorgias, 522e) So enjoying oneself is not to fare well. ... . (Thucydides 1.45.3) ... for the sake of not breaking the treaty.
The articular infinitive can appear in any case, but never changes form (the case can be seen only from the form of the article).
Note:
Articular infintives retain all their verbal characteristics: they have tense and voice, they take an object in the normal case (compare (acc.) in the example above with (objective genitive)), they can be modified by adverbs, etc.
9.8. OTHER USES OF THE INFINITIVE

With verbs meaning give, entrust, etc., the dynamic infinitive can be used with the force of a purpose clause:
. (Xenophon, Anabasis 1.2.19) That country he left to the Greeks to plunder.
The infinitive is occasionally used by itself in commands (infinitivus pro imperativo):

. (Herodotus, 3.134.5) You must undertake an expedition against Greece.
It is (infrequently) used in exclamations:

| . (Aristophanes, Clouds 818-9) What madness! To believe in Zeus, at your age!
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10. THE PARTICIPLE

10.1. TENSE AND ASPECT OF PARTICIPLES
The present participle describes an action going on at the same time as the main verb (simultaneous):
. (Demosthenes 7.25) In writing those things, I wrote things that were lawful.
The aorist participle describes an action which has occurred before the action of the main verb (anterior):
. (Euripides, Iphigenia in Aulis 98-9) After writing (a message) on tablets, I sent it to my wife.
The future participle describes an action that will occur after the action of the main verb (posterior):
. (Demosthenes 19.25) It was not yet clear that Philocrates was going to draft such proposals.
The perfect participle describes a state resulting from a previous completed action, occurring at the same time as the main verb (simultaneous):
. (Aeschines 2.109) Demosthenes read aloud a motion of which he himself was the author.
Being the author of a something is the state that results from having written it (compare = the dead).
Note:
The future participle often expresses the purpose of an action, usually in conjunction with : . Im buying tablets to write a letter. But after verbs of sending and going is frequently omitted: . Im going into the bedroom to write a letter.
Note:
The aorist participle is sometimes used when the action expressed by the participle does not seem to precede the action of the main verb, but to begin and end exactly when the main verb does. This is called the coincident use of the aorist participle, and it is especially frequent when the main verb is a verb of speaking (the participle is normally circumstantial and to be interpreted as a modifier of manner, see 10.4): , , ... (Herodotus 1.30.3) But Solon, not flattering him in any way, but relying on the truth, said: ...
The flattering and truth-using are not over before Solons utterance, but coincide with it. Because the begin- and end-point of the actions are well-defined, the aorist participle (aspect: complete) may be used.
10.2. THE SUPPLEMENTARY PARTICIPLE

Some verbs normally take a construction with a participle (as a required supplement) to complete their sense: With verbs of emotion:
be ashamed be displeased / annoyed / enjoy / be pleased regret
56
10. The Participle
With verbs meaning begin, continue, end, etc. (always with the present participle):
/ begin continue / go on stop/cease
With verbs meaning endure, persist, allow, give up etc.:

endure, bear give up (no present) get tired of allow
With some verbs expressing a way of being:

be hidden/unnoticed happen to be anticipate / be first
With verbs of perceiving and knowing:

perceive hear know learn / remember know see learn
With verbs meaning it is clear that I..., I am obviously:

be obviously, it is clear that be obviously, it is clear that be obviously, it is clear that
With these verbs, if the subject of the main verb and the participle-phrase are the same (co-referential), the participle is in the nominative. If the subject of the participle-phrase different from that of the main verb, the participle usually stands in the accusative (the accusative and participle construction):
. I know that I am winning. . I know that he is winning. . We see that we are without strength . We see that you are without strength.
Note:
is also construed with a genitive and a participle, signifying direct hearing (the hearer is actually present): . I hear that she is coming. . I hear her coming.
Note:
If a supplementary participle agrees with a noun, it stands in predicative position (see 2.2).
57
10. The Participle
10.2.1. Verbs taking either participle or infinitive

Several verbs can be construed either with a participle or with the infinitive (or with /-clauses, see 12.3). The participle is used with such verbs to express something factual, the declarative infinitive is used in indirect speech, the dynamic infinitive expresses something that is possible, desired, etc.: + PARTICIPLE
report (independent fact) be ashamed that hear (fact (acc.) or direct (gen.)) endure, bear begin -ing realize that know that (knowledge) learn that remember that know that (knowledge) be clearly, it is clear that seem judge that hear (as rumour) dare to begin to decide to know how to (skill) learn to be mindful to know how to (skill)
+ DECLARATIVE INFINITIVE
report (rumour)
+ DYNAMIC INFINITIVE
shrink from
Some examples:
. He is clearly speaking the truth. . He seems to be speaking the truth. . I am ashamed to be hurting him. . I do not dare hurt him.
10.3. THE ATTRIBUTIVE PARTICIPLE

The participle can be used as an adjective (the rules for the position of adjectives and the article apply as normal):
. I see the man who is sick.
would mean I see that the man is sick (see 2.2, 9.2)
. (Xenophon, Anabasis 2.2.15) While they were arming, the scouts who had been sent ahead returned.
A participle that technically is used as an adjective may function as the most important element in the participle-noun phrase, which is indispensible for the meaning of the sentence (the participle is then called dominant). This use is especially frequent after prepositions (compare Latin ab urbe condita):
. (Xenophon, Anabasis 7.7.12) The fact that the country was being ravaged grieved him. (Lycurgus 84) in the reign of Codrus
58
10. The Participle
With a definite article, it can also be used as a noun:

... ... . (Xenophon, Anabasis 1.10.6) ... having picked up those who had defected to the Greeks during the battle.
Often, the generic article (see 2.1) is used with participles, giving the sense whoever.... The negative in this case is :
; (Demosthenes 35.42) How could there be men more wicked than whoever teaches such things? . (Menander, Sententiae 437) An unmarried man has no troubles.
10.4. THE CIRCUMSTANTIAL PARTICIPLE

Participles can be added to sentences freely to express temporal relations, causal relations, manner, etc. (depending on the context). There are two possibilities: The subject of the participle is identical to a constituent (subject, object, indirect object, etc.) in the main clause in this case the participle is connected to (and agrees with) that consituent (connected participle):
. The boy left laughing. . No one is more unhappy than that boy, even though he is laughing. . You are jealous of the boys laughter. (lit.: you are jealous of the boy as he is laughing) . Because the boy has laughed, his mother is punishing him.
In each of these sentences, the participle agrees with a form of which is already present in the clause (as subject, genitive of comparison, dative-complement with , or object).
The subject of the participle is not present in the main clause in this case the participle and its subject are introduced independently from the structure of the clause in which they occur, and are both put in the genitive (genitive absolute):
. While the boy was laughing we left.
In this sentence the subject of the participle is not present in the main clause () as subject, object, etc., and the participle has nothing to agree with. Participle and subject need to be introduced separately by means of the genitive absolute.
Note:
It is easy to confuse the genitive absolute with participles that are in the genitive for other reasons, and sometimes you can interpret a phrase both ways. Mind the position of the participle and the article: . When his hand had been hurt, he dropped his sword. (genitive absolute) . He dropped his sword from the hand that been hurt. (genitive of separation)
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10. The Participle
For impersonal verbs (without a subject) the accusative neuter is used instead of the genitive (accusative absolute, see also 11.3):
; (Xenophon, Anabasis 2.5.22) Why then, when it was possible to kill you, did we not proceed to do so? , . (Antiphon 5.12) The witnesses are giving damning testimony, it being necessary that they have sworn the same oath as you.
How a circumstantial participle should be interpreted (and what type of subordinate clause to choose for a translation into English) depends on the context, and possibly on particles or adverbs that appear with the participle: Time (sometimes with a temporal adverb like ; usually an appropriate interpretation when the participle precedes the main verb):
... ... . (Thucydides 2.91.2) They were singing a paean while rowing. . (Xenophon, Cyropaedia) Now, stay with us for dinner; after dinner (lit.: having dined), go wherever your inclination to go is.
Manner/means, note that the coincident aorist participle is sometimes used in this case (see 10.1):
. (Xenophon, Cyropaedia 3.2.25) They lived by pillaging. . (Euripides, Hippolytus 596) She has destroyed me by revealing my misfortunes.
Purpose (future participle, usually with , see 10.1):

... ... . (Thucydides 1.29.3) They sent ahead a messenger to forbid them to sail.
Cause or motivation, often with , , to give an objective reason, for which the speaker takes responsibility, or with to give a subjective reason, for which responsibility lies with the subject of the main verb):
. (Plato, Symposium 223c) He used to slumber for a long time, because the nights were long. . . (Xenophon, Anabasis 4.2.5) There they remained thinking they held the summit. But they did not hold it.
In the first example, the speaker gives the reason for the subjects long sleep (this does not mean that the subject decided to sleep in because of the long nights, but that the darkness affected his sleeping patterns). In the second example, the makes very clear that the reason provided is subjective: after all, the narrator immediately makes clear that the subjects reasoning was false.
Comparison, with :
; (Euripides, Electra 558-9) Why is he staring intently at me, as if he is looking at a shining mark on a silver coin?
Concession (although, even though), with or preceding the participle:

, ... . (Herodotus 1.45.8) He took pity on Adrastus, though he found himself in so much agony.
Conditional (the negative is ; + participle is nearly always conditional):

. (Aristophanes, Birds 1390) If you listen, you will soon find out. () . (Thucydides 1.40.2) That which might well happen to you now if you do not listen to us.
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10. The Participle
A few participles are good equivalents of with (, (+dat.), , , ):

. (Xenophon, Cyropaedia 1.3.1) She comes with her son. . (Thucydides 1.111.1) With Boeotians as their allies the Athenians marched against Pharsalus.
10.5. PERIPHRASTIC USES OF THE PARTICIPLE

The verbs and are sometimes used as auxiliary verbs with participles, the combined pair forming a complex verb phrase with the following meanings: In + participle (usually present or perfect, rarely aorist), the combined phrase has roughly the same value that a finite form of the verb of the participle would have:
. (Sophocles, Oedipus Tyrannus 747) I have dread misgivings that the seer can see. ( ) . (Thucydides 3.97.3) But the Aetolian (since by this time they had come to the rescue of Aigition), attacked the Athenians.
The in the first example corresponds roughly to , and the of the second example equals . There is debate about the difference between these forms and their finite counterparts, but the periphrastic construction may emphasise that something is a permanent characteristic of the subject.
+ participle (nearly always aorist), known as the , can be translated quite literally into an English perfect:
... (Plato, Phaedrus 257c) Since long, I have wondered about your speech ...
This type of periphrastic construction occurs primarily in Sophocles, Euripides, and Herodotus. The difference between finite forms and a form of + aor. part. is unclear.
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11. IMPERSONAL CONSTRUCTIONS

11.1. INTRODUCTION, WEATHER TERMS
Impersonal verbs have no real subject (or: a null subject). In English, the so-called dummy pronoun it is used as the subject of such verbs. In Greek, the subject is not expressed the verb appears in the third person singular. Almost the only genuinely impersonal verbs in English (where the word it seems to refer to nothing at all) are weather terms:
It is raining. It is nice out.
Greek has impersonal expressions to describe the weather as well:

it is raining it is snowing it is thundering theres lightning it is stormy there was an earthquake
Note:
These verbs also appear with a god as subject: , .
11.3. OTHER IMPERSONAL VERBS AND THEIR CONSTRUCTIONS

Of the other impersonal verbs in Greek, the following take an accusative and infinitive construction:
(impf. ) + inf. (impf. ()) + inf. it is necessary that I, I must/ought it is necessary that I, I must/ought
The following take a dative and infinitive:

+ inf. / + inf. + inf. + inf. + inf. + inf. it seems a good idea to me, I have decided to it is possible/permitted for me, I can it is fitting for me it is fitting for me it is of use to me, it is advantageous for me it is profitable for me
The following take the dative and genitive:

I have a share in something I care for something, I make sure of something I am sorry about something, I regret
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11. Impersonal Constructions
11.4. ACCUSATIVE ABSOLUTE

Impersonal verbs use the accusative absolute rather than the genitive absolute (see 10.4):
, , . (Herodotus 3.65.4) And I am responsible for the murder of my brother, though there was no need for me to kill him. ... . (Xenophon Anabasis 2.5.22) Since it was impossible to go ashore, it was necessary to ride at anchor.
Note, however, that weather terms (see 11.1 above) have a genitive absolute:
. (Xenophon Anabasis 1.1.16) He set sail for Cyzicus when it was raining heavily.
11.5. VERBAL ADJECTIVES

Greek has a gerundive in -, -, -, expressing necessity. There are two different constructions: Passive (only with transitive verbs) in this case the gerundive is an adjective, passive in meaning, that agrees in case, number and gender with a noun. The agent is expressed in the dative:
a war that is to be ended / must be ended things that must be done by me
Active in this case the accusative neuter of the gerundive is used in an impersonal construction (often with a form of ) which is active in meaning. The gerundive can take an object in the accusative, genitive or dative as required by the verb (see 4.2.1, 3.3.1, 3.4.1). The agent is expressed in the dative:
one must obey his fathers commands ( is dative with ) these things must be endured by me ( is dative of agent)
Verbal adjectives in , , either have the meaning of a perfect passive participle, or express possibility:
hidden / possible to hide educated / possible to educate thought / thinkable seen / visible
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12. INDIRECT DISCOURSE

12.1. INDIRECT SPEECH AND THOUGHT
The representation of speech (and hearing) or thought in written texts takes one of two forms: Direct: John said to me: You are my best friend here; Indirect: John said to me that I was his best friend there.
Persons and temporal/spatial reference points often change in indirect speech, compare you are... with that I was... above, and here as opposed to there. Indirect discourse in Greek follows verbs of speaking, hearing, or thinking/believing: , , , , , , , , , , /, , , etc. There are two different constructions for indirect discourse in Greek: With a declarative infinitive (or accusative and infinitive construction). The following verbs normally have the infinitive (not a /-clause) in indirect discourse:
say, claim, hold say, claim agree consider, believe, think / think think hear, learn
With a subordinate clause, introduced by or (that). The following verbs normally have a /-clause (not the infinitive) in indirect discourse:
say, speak hear reply
Note:
The declarative infinitive does occur with forms of and , but nearly exclusively with expressions like , it is said that, or , the Athenians say, referring to rumours, traditions, etc.
Note:
Remember that verbs of knowing, perception and emotion, like , , , , , , (), , , , , etc., normally take a construction with a participle (see 10.2). Verbs that take the participle can take -clauses ( ... = I know that ...).
Note:
The Greek for I say that ... not ... is . ( ...) [ ]. (Aristophanes, Clouds 1059) He says that our youths should not exercise that type of talk.
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12. Indirect Discourse
12.2. WITH A DECLARATIVE INFINITIVE

When the subject of the infinitive and the verb of speaking/thinking/etc. are the same (co-referential), a simple infinitive is used. When the subject of the infinitive is different than that of the verb of speaking/thinking/etc., it must be separately expressed and stands in the accusative (accusative and infinitive construction). See 9.2. The passive of verbs of speaking/etc. means that something is said about someone. The subject will be the same as the subject of the verb, so a simple infinitive is used:
. (Xenophon, Anabasis 1.8.9) These men are said to be Egyptians.
The tense-stem of the infinitive is the same as the one that the verb in direct speech would have, with the present replacing the imperfect and the perfect replacing the pluperfect:
DIRECT
(pres. ind.) (impf.) (fut. ind.) (aor. ind.) (perf. ind.) (plupf.)
INDIRECT
(pres. inf.) (pres. inf.) (fut. inf.) (aor. inf.) (perf. inf.) (perf. inf.)
If the verb would have had in direct speech, the infinitive also has (for these uses of , see 7.7.1-2):
DIRECT
(impf. + ) (aor. ind. + ) (pres. opt. + ) (aor. opt. + )
INDIRECT
(pres. inf. + ) (aor. inf. + ) (pres. inf. + ) (aor. inf. + )
12.3. WITH A /-CLAUSE

Unlike English, Greek does not have a sequence of tenses (I say that I am rich / I said that I was rich). The finite verb in a Greek - or -clause always has the tense that the verb in direct speech would have.
. (Xenophon, Anabasis 1.4.7) A report spread that Cyrus was in pursuit of them. ... . (Xenophon, Anabasis 7.1.34) He replied that they would not regret obeying.
The present represents a present from direct speech: he is in pursuit. The future would look exactly like that in direct speech: , you will not regret.
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Greek does, however, have a sequence of moods: After primary tenses (present, future, perfect) mood and tense stay the same: this is called primary sequence: DIRECT
(pres. ind.) (impf.) (fut. ind.) (fut. ind.) (perf. ind.) (plupf.)
INDIRECT
(pres. ind.) (impf.) (fut. ind.) (aor. ind.) (perf. ind.) (plupf.)
After a verb in a secondary tense (imperfect, aorist, pluperfect), the optative may but does not have to be used instead of the mood of the verb in direct speech (the tense stays the same!): this is called historic or secondary sequence; the optative is called oblique optative (or simply the optative in historic sequence): DIRECT
(pres. ind.) (impf.) (fut. ind.) (fut. ind.) (perf. ind.) (plupf.)
INDIRECT
or (pres. opt./ind.) () or (impf.) or (fut. opt./ind.) or (pres. opt./ind.) or (perf. opt. /ind.) () or (plupf.)
Some examples:
. (Herodotus 6.41.3) And after the learned that he was a son Miltiades, they brought him to the king. ... . (Xenophon, Anabasis 6.3.1) The generals replied that they would take council with the army.
The present optative represents a present indicative from direct speech: he is a son of. The future optative represents a future indicative : we will take council.
! !
Note:
The future optative occurs exclusively as oblique optative; the perfect optative is extremely rare.
Note:
There is a nuanced difference between retaining the mood of direct speech in historic sequence and using the oblique optative. The use of the original mood probably presents the content of the speech as seen through the eyes of the original speaker, whereas the oblique optative (altogether more frequent) presents everything as moderated by the speaker/narrator. Note that, to prevent confusion, imperfects and pluperfects are nearly always retained as indicatives in indirect speech.
Potential optatives and counterfactual indicatives (both with , see 7.7.1-2) are always retained in /-clauses:
, ... (Xenophon, Hellenica 5.4.22) They pleaded that they would never have been so foolish, if ...
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12.4. SUBORDINATE CLAUSES IN INDIRECT DISCOURSE

When a construction of indirect discourse has a subordinate clause (either a subordinate clause within a construction with the declarative infinitive, or a subordinate clause within a /-clause), the exact same rules apply as outlined above (12.3): In primary sequence, the subordinate clause stays exactly the same. In historic sequence, the oblique optative may but does not have to be used.
... , . (Xenophon, Anabasis 3.1.9) He said that he would send him off immediately as soon as the expedition ended. ... (Xenophon, Hellenica 5.3.14) He replied that he was not setting out on an expedition in order to do wrong.
In the first example, the the aorist subjunctive and (in a subordinate clause introduced by ) are retained in historic sequence. In the second example, the oblique optative represents the present subjunctive that would have been used in the purpose clause (introduced by ) in direct speech.
When a subordinate clause with subjunctive + (indefinite or prospective, see 15.3) is put into the oblique optative, is ommited:
, , . (Plato, Euthydemus 275e) I say in advance that, whichever answer he makes, he will be refuted. , , . I said in advance that, whichever answer he would make, he would be refuted.
The subjunctive and may also be retained, as in the example with above.
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13. QUESTIONS
13.1. INTRODUCTION
There are two different types of questions: 1a. Questions that are answered by yes or no (yes/no-questions): Are roses red?. 1b. A subset of this type consists of questions that give two (or more) alternatives to choose from (alternative questions or double questions). In English, these have the word or between the alternatives: Are roses red or (are roses) green?. 2. Questions that are answered by specifying one or more persons, things, times, places, etc. (or no one, nothing, etc.) In English, these questions are usually introduced by a wh-word (who?, when?, etc.), so they are commonly known as wh-questions (also: specifying questions or X-questions): What colour are roses?
Questions can be either direct (in independent interrogative sentences, with a question mark) or indirect/dependent (in indirect discourse): Direct: John asked me: Where do you live? Indirect: John keeps asking me where I live.
13.2. DIRECT YES/NO-QUESTIONS AND ALTERNATIVE QUESTIONS

Questions introduced by or (which can be left untranslated) are neutral: they do not explicitly expect or desire a particular answer:
; (Sophocles, Oedipus Coloneus 1486) Is the man near? ; (Sophocles, Oedipus Tyrannus 757) Does he happen to be in the house now?
Frequently, no particle at all is used to introduce a neutral yes/no-question:

; (Sophocles, Oedipus Tyrannus 757) Are you married to my sister? (For , see 10.5.)
By using a question introduced by , , or , a speaker signals that he expects or desires the answer to be yes. (In English, the negative is similarly used, or surely, or a negative tag question):
. (Sophocles, Oedipus Tyrannus 360) Did you not understand me before? / Surely you understood ... ? / You understood ... , didnt you? ; (Sophocles, Oedipus Coloneus 1229) Do I not understand the things in Thebes better than you?
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13. Questions
By starting a question with , or , a speaker signals that he desires (or expects) the answer to be no. (In English, really, surely not or a positive tag question can be used):
| ; (Sophocles, Electra 446-7) Do you really imagine that your bringing these things will absolve her of the murder? / Surely you do not imagine ... / You dont imagine ... , do you? ; (Sophocles, Philoctetes 1229) You are not planning something new, are you?
Alternative questions in Greek have (or) between the parts that make up the question. They can be (but do not have to be) introduced by / (which should be left untranslated):
, , | ; (Sophocles, Oedipus Tyrannus 112) Did Laius fall to this murder in the house, in the fields, or in another country? , ; (Sophocles, Philoctetes 80) From above, or from below?
13.3. DIRECT SPECIFYING QUESTIONS

Specifying questions in Greek are introduced by a question word which begins with - or -. Some interrogative pronouns and interrogative adverbs are:
who?/which?/what? why? which of the two? how large? (sg.) how many? (pl.) what sort of? where? to where? from where? when? how? (in) what way? how?
Note:
Be mindful of the accentuation of these question words: as opposed to , as opposed to , etc.
Interrogative pronouns can be used as a pure pronoun or adjectivally (modifying a noun).

; (Sophocles, Oedipus Tyrannus 1500) And then who will marry you? ; (Sophocles, Antigone 1296) What fate still awaits me?
13.4. THE USE OF MOODS IN DIRECT QUESTIONS

Normally, direct questions will have the indicative. However, other moods may appear in questions as required:
| ; (Sophocles, Antigone 502-3) From where could I have gained more honourable glory? (counterfactual indicative) ; (Sophocles, Electra 1450) Where then might the strangers be? (potential optative)
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13. Questions
Note especially the use of the first person subjunctive in deliberative questions:
, ; (Sophocles, Oedipus Coloneus 310) Zeus, what am I to say?
Deliberative questions can be introduced by / (and / in poetry):

; (Sophocles, Electra 80-1) Do you want us to stay here?
13.5. INDIRECT QUESTIONS

Some verbs that can get dependent (indirect) questions (there are many more):
ask wonder know come to know / teach learn announce, report see
Indirect yes/no-questions are introduced by (whether, if).

; (Sophocles, Antigone 521) Who knows if these things are free from blame below?
Indirect alternative questions are introduced by / ... , ... , ... or ... (whether/if ... or)
...| | ; (Sophocles, Antigone 1216) Observe whether it is Haemons voice that I recognise, or if I am being deceived by the gods. | ... . (Sophocles, Antigone 37-8) And you will soon show whether you are noble by nature or if you are cowardly.
Indirect specifying questions can be introduced either by the regular question words, or by the corresponding indefinite relative pronouns/adverbs (beginning with -).
(Sophocles, Philoctetes 56) He asks you who and from where you are. . (Sophocles, Antigone 239) I did not do it, nor did I see who was the doer.
It may well be argued that this last example is not really an indirect question, but rather an autonomous relative clause (see 22.2) functioning as object with . This is often the case with such sentences.
Note:
After verbs of knowing, saying and perceiving (but not ask and not after negatives), the definite relative article may also be used: | ; (Sophocles, Trachiniae 162-3) He told me what share of his ancestral land he was allotting to his children.
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13. Questions
13.6. THE USE OF MOODS IN INDIRECT QUESTIONS

In indirect questions, the same sequence of moods is used as in -/-clauses of indirect statement: tense and mood stay the same after present, perfect and future (primary); the optative may be used (the tense stays the same) after imperfect, aorist indicative, pluperfect (historic/secondary):
| (Sophocles, Trachiniae 40-1) No one knows where that man is. | (Sophocles, Trachiniae 161-2) He told me what I was to take as my dowry.
Note that the rules are no different for deliberative subjunctives: in primary sequence, the subjunctive is retained, in secondary sequence the optative may be used:
. (Sophocles, Oedipus Tyrannus 486) I am at a loss about what to say. . (Thucydides 1.25.1) They asked the god whether they should give up the city to Corinthians. (Direct: .)
13.7. IS THAT A QUESTION?

Not all direct questions function as real questions. The interrogative form may be used in commands, requests, assertions (rhetorical questions), etc. Some common idiomatic expressions in Greek are: () ; = of course. Questions with + second person future indicative are used as commands or requests. With , these function as prohibitions:
; (Sophocles, Trachiniae 1183) Will you not give me your hand at once and not disobey me? (i.e. give me your hand! / dont disobey me!)
In Homer, questions introduced by + second person optative are used as requests or commands:
; (Homer, Iliad 24.263) Will you not very quickly make me ready a wagon? (i.e. ready me a wagon!)
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14 . C OMMANDS & EXHORTATIONS, WISHES

14.1. DIRECTIVES (COMMANDS AND EXHORTATIONS)
Commands in the second or third person are normally expressed by the imperative:
. (Xenophon, Memorabilia 2.7.14) You must tell those women, then, that you are their guardian in place of a dog. . (Thucydides 2.48.3) Let everyone say, then, about this matter, what they know.
Imperatives are often preceded by a word like (), (), (often with ), come on, go ahead:
, , ... . (Xenophon, Anabasis 2.2.10) Come now, Ariaius, say what your opinion is.
Negative commands (prohibitions) in the second person are formed with and either the present imperative or the aorist subjunctive (* and * are not Greek!)
. (Xenophon, Cyropaedia 8.7.13) Dont think that men are born trustworthy by nature. . (Thucydides 1.28.4) Dont consider their land to be anything other than a hostage.
In the third person, the aorist imperative may be used with :

. (Xenophon, Cynegeticus 2.2.4) And let no one think that these things are meaningless.
The difference between aorist and present imperatives is one of aspect, not of tense; present imperatives (aspect: not-complete) look at an action as an ongoing process, aorist imperatives (aspect: complete) are used to refer to an action as a discrete, complete whole.
... . (Xenophon, Symposium 3.1.9) Im summoning you to a preliminary hearing in the suit: be so kind as to answer my questions. , , ... (Xenophon, Oeconomicus 19.4.1) Come now, he said, answer me this question also: ...
In the first example, Socrates uses the present imperative to press Critobulus to answer a series of questions. The second imperative (aorist) is a request to answer a single question (note the singular ).
The present imperative, because it refers to the process of doing something rather than the action as a whole, may also function as an urgent request to get an action underway (this is sometimes called the immediative use of the present imperative):
, , , . . (Demosthenes 24.32) Take up and read aloud for me this law, which plainly does not allow introducing any opposite law, and if someone does so, commands that a charge be brought against him. Go on, read it out. The aorist imperative is used to refer to the reading out in its entirety (a command to do something), whereas the immediative present imperative refers to the process of reading out (a command to be doing something).
The present imperative is also used to command someone to continue or (with ) cease doing something:
(relative pronoun) . (Herodotus 9.111.2) Stop living with this woman with whom you are living now.
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14. Commands & Exhortations, Wishes
For commands in the first person (singular or plural), known as exhortations, the hortative subjunctive (present or aorist, with aspectual difference) is used. The negative is :
. (Xenophon, Cyropaedia 1.5.11) Let us move against our enemies. , . (Herodotus 6.12.19) Come, let us not obey him in the future. ( is here exceptionally construed with the genitive.)
There are several other ways to express commands in Greek: The words and + second/third person future indicative (the construction gets when it is a conjunction following verbs of effort, see 16.3) can stand by themselves to express an emphatic exhortation/warning. is not a conjunction in these cases:
. (Xenophon, Anabasis 1.7.3) Ensure then that you are worthy of the freedom which you possess. , . (Xenophon, Symposium 4.8.8) And if we eat this after our dinner as well, take care that someone does not say of us that we were indulging our appetites.
Questions with + second-person future indicative function as commands or requests, or (with ) as prohibitions (see 13.7):
; (Xenophon, Cyropaedia 5.5.13) Will you not for your part also agree that you have not been wronged by me? (=agree that ... !)
The second-person potential optative (with ) may sometimes have the force of a (cautious) command (see 7.7.2):
. (Thucydides 1.36.3) You should learn from this not to betray us (= learn not to ... !).
14.2. WISHES
In wishes, the cupitive optative without is used, sometimes introduced by , or (poetic): would that, if only, or simply may.... The negative is :
, . (Herodotus 7.104.5) May it go according to plan for you, king. , , . (Xenophon, Hellenica 4.1.38) May you, my dear man, being such as you are, become our friend.
The difference between aorist and present optatives in wishes is one of aspect, not of tense: present optatives (aspect: not-complete) look at an action as an ongoing/habitual process, aorist optatives (aspect: complete) are used to refer to an action in completion, as a single whole.
. (Aristophanes, Peace 449) May he be captured by bandits and eat only barley. . (Aristophanes, Peace 3) And may it never eat a tastier cake than that one.
In the first example, the chorus uses a present optative to emphasise the habitual/ongoing duress that they wish him to suffer from. In the second example, the speaker is talking about the eating of a single cake, and thus uses the aorist optative.
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14. Commands & Exhortations, Wishes
In wishes that cannot come true (unrealisable wishes), the imperfect or aorist (modal) indicative is used, always introduced by or (see 7.7.1). The negative is . Unrealisable wishes about the present always use the imperfect, the aorist indicative is usually used for wishes referring to the past:
. (Euripides, Alcestis 1072) Would that I had such power. , , . (Xenophon, Memorabilia 1.2.45) If only, Pericles, I had met you then.
Unrealisable wishes may also be expressed by a form of the imperfect + infinitive (lit: I ought to have, I owed...). The present infinitive is always used for wishes pertaining to the present, the aorist infinitive usually for wishes about the past:
. (Xenophon, Anabasis 2.1.4) If only Cyrus were alive. . (Sophocles, Oedipus Tyrannus 1157) Would that I had perished that day.
Note:
can stand on its own, meaning: If only!.
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15. INTRODUCTION TO SUBORDINATE CLAUSES

15.1. PREDICATES, SUBORDINATION AND CLAUSES
A sentence is built up from one or more predicates (simply put: what is said about a subject). In the following sentences, the predicates are underlined.
John slept. John read the book. John gave the book to Mary.
When a sentence consists of more than one predicate, they can be connected either by parataxis (lit: placement next to) or hypotaxis (lit: placement under, i.e. subordination). In hypotaxis, one predicate is superior to the other predicate(s) in the structure of the sentence (in the examples below, the predicate that has double underlining is superior to the one with single underlining):
Parataxis: Hypotaxis: Hypotaxis: John sat down and read the book. After Jill sat down, John read the book. Sitting down, John read the book.
Greek has many ways of making one predicate subordinate to another: connected participles, the genitive absolute, the accusative and infinitive/participle constructions, substantival participles and infinitives, and subordinate clauses. A clause consists of at least a subject and a finite verb (with person, number, voice, aspect/tense and mood). Subordinate clauses thus differ from every other method of subordination in that they have their own finite verb (the genitive absolute, for example, is not a subordinate clause, though it must often be translated as one into English)! Subordinate clauses are always introduced by one of the following types of subordinator: A relative pronoun (, , , etc.), adjective (, , etc.) or adverb (, , etc.). A conjunction (, , , , , etc.). In indirect questions, an interrogative pronoun (; etc.) or indefinite relative pronoun.
Subordinate clauses can take on various syntactic functions: subject, object, predicate noun phrase, adjectival phrase, adverbial phrase, etc. (it is useful to replace the clause with , etc. when thinking about this):
. (Herodotus 1.4.2) It is clear that the women would not have been taken unless they wanted it themselves (the -clause is subject). , , , . (Plato, Apology 17a) What your experiences at the hands of my accusers are, Athenians, I do not know (the -clause is object). ..., (Xenophon, Anabasis 1.1.1) When Dareius was sick, he wanted his two sons to be present (the -clause is adverbial phrase).
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15. Introduction to Subordinate Clauses
15.2. TYPES OF SUBORDINATE CLAUSE

The following types of subordinate clause are dependent on a verb in the main clause (deleting these makes their sentence incomplete): Declarative subordinate clauses (indirect speech), introduced by or (see 12.3). Indirect questions, introduced by / ... / ... , interrogative pronouns, or indefinite relative pronouns (see 13.5). Clauses dependent on verbs of fearing, introduced by (see 16.1). Clauses dependent on verbs of effort, introduced by (see 16.2).
The following types of subordinate clause can be freely added to a sentence: Temporal clauses, introduced by , , , , etc. (see ch. 17). Causal clauses, introduced by (see 18.3). Purpose clauses, introduced by , , , or (see ch. 19). Result clauses, introduced by (see ch. 20). Conditional clauses, introduced by (also concessive clauses introduced by / ) (see ch. 21).
Finally, relative clauses, introduced by , , etc. can or cannot be omitted depending on their function in the sentence (see ch. 22)
15.3.
The exact workings of subordinate clauses in Greek can never be fully understood unless the various uses of the word are memorised: SUBORDINATE CLAUSE
(modal past indicative)
MAIN CLAUSE
modal past indicative +
(impf./plupf.) (aor.)
MEANING
counterfactual (irrealis):
it would happen (but doesnt) it would have happened (but didnt)
(optative without )
optative +
potential:
it can/might happen
subjunctive +
future indicative / imperative / hortative subjunctive pres. ind.
prospective:
if/when it happens, we will be happy
subjunctive +
(historic sequence:)
indefinite (generic, distributive-iterative):

whenever it happens, we are happy
optative without
imperfect
whenever it happened, we were happy
Note:
For the use of in main clauses with an imperfect or aorist indicative to express repeated actions, see 7.6.2. For its use in (subordinate) purpose clauses with the subjunctive, see 19.2.
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16. VERBS OF FEARING AND EFFORT

16.1. VERBS OF FEARING AND APPREHENSION
The most common verbs of fearing and apprehension are:
/ be afraid that be afraid that there is danger/risk that there is fear that suspect that take care, lest (that not) take care, lest (that not) take care, lest (that not)
These verbs can express a fear or anxiety about the future (English I am afraid that John will come; the word lest can be used here in English I am afraid lest John come), or express a fear about something that has become fact in the past or present (I am afraid that John is here). Verbs of fearing and apprehension can be followed by the following: A direct object: . A prepositional phrase: . A dynamic infinitive: . A subordinate clause with (lest, that); negative : .
When a clause with a verb of fearing relates to the future, it has () + subjunctive:
. (Aristophanes, Wasps 1358) So thats his worry about me, that Ill be spoiled. . (Aristophanes, Assemblywomen 338) Im worried that shes up to no good. . (Aeschylus, Suppliants 498) Be on your guard lest audacity breed fear
In historic sequence, the fearing-clause can (but does not have to) get an oblique optative:
, | . (Euripides, Electra 25-6) Even this option was filled with great fear, that she would bear children to some noble man in secret.
When a fearing-clause relates to a present or past fact, it has () + indicative. In such clauses, the perfect indicative is especially common (it signifies a past event leading to an (undesired) state in the present):
. (Thucydides 3.53.2) And now, we are afraid that we have missed both at the same time. , , . (Aristophanes, Clouds 493) Im afraid, old man, that you need some blows.
Note:
The aorist indicative is used in fearing-clauses only in Homer: . (Homer, Odyssey 5.300) I am afraid that the goddess has said everything truthfully.
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16. Verbs of Fearing and Effort
16.2. VERBS OF EFFORT, PRECAUTION AND CONTRIVING

Some common verbs of effort (pre)caution and contriving are:
take care that I take care that take care that take care that take care that make, ensure that see to it that see to it that one must see to it that strive to make preparations in order that contrive that
These verbs are regularly construed with (sometimes ) + future indicative; negative :
. (Aristophanes, Wasps 155) Take care that he doesnt eat the bolt-pin. ... . (Aristophanes, Assemblywomen 300-1) See to it that we expel these men from the city.
The future indicative is normally retained even in historic sequence, though the oblique optative also occurs (rare outside Xenophon):
. (Thucydides 3.4) I ensured that some form of help would come. . (Xenophon, Cyropaedia 8.1.43) He took care that they would never be without food or drink.
Note:
Subordinate clauses with verbs of effort are similar in sense to purpose clauses (with // + subj.) Occasionally, they get the same construction, with the subjunctive rather than the future indicative after (). This is especially frequent in Xenophon: ... . (Xenophon, On the Cavalry Commander 1.3) Care must be taken that the horses are fed.
16.3. SOME ADDITIONAL COMMENTS

Occasionally, verbs of fearing are construed like verbs of effort (with + fut. ind./subj.):
| . (Sophocles, Oedipus Tyrannus 1074-5) I fear that sorrows will break forth from this silence.
Conversely, most verbs of effort also occur construed as verbs of fearing (with = lest, that not)
..., | ... | ... . (Aristophanes, Women at the
Thesmophoria 579-81)
I have come to tell you this, so that you watch out that something terrible doesnt happen to you.
The construction () + fut. ind. is also used independently (without a verb of effort), to express a strong command or exhortation (see 14.1):
. (Aristophanes, Clouds 824) Dont tell this to anyone!
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17. TEMPORAL CLAUSES

17.1. INTRODUCTION
To communicate when the action expressed by a verb takes place, Greek can use the following expressions: A preposition phrase with temporal meaning (see 6.1-2); A temporal adverb; A connected participle or genitive absolute expressing a temporal relation (see 10.4); A temporal clause.
Temporal clauses are introduced by one of the following conjunctions:

, / after, when, now that after, when when, now that when, now that at the moment that, (exactly) when as soon as during the time that, while from the moment that, since so long as before so long as or until before or until
When joined to the word , the conjunctions , , and become, by crasis, //, , and . The use of moods (and the negative) in temporal clauses varies, depending on the nature of the temporal relationship between subordinate and main clause. There are three types: Temporal clauses referring to the present or past (When John opened the door, Susie walked in / While John rests, Susie is in charge): in Greek, these have the indicative; Temporal clauses referring to the future (When John opens the door, Susie will walk in): in Greek these have prospective + subjunctive; Temporal clauses referring to a repeated/habitual occurrence (Whenever John opens the door, Susie walks in / Whenever John opened the door, Susie (would) walk(ed) in): in Greek, the clause has indefinite + subjunctive (for present or future), or optative without (for the past).
Note two special cases: The conjunction has different meanings depending on the aspectual value of the verb in the subordinate clause. The word can also be followed by an infinitive.
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17. Temporal Clauses
17.2. TEMPORAL CLAUSES REFERRING TO THE PRESENT OR PAST

Temporal clauses referring to the present use the indicative of one of the tenses referring to the present: present or perfect. The negative is :
. (Plato, Apology 39c) I am already in that phase of my life when men make oracles most often. , ; (Plato, Greater Hippias 304d-e) And now that youre in that situation, do you think its better for you to live or to be dead?
Temporal clauses referring to the past use the indicative of one of the past tenses: imperfect, pluperfect or aorist. Generally: The aorist is used for actions preceding the action in the main clause (anterior), The imperfect is used for actions going on at the same time as the action in the main clause (simultaneous):
, ... ... . (Plato, Apology 32c) And after the oligarchy was installed, the Thirty ordered me to bring Leon from Salamis , . (Plato, Eutyphro 4c) When we were farmers on Naxos, he was a labourer for us there.
The main clause with these temporal clauses can have any mood (imperative, hortative subjunctive, etc.):
... ... ..., ... (Plato, Philebus 52c) Now that we have a distinction between the pure and the impure pleasures, let us add ... (hortative subjunctive) , ... (Plato, Protagoras 356c) Now that this is so, answer me this: (imperative)
17.3. TEMPORAL CLAUSES REFERRING TO THE FUTURE

Temporal clauses referring to the future have prospective + subjunctive. The main clause either has a future indicative, or an imperative/hortative subjunctive (these also have future reference). The negative is :
, , , ... (Plato, Phaedo 67a) And while we live, we will, I think, be nearest to knowing in the following way, ... , , , . (Plato, Apology 41e) Gentlemen, you must punish my sons when they grow up.
Note:
English does not have a future in the subordinate clause here either, but uses a present tense form (as a so-called concealed future): When John opens the door, Susie will come in.
Note:
Greek never uses a future indicative in temporal clauses. Very rarely, a (potential) optative without is used, expressing uncertainty about the possible future occurrence of the action in the subordinate clause: , . (Plato, Republic 332a) The knife may under no circumstance be given back, when someone should ask it back in a deranged state.
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17.4. TEMPORAL CLAUSES REFERRING TO A HABITUAL OCCURRENCE

Temporal clauses referring to a repeated/habitual occurrence (English whenever) in the present or future have indefinite + subjunctive. The main clause contains a generalised statement, usually in the present indicative. The negative is :
, . (Plato, Laws 768a) Whenever someone wrongs the city, everyone is being wronged. ... ; (Plato, Charmides 164b) Is it necessary for a doctor to know when he is healing beneficially and when not?
When the clause refers to the past, the indefinite subjunctive is replaced by the optative without . The main clause usually has an imperfect (the tense for habitual actions, see 7.6.2):
... , ... , . (Plato, Sophist 243b) I used to think, when I was younger, that I understood perfectly whenever anyone used this term not-being.
17.5.
The word follows exactly the same rules as above, but it can mean either as long as or until. Which of the two interpretations is needed depends on the aspectual value of the verb it is found with: If the aspect of the verb is not-complete (present indicative, imperfect, + present subjunctive, present optative ), = as long as; If the aspect of the verb is complete (aorist indicative, + aorist subjunctive, aorist optative), = until:
+ pres. ind. + impf. + aor. ind. as long as as long as until
In temporal clauses referring to the past or present:
In temporal clauses referring to the future or a habitual occurrence:

+ pres. subj. (or + pres. opt.) + aor. subj. (or + aor. opt.) as long as until
Some examples:
, . (Plato, Theaetetus 208e) As long as I was standing at a distance, it seemed to me that something was being said. , . (Plato, Laches 184a) He let the spear slip through his hand until he gripped it by the butt-end of the shaft. .(Plato, Apology 40a) For nothing prevents us from chatting with each other as long as it is possible. , . (Plato, Apology 29d) As long as I am breathing and able, I will certainly not stop practising philosophy. , , . (Plato, Phaedo 77e) Ah, said Socrates, you must sing charms to him every day until you charm away his fear.
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17.6.
The word (which is never followed by a negative) has two possible constructions: When the main clause is negative (or has an intrinsically negative verb like (forbid)), follows exactly the same rules as other temporal conjunctions. English translation: before or until; When the main clause is affirmative (not-negative), is normally followed by the (accusative and) infinitive (thus, technically, this is not a subordinate clause). English translation: before (not until):
, . (Plato, Republic 487e) The cities will not cease their wrongdoings before/until the Philosophers assume power in them. [] . (Plato, Theaetetus 200d) It is impossible to understand that before/until one adequately grasps of knowledge, what exactly it is. . (Plato, Charmides 153b) Not long before we went back, a battle had taken place in Potidaea.
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18. CAUSAL CLAUSES

18.1. INTRODUCTION
To communicate for what reason, motivation or cause the action expressed by a verb takes place, Greek can use the following expressions: Certain prepositions, especially and , may have causal force (see 6.1-2); A connected participle or genitive absolute may express cause, especially when modified by or // (see 10.4); Relative clauses can also have a causal nuance (see 22.3); Temporal clauses referring to the present or past often have causal force; Causal clauses, introduced by or .
18.2. THE CAUSAL USE OF TEMPORAL CLAUSES

Temporal clauses referring to the present or past (see 17.2) which precede the main clause often have a causal nuance, especially with the conjunctions , , and , and less frequently with :
... (Herodotus 1.112.2) Now that I cannot convince you, you must act as follows , ... . (Lysias 17.6) Now that you have decided to confiscate the property of Erasiphon, I think it right for the property of Erasistratos be adjudged to me.
When a clause with or follows the main clause, it always expresses the motivation for making the preceding statement:
, . (Herodotus 8.5.2) You will not desert us, for I will give you a greater gift.
18.3. AND
The conjunctions (unless when introducing indirect discourse) and are used in causal clauses. Such clauses are formed exactly like temporal clauses referring to present or past: they take a present or past indicative, the negative is .
, , ; (Plato, Euthyphro 10a) Concerning that which is holy: is it loved by the gods because it is holy, or is it holy because it is loved? , . (Plato, Theaetetus 158a) I am ashamed to say that I have nothing to say, because youve scolded me just now when I said that.
With main clauses referring to the past a past tense is used (imperfect, aorist indicative, pluperfect) the oblique optative may be used in the causal clause when the reason is reported or alleged:
... , ... (Plato, Laws 967b-c) And they themselves, mistaking the nature of the soul, because, in their opinion, it was older than body, upset ...
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19. PURPOSE CLAUSES

19.1. INTRODUCTION
To communicate the purpose (intentional) of an action, Greek can use the following expressions: A future participle, usually with (see 10.1, 9.4); A relative clause with a future indicative (see 22.3); A purpose clause (also called final clause).
Note:
Greek, unlike English, does not normally use the infinitive to express purpose! However, an infinitive with purpose-value occurs sometimes after verbs meaning give, entrust, take (see 9.8)
19.2. CONSTRUCTION OF PURPOSE CLAUSES

Greek purpose clauses are introduced by , and sometimes (in order that, to). Which conjunction is used depends primarily on the preference of the author. Negative purpose clauses are introduced by , , and occasionally by alone. The mood in purpose clauses is normally the subjunctive:
... , . (Thucydides 3.13.2) You must, having accepted us as allies, send us help, in order that it is clear that you are defending us. [ ] , ... . (Thucydides 6.96.1) They decided to guard the access routes of the mountain, so that the enemy would not ascend it unnoticed by them.
In historic sequence, the optative may (but does not have to) be used instead of the subjunctive:
... , (Thucydides 1.126.1) Making complaints, they sent messengers to the Athenians, in order that they have as great an excuse for waging war as possible. (optative) , , (Thucydides 1.99.3) The majority of them, to prevent being away from home, furnished money instead of ships. (no optative)
Note:
The difference between optative and subjunctive is probably as with the oblique optative in indirect speech (see 12.3) that the subjunctive, when retained after a past tense, presents the intention through the eyes of the subject of the main clause, whereas the optative presents the purpose of an action as interpreted by the narrator.
After or (but not ), and only in affirmative purpose clauses (without ), + subjunctive (or + optative in historic sequence) is sometimes found:
... . (Xenophon, Anabasis 2.5.16) So that you may learn, listen to me in turn.
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20. RESULT CLAUSES

20.1. INTRODUCTION
To communicate the result (intentional or unintentional) of an action, Greek can use the following expressions: A relative clause, usually with and negative (see 22.3); A result clause (also called consecutive clause)
20.2. CONSTRUCTION OF RESULT CLAUSES

Result clauses in Greek are introduced by , very infrequently by (so that, to). In the main clause, a signpost marking that a consecutive clause follows is often included. Such signposts are words like:
/ , , , , so, in such a way such, of a kind that so large, so much, so many (pl.) so far, to such an extent
There are two possible constructions for result clauses: + the moods of independent sentences (normally the indicative, expressing a factual result); + infinitive / acc. and inf. construction (expressing natural/likely result)
20.2.1. With the moods of independent sentences

When is used with an indicative, the result is presented as fact, i.e. actually taking place at a particular point in time. The negative is :
, . (Thucydides 1.2.6) When they were becoming citizens, they made the city larger still, so that they sent colonies to Ionia. , . (Thucydides 2.100.5) They put themselves in danger, so that in the end they desisted.
The other moods of independent sentences may also be used: + + optative (potential) denotes a possible consequence; + + modal past indicative (counterfactual) denotes a result that did not come about:
, . (Xenophon, Anabasis 5.6.20) You have ships at your disposal, so that you may make a sudden attack at whatever point you may wish. , . (Thucydides 5.6.3) This place commanded a view in all directions, so that Cleon would not have remained unnoticed while moving his army. (But Cleon didnt move his army.)
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20. Result Clauses
Sometimes occurs at the beginning of a sentence, particularly when followed by an imperative or a direct question. The moods of independent sentences are used. In such cases, translate therefore:
. . (Thucydides 1.74.3) We deigned to risk our lives and not be angry at you because you did not assist us. We assert, therefore, that we have helped you no less than we have gained.
20.2.2. With the infinitive

When is used with the (accusative and) infinitive, the speaker portrays the result as naturally or likely resulting from the action expressed in the main clause. It is not specified whether or not the result actually occurs, only that the action expressed in the main clause has the tendency, capacity or intention to bring on the result. The negative is :
. (Thucydides 1.49.7) But it came to such a point of necessity that the Corinthians and the Athenians attacked each other. ... ... . (Thucydides 1.12.1) After the Trojan war, Greece was still being settled, so that it didnt grow.
This construction is always used after a negative main clause, and after a comparative with (more X than to = too X to)
, , ... (Thucydides 3.44.4) But we are not engaged in a lawsuit against them to make us require legal arguments; no, . (Thucydides 8.46.5) (The Athenian navy) used to engage in war with a lack of zeal that was too great to be mistaken.
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21. CONDITIONAL CLAUSES

21.1. INTRODUCTION
A conditional period consists of: A conditional subordinate clause introduced by (protasis): If Achilles is shot in the heel, A main clause (apodosis): (then) he will die.
The whole of the conditional period expresses that the action in the main clause is dependent on the action in the subordinate clause. The negative in the protasis is always . If is joined with , it becomes , or through crasis. By using different types of conditional periods, speakers can indicate how likely they consider the condition to be fulfilled, e.g.: If John opens the door, Sam will walk in. (neutral or open condition: no indication of likelihood) If John had opened the door, Sam would have walked in. (counterfactual or unfulfilled condition: impossible) If John should open the door, Sam would walk in. (potential or remote condition: remotely possible) Every time, if John opened the door, Sam walked in. (habitual or repeated condition)
Greek has five basic types of conditional: neutral, prospective, potential, counterfactual and habitual; each type expresses a different attitude of the speaker towards the likelihood of the action in the protasis being fulfilled. Different moods and tenses are used in each of the different types.
21.2. NEUTRAL CONDITIONS

In neutral conditions, the speaker gives no indication if he thinks that the condition expressed in the protasis has come true/is coming true/will come true. The speaker simply puts forward that if it is true that X or if it is the case that X, then Y. Neutral conditions in Greek have + indicative in the protasis; any mood and tense may be used in the apodosis.
, , , . (Lysias 3.4) I deign, if I am guilty, Council, to meet with no forgiveness. , . (Lysias 9.2) If they think that you will convict me, having been persuaded by slander, that would surprise me. , , . (Isocrates 18.14) If, when he was making enormous demands, he exacted only little, this is not evidence that there was no arbitration. , , . (Antiphon 3.4.2) For my part, if I have said anything that is a lie, I am content that you treat even the things that I have said truthfully as dishonest pleading.
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21. Conditional Clauses
The use of a neutral condition often implies a degree of scepticism on the speakers part, which may be made explicit by adding a word like () (really, truly):
, , , . (Demosthenes 19.96) If anyone is truly pleased with the peace, let him be thankful for it to the generals whom everyone is accusing.
In the case of a neutral condition referring to the future (with a future indicative), the apodosis is often implied to be unpleasant conditionals with the future indicative is therefore often found in threats, appeals, warnings, etc.:
, , . (Demosthenes 4.43) That he will not desist unless someone stops him (note the concealed future in English), that much is clear.
Note:
In many grammar books, conditions with + future indicative in the protasis are called future most vivid-conditions or emotional future-conditions (because it is often found in threats, etc.).
21.3. PROSPECTIVE CONDITIONS

Prospective conditions are by far the most common type of conditionals referring to the future. By using this type of condition, the speaker presents fulfilment of the condition as very well possible/likely: If X happens and I consider it very well possible that it will, then Y will happen. Prospective conditions in Greek have prospective + subjunctive in the protasis, and a future indicative (or another verb form with future reference, e.g. an imperative or hortative subjunctive) in the apodosis. The difference between the use of present and aorist subjunctives is purely aspectual. As a rule, however, the use of + present subjunctive (aspect: non-complete) generally indicates that the action in the protasis will be going on at the same time as the action in the apodosis (simultaneous):
, . (Antiphon 5.66) And do not, if I seem to be guessing right, think it right that my acquittal lies in that fact.
+ aorist subjunctive (aspect: complete) normally expresses that the action in the protasis will take place before the action in the apodosis (anterior).
, . (Antiphon 2.2.9) If now I die, having been taken into custody, I will leave shameful disgrace to my children. , . (Demosthenes 18.59) And let no one suppose that I am straying from the indictment with my argument, if I touch upon Greek practice.
Note:
This type of condition is often called future more vivid in grammars.
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21.4. POTENTIAL CONDITIONS

Potential conditions also refer to the future. The speaker considers fulfilment of the condition possible, but no more than that. It is usually implied that the condition is only remotely relevant: If X should/were to happen, Y would happen. Potential conditions in Greek have + optative in the protasis and potential + optative in the apodosis. The difference between the use of present and aorist optatives is purely aspectual. As a rule, however, a present optative indicates simultaneity:
. (Isocrates 20.19) For you would be paying disrespect to yourselves, if you should have such an opinion about the citizen population. , . (Isocrates 5.103) He would be the most base of all men, if he were not to want to dissolve that empire
And an aorist optative indicates anteriority:

, . (Isocrates 9.4) And the speech, if it were to discuss that mans deeds adequately, would make the memory of Evagoras virtue eternal. , . (Lysias 9.21) But if, summoned by them, I should be unjustly convicted, I would run away.
Note:
This type of condition is variably called future less vivid, should-would or remote condition in grammars.
21.5. COUNTERFACTUAL CONDITIONS

When a speaker considers the fulfilment of a present or past condition impossible (or no longer possible), he can use a counterfactual condition: If X were true, Y would be true (but X isnt true) or If X had happened, Y would have happened (but X didnt happen). In Greek, counterfactual conditions have + modal past indicative in the protasis and modal past indicative + in the apodosis. The difference between modal imperfects and aorist indicatives is purely aspectual. As a rule, however, counterfactual conditionals referring to the present generally have the imperfect:
, . (Demosthenes 21.169) And if his actions were really exactly such as he says, not even then would it be just for him to escape conviction. , . (Lysias 8.9) And if I disbelieved these things, I would seek to test them.
In counterfactual conditionals referring to the past, the aorist is most common (but imperfect is possible):
, . (Lysias 30.20) For if this man had not entered sacrifices to an excess amounting to six talents, there would have been enough for our ancestral offerings , . (Isocrates 8.95) And if the Spartans had taken over this empire, they would have made themselves and others happy.
Note:
This type of condition is often called unfulfilled, unreal or hypothetical.
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21.6. HABITUAL CONDITIONS

Using a habitual condition, speakers can express that a recurring action is dependent on something else happening, in other words, that one repeated or habitual action leads to another: If (=whenever) X happens, then Y happens. Different constructions are used for present and past habitual conditions. Habitual conditions referring to the present have indefintite + subjunctive in the protasis and a present indicative (expressing a general fact) in the apodosis:
, . (Demosthenes 22.22) But every time, if someone demonstrates one of these things, you think that you have sufficient proof of the truth. , . (Demosthenes, Exordia 25.1) But you often accuse someone of deceiving you, if everything does not go the way you want.
Habitual conditions referring to the past have indefinite optative without in the protasis and an imperfect in the apodosis:
, (Demosthenes 9.61) And if anyone among the common people learned of it, he would keep silent and be in terror. , , (Demosthenes 23.209) And you had, if ever you lacked something, funds surpassing all Greeks in your treasury.
! !
Note:
This type of condition is sometimes called indefinite, generic or general.
Note:
The difference between habitual conditional clauses and habitual temporal clauses is only slight, and hard for speakers of English to grasp. The protasis of a habitual condition refers to something which sometimes occurs and other times does not occur (the apodosis applies only in the cases that it does occur); habitual temporal clauses, on the other hand, refer simply to something that takes place more than once. In general, however, it is adequate to translate both with whenever: , . Whenever he did that (out of all the possible times that he could have done or not done it), he was punished. , . On the occasions that he did that (more than once), he was punished.
21.7. SOME ADDITIONAL COMMENTS

Though most examples from Greek texts follow the prototypes above, there are also many mixed conditionals where a protasis and an apodosis from different types are used together (remember that the apodosis of a neutral condition can already use any tense or mood). The meaning of both parts stays the same. Some mixed conditionals frequently found are: Past counterfactual apodosis, present counterfactual protasis (very common):
, . (Aeschines 3.252) The votes cast over him were tied: and if one vote would have been transferred, he would now be in exile.
Potential apodosis, present indicative in the apodosis:

, . (Demosthenes 18.21) For if you were to suppose that there was any guilt in those matters, the suspicion does, I dare say, not concern me.
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Potential apodosis, future indicative in the apodosis:

, . (Isocrates 2.45) For if we were to be willing to examine the nature of men as a whole, we shall find that most of them do not take pleasure in food.
Occasionally, two different types of protasis are found in quick succession, referring to different outcomes of the same action, which are presented with different degrees of likelihood or favourability:
, , (Lysias 27.7) If you acquit these men (neutral unfavourable), therefore, they will think that making a profit at your expense is in no way dangerous; but if you condemn them and sentence them to death (prospective favourable), you will make the rest more orderly than they are now.
Conditional clauses introduced by or (even if) are known as concessive clauses, and express an exceptional condition. The apodosis is considered to be true regardless of the protasis occurring. All types of conditional occur. The main clause may have (nevertheless) to emphasise the contrast.
, . (Isocrates 4.28) For even if the story has taken the form of a myth, it is nevertheless fitting that it now be told again. (neutral) , . (Isocrates 21.11) Even if he had been accustomed in former times to bring slanderous accusations, then he would have given up the practice. (counterfactual)
Prospective ( + subj.) and potential ( + opt.) -clauses sometimes have the force of a purpose clause, best translated by in the hope that: such cases cannot really be called conditional clauses. They are especially frequent in Homer, and are normally easily recognisable:
, . (Homer, Iliad 8.282) Keep on shooting in this way, in the hope that you may become a light for the Greeks. ... ..., . (Thucydides 8.42.1) He sailed, therefore in the direction of Syme, in the hope that he might in some way find the ships.
Remember that in indirect discourse after a verb of saying/thinking/etc. in a past tense, the oblique optative may be used. Subordinate clauses (including conditional clauses) in indirect speech can also get the optative, and in that case drop if the optative replaces a subjunctive + (see 12.4):
, , . (Demosthenes 6.12) So he thought that if he chose you, he would choose friends, based on justice. Direct speech: , .
A separate type of clause expressing conditionality is introduced by or (on condition that; for + dat. with conditional force, see 6.1). Such clauses usually have an infinitive (sometimes the future indicative). The negative is .
, , ... (Plato, Apology 29c) We are letting you go; on the condition, however, that you will no longer be a philosopher. ... . (Thucydides 1.103.1) They made an agreement on the condition that they would leave the Peloponnese bound by a treaty and never enter it again.
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21.8. OVERVIEW OF CONDITIONALS
PAST
PRESENT
FUTURE
protasis
apodosis
protasis
apodosis
protasis
apodosis
+ past ind.
any time/mood
+ pres. ind.
any time/mood
+ fut. ind.
any time/mood
NEUTRAL
if he has done that
he will be punished
if he is doing that
he will be punished
if he does that
he will be punished
xxxx
xxxx xxxx xxxx xxxx
xxxx xxxx xxxx xxxx
xxxx xxxx xxxx xxxx
+ subj.
fut. ind./imperat.
PROSPECTIVE
xxxx xxxx xxxx
if he does that
he will be punished
xxxx
xxxx xxxx xxxx xxxx
xxxx xxxx xxxx xxxx
xxxx xxxx xxxx xxxx
+ past ind.
+ opt.
POTENTIAL
xxxx xxxx xxxx
if he were to do that
he would be punished
+ aor. ind.
+ aor. ind.
+ imperf.
+ imperf. xxxx xxxx xxxx xxxx xxxx xxxx xxxx xxxx
COUNTERFACTUAL
if he had done that
he would have been punished
if he were doing that
he would be punished
Note: the difference between (modal) aor. ind. and imperf. is purely aspectual: the past-present distinction indicated here works as a rule of thumb only!
+ opt.
imperf.
+ subj.
pres. ind.
xxxx xxxx xxxx xxxx
xxxx xxxx xxxx xxxx
HABITUAL
whenever he did that
he was punished
whenever he does that
he is punished
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22. RELATIVE CLAUSES

22.1. INTRODUCTION
Relative clauses are introduced by one of the following relative pronouns/adjectives/adverbs:
Definite , , , Indefinite who(m), which, that as large, much (sg.)/many (pl.) as (often best translated by all) such as, of the kind that where from where to where along which/where as, like, in the way of
Relative clauses with or are also called clauses of comparison. As a general rule, if the antecedent (the word in the main clause to which the relative word refers) is definite, the definite relative word is used. If it is indefinite, the indefinite word is normally used. (For definiteness (=identifiability), see 2.1; there are many exceptions where this rule does not appear to apply):
. The (specific) man that did that will be punished. (The speaker knows the man.) , . The man (whoever he may be) that did that will be punished.
The definiteness of a definite relative may be emphasised by adding ( = exactly who). The indefiniteness of an indefinite relative may be emphasised by adding ( = whoever). Two types of relative clause may be distinguished: Determinative (or restrictive) relative clauses: the information in the relative clause is necessary to identify the antecedent. Without the relative clause, the sentence has no significant meaning. E.g. The man whom you see is my brother. ( ). In English, this type of relative clause does not normally stand between commas. Digressive (or explanatory) relative clauses: the relative clause gives extra information that is not required to identify the antecedent. In other words, the sentence still makes sense if the relative clause is left out, and the relative clause is much like a new sentence tacked on. E.g. The Nile, which flows through Egypt, is a major river. ( , , .) Digressive relative clauses are especially common with proper names. In English, this type normally stands between commas.
Determinative relative clauses in Greek behave like temporal/conditional clauses; digressive relative clauses behave like independent sentences.
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22.2. ANTECEDENT, AGREEMENT, ATTRACTION AND CONNECTION

The relative pronoun () and the relative adjectives () and () agree in gender and number with their antecedent, but their case is determined by their syntactic function in the relative clause:
I saw the man who educated Socrates. I saw the man whom Socrates educated.
Note:
The relative pronoun is sometimes formed according to the meaning rather than the grammatical form of its antecedent. For this construction according to sense ( ), see 1.3.
An exception to this rule is the so-called attraction of the relative (only in determinative relative clauses). The relative nearly always takes on the same case as its antecedent if (and only if): A form of , or (but not their indefinite forms) is direct object in its relative clause (an accusative is expected); The antecedent is in the genitive or dative (the antecedent is sometimes not expressed):
... . (Xenophon, Cyropaedia 1.3.2) Of all the Medes that Ive seen, my father is the most handsome. (object with , but genitive) . (Xenophon, Anabasis 1.7.3) You must be men worthy of the freedom which you possess. (object with , but genitive) . (Xenophon, Anabasis 1.3.45) I praise you for what you say. (object with , but genitive)
The antecedent of a determinative relative clause may be omitted (especially when it is a demonstrative pronoun); such relative clauses are called autonomous relative clauses:
. (Xenophon, Cyropaedia 5.1.26) But I and (those) whom I command will remain. (omitted: ) . (Xenophon, Cyropaedia 5.4.21) I will take you (to the place) where the event took place. (omitted: )
Sometimes it is inserted into the relative clause instead of the main clause (again, only in determinative relative clauses). The case of the antecedent is that of the relative (required by the function in the relative clause):
... ... ... (Xenophon, Anabasis 1.9.19) If he saw that a man was organising the country over which he ruled (gen. with. ) ... . (Xenophon, Anabasis 1.9.14) He appointed them as rulers of the territory which he was subduing. (with relative attraction gen. with. )
The relative pronoun is occasionally used to introduce a new independent sentence (the antecedent stands in a previous sentence). This is called relative connection. The relative in such cases has almost the same function as the demonstrative pronoun (and should be translated as such):
. . (Xenophon, Symposium 1.1.1) For it is insatiable and holds out seductive hopes. For this reason I say that one must refrain from kissing those in the bloom of beauty.
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22.3. MOODS AND TENSES IN RELATIVE CLAUSES

In digressive relative clauses, the use of moods and tenses is identical to that of independent sentences (main clauses), including the imperative, hortative subjunctive, optative of wish, etc. The negative is normally , unless is required (e.g. in a wish with the optative).
, . (Xenophon, Anabasis 1.3.45) He left for Ephesus, which is a three-day journey from Sardis. ... . (Sophocles, Oedipus Coloneus 473) There are mixing-bowls, the brims of which you must cover. (imperative) , . (Xenophon, Anabasis 3.2.3) I think we should endure such things as I pray the gods may inflict upon our enemies. (cupitive optative) , . (Xenophon, Anabasis 5.6.9) You will come to the Halys, which you could not cross without boats. (potential optative)
In most determinative relative clauses, the use of moods and tenses is very much like that of temporal/conditional clauses; thus, the following can be found in determinative relative clauses: Indicative (negative either or the latter with a conditional nuance):
... . (Xenophon, Oeconomicus 19.15) By pointing out the things which I did not think I knew, you persuade me that I know those things as well. . (Xenophon, Memorabilia 1.2.50) He might think that he has been justly bound by those who know the things he does not himself know.
The first example has because the relative clause refers to specific things which the I did not think he knew but now does. The second example has , with a conditional nuance: ... by those who, if there are things that he does not know, know those things.
Prospective: + subjunctive (negative ) in the relative clause, the main clause refers to the future, e.g. future indicative, imperative, etc. (see 21.3):
. (Xenophon, Anabasis 7.3.8) We will, listening to both you and the Spartans messengers, choose the option that seems best to us (=if an option seems best to us). . (Xenophon, Anabasis 1.3.15) We will obey the man that you choose (=if you choose one).
Potential: optative without in the relative clause (negative ), potential optative with in the main clause (see 21.4):
. (Xenophon, Anabasis 1.3.17) For I would hesitate to embark in the vessels that he were to give us (=if he were to give us any).
Counterfactual: modal past indicative in the relative clause (negative ), modal past indicative + in the main clause (see 21.5):
, , . (Lysias 12.98) Your children, as many of them as were present (=if any were present), would be insulted by these men.
Habitual: indefinite subjunctive + (present) or optative without (past) in the relative clause (negative ), present or imperfect in the main clause (see 21.6):
, . (Xenophon, Memorabilia 3.8.7) For everything is good in relation to the things to which they are well suited, and bad in relation to those to which they are poorly suited (=if ever they are well/poorly suited). . (Xenophon, Cyropaedia) He hunted wherever he came upon animals (=if ever he came upon animals).
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Relative clauses may also have the force of a causal, purpose or result clause: Causal relative clauses (normally digressive) have the indicative (negative ):
, . (Xenophon, Memorabilia 2.8.3) You do a strange thing, you who have given us nothing (=because you have ).
Purpose relative clauses (determinative) get the future indicative (negative ):

, . (Xenophon, Memorabilia 2.8.3) It is better to take up those types of work that will sustain you even after youve grown older (=to sustain ). , . (Xenophon, Hellenica 2.3.2) The people decide to elect thirty men to codify the laws.
Result relative clauses normally have a form of () + indicative and negative , and always follow the main clause:
. (Xenophon, Anabasis 2.5.12) Who is so mad, that he doesnt wish to be your friend?
The optative with (potential, negative ) and modal past indicative with (counterfactual, negative ) may occur in determinative as well as in digressive relative clauses.
... . (Demosthenes 1.13) I omit his expeditions against the Illyrians and to wherever one might speak of. (determinative potential) , . (Xenophon, Agesilaus 2.24) He defended the city, not leading his men out to where the enemy would be wholly at advantage. (determinative counterfactual)
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23. OVERVIEW
OF
SUBORDINATE CLAUSES
MOOD/TENSE IN MAIN CLAUSE
MOOD/TENSE IN SUBORDINATE CLAUSE

Declarative (Indirect Speech): , (see 12.3)
normally indicative (tense of direct speech); + modal past indicative or + optative is possible oblique optative (tense of direct speech)
any tense/mood past tense
Indirect Questions: , ... , ... , (etc.) or (etc.) (see 13.5-6)

normally indicative (tense of direct question); deliberative subjunctive is possible oblique optative (tense of direct question) any tense/mood past tense
Fearing: (see 16.1)

subjunctive (tense according to aspect) - referring to future oblique optative (tense according to aspect) - referring to pres. or past indicative (usually perfect) past tense any tense/mood any tense/mood
Effort: (see 16.2)

future indicative oblique future optative (rare) any tense/mood past tense
Clauses after verbs of effort are sometimes construed as fearing clauses, or as purpose clauses.
Temporal: , , , , , , , etc. (see ch. 17)

- referring to pres. or past present or past indicative - referring to future - referring to habitual occurrence - + subjunctive (tense according to aspect) + subjunctive (tense according to aspect) optative without (tense according to aspect) present or past indicative future indicative, imperative, etc. present indicative imperfect
as above ( = until / as long as, depending on aspect of verb in subordinate clause). as above negative main clause, any tense/mood any tense/mood
- infinitive (tense according to aspect)
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23. Overview of Subordinate Clauses
MOOD/TENSE IN SUBORDINATE CLAUSE

Causal: , (see ch. 18)
present or past indicative oblique optative (tense according to aspect)
MOOD/TENSE IN MAIN CLAUSE
any tense/mood past tense
Temporal clauses with , and are often used with causal force.
Purpose: , , , (neg.) (see ch. 19)

subjunctive (tense according to aspect) oblique optative (tense according to aspect) any tense/mood past tense
Result: (see ch. 20)

- factual result - natural/likely result indicative (any tense) infinitive (tense according to aspect) any tense/mood any tense/mood
Conditional: (concessive with / ) (see ch. 21)

- neutral - prospective - potential - counterfactual indicative (any tense) + subjunctive (tense according to aspect) optative without (tense according to aspect) modal past indicative (imperf./aor. according to aspect) + subjunctive (tense according to aspect) - habitual optative without (tense according to aspect) imperfect any tense/mood future indicative, imperative, etc. + optative (tense according to aspect) + modal past indicative (imperf./aor. according to aspect) present indicative
Subordinate clauses and main clauses from two different types of conditional are often combined (mixed conditionals).
Relative: (etc.), (etc.), , , etc. (see ch. 22)

- digressive - determinative use of moods and tenses as in main clauses use of moods and tenses as in temporal and conditional clauses; + modal past indicative or + optative is possible
The future indicative is used in relative clauses with purpose value; past or present indicatives are used with causal value or result value (usually after ).
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24. PARTICLES
24.1. INTRODUCTION
The words commonly classed as particles are mostly short words that are not declined. They are considered a class separate from adverbs, conjunctions and interjections ( , , etc.), even though they often share features with these classes of words. Particles have no meaning in the same way that words like (house), (wisdom), (walk), (courageous) have meaning. Such words refer to something in reality, something that can generally be visualised or imagined. Particles, rather, have a function, which is to say that they play a role in the organisation and structure of texts (how a text is presented), or the attitudes of speaker and hearer to what is said (how people interact through their language). Because they have a function rather than a meaning, and because there is not always an English word with the exact same function, there is no one-on-one translation for Greek particles into English. As such, particles can mean vastly different things in different contexts. What should be kept in mind is that the same function can lead to different interpretations, which in turn lead to different possible translations. But it is often not easy to determine what the exact function of a particle is: To catch the subtle and elusive meaning of these often apparently insignificant elements of speech challenges the utmost vigilance and skill of the student. (H.W. Smyth (1920), Greek Grammar, Harvard UP, p.631) The descriptions of certain particles below may seem highly theoretical, so it is important to realise that to a speaker of Greek these were very natural devices used to control the flow of their text and mark certain nuances. Particles flesh out texts and make them lively. Many particles cannot occur in the first position of a clause. They stand in second position (if they modify the whole clause) or after the specific word they belong to. These postpositive particles are: , , , , , , , , , , , , , , . They are marked below with #.
24.2. PARTICLES THAT PLAY A ROLE IN STRUCTURING A TEXT

#, # and The particles and operate on different levels within a text. is used to mark a shift from one topic or section (one informational unit) to another, whereas (and) links several things within such a unit. As such, is often found when the subject of a stretch of text changes, whereas is often used to link several things said about a subject. signals that there is more to say about something than the one sentence or clause it stands in: it is a particle marking open-endedness. is nearly always picked up by or . The combination ... (... ... etc.) is the most common marker of contrast in Greek, but it need not signify more than a simple catalogue/enumeration (X did this, Y did that, Z did that, etc.)
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24. Particles
When simply introduces a new topic, it is often best left untranslated. Alternatively, one may use and, or as to, as regards (as to X, he did this). When it marks a contrast, especially following , but is often a good translation, or (emphatically translated) one the one hand () .... on the other hand ().
Note:
The particle is virtually a synonym of , and used where cannot be used (e.g. after vocatives).
/; / # Connective particle similar to but following the word it connects to the preceding: X Y = X and Y. is also very commonly used to signal that something is the first in an enumeration, in which case or another follows it X Y = X and Y; X Y = X and Y. / is the negative of , used only after a preceding negative: X Y = not X and not Y. / is used with pairs: X Y = neither X nor Y.
is a connective particle that eliminates or corrects a preceding alternative and replaces it with another (not X, but Y). It can be translated by but, on the contrary, no. The particle can be used within informational units (he didnt do X but Y), but also on a larger scale to structure the text. In this case, the speaker uses to break off a certain topic of conversation (but enough about that) and move in another direction.
# The particle introduces an explanatory discussion, branching off from the main line of the discussion/narrative to give additional information. Usually, suitable translations are for, because, and since. is very common in specific combinations, mostly in questions: ; (for how not? = naturally, of course); ; / ; / ; (for surely thats the case?, for isnt that true?, for what else?) can also be used in answers, meaning yes, because: (I knew all that. Yes, because youre clever.)
Note:
The combination / ... keeps the force of both particles. It signifies that a speaker breaks off his discussion, and explains why he does so: but enough about that, for ....
# (spelled in Ionic) In the structure of a text, marks a new step in a narrative or argument, which is in some way connected to the previous step. The preceding text is characterised as preliminary or leading up to the new argumentative, narrative step. can get vastly different interpretations (and translations) depending on the relationship between the sentence it stands in and what precedes it. In conclusions that round off a preceding discussion, means therefore, so, as such. But in picking up and continuing, a line of narrative (sometimes after a digression), can simply mean and then, next, etc.
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24. Particles
In the combination + , the emphasis can lie on the (accented = it isnt the case, then, that...), or on the (usually in questions, accented = isnt it the case, then, that...?)
Connects two alternatives: or (sometimes ... = either ... or). After comparatives: than.
#, (there is no real agreement about what these particles mean, but it is likely something along the following lines:) marks a new unit of information that contradicts or modifies the expectations raised by what precedes. So whereas actually eliminates an alternative (not A, but B), goes against certain expectations (A, nevertheless B; A, however, B: he is rich he is unhappy). can be roughly paraphrased as and on this point you should note specifically that. The new point often contrasts with what precedes, causing it to be reconsidered in light of the new information (A, but on that point B). It can function as the reverse of , signalling that the preceding information is true notwithstanding the expectations that might have been raised by the new point introduced by (in which case comes close to even though: he is unhappy he is rich).
# and # is often combined with ... , rounding off a previous step and beginning a new one: well then ( ), so much about X; as to Y (), .... The form has a similar function, stressing the importance of the new step: I come to the point, and note this well In commands, marks that the command flows naturally from the preceding: and so you must....
An example of the use of the particles discussed above:

, , , 1 , ... , 2 . 3 . , 4 ... 5 , 6 . , , 7 , , 8 . 9 . (Lysias 12.1-3) 10 The difficulty that faces me, gentlemen of the jury, is not in beginning my accusation, but in bringing my speech to an end: so enormous, so numerous are the acts they have committed, that [not] with every desire to speak mere truth could one tell the whole; of necessity either the accuser must be tired out or his time must run short. It seems to me that our positions will be the reverse of what they were in former times: for previously the accusers had to explain their enmity towards the defendants; but in the present case inquiry must be made of the defendants as to the motive of their enmity towards the city ... It is not, in deed, from any lack of private enmities and sufferings that I make these remarks, but because of the abundant reasons that all of us have for anger on personal grounds, or in the interest of the public. Now as for myself, gentlemen, having never engaged in any suit either on my own account or on that of others, I have now been compelled by what has occurred to accuse this man: hence I have been often overcome with a great feeling of despondency, from a fear lest my inexperience might cause me to fail in making a worthy and able accusation on my brothers and on my own behalf. Nevertheless I will try to inform you of the matter from the beginning, as briefly as I can. (Transl. Lamb)
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24. Particles
Comment: (1, 3, 6) marks an exclusive contrast, eliminating the preceding alternative: not beginning, but ending; one could not finish, on the contrary, time would run out; not because of a lack of personal suffering, no: for the entire city. (2, 6, 9, 9) simply links so enormous and so numerous, enmities and sufferings, etc. See also ... in 7. ... (3) gives two alternatives (either... or) in the third instance (3), with , means (the opposite) of the other instance (6) simply means or. (3) signals a new argumentative topic: first Lysias spoke about the number of crimes, now he discusses their nature. He clarifies (, 4) his point by means of a contrast ( (4) ... (5)) between the current situation and past convention. (5) anticipates the possible suspicion that Lysias has mentioned the crimes against the city because there were none against himself: there were such crimes, says Lysias. (Lambs indeed gets the force wrong; still or yet could be tried here). (7) marks a completely new step in the argumentation (Lysias qualifications as an accuser), which pushes all that preceded into the background (Lambs now as for myself is excellent). In that new step, he contrasts his lack of experience (, 7) with his intention to conduct this lawsuit ( , 9-10).
Another example:
, , , : 1 , . . 2 , 3 . , 4 , , 5 : , 6 . , , , 7 , , , , 8 , 9 . (Plato, Apology 17a-c) 10 How you, men of Athens, have been affected by my accusers, I do not know; but I, for my part, almost forgot my own identity, so persuasively did they talk; and yet there is hardly a word of truth in what they have said. But I was most amazed by one of the many lies that they toldwhen they said that you must be on your guard not to be deceived by me, because I was a clever speaker. For I thought it the most shameless part of their conduct that they are not ashamed because they will immediately be convicted by me of falsehood by the evidence of fact, when I show myself to be not in the least a clever speaker, unless indeed they call him a clever speaker who speaks the truth; for if this is what they mean, I would agree that I am an oratornot after their fashion. Now they, as I say, have said little or nothing true; but you shall hear from me nothing but the truth. Not, however, men of Athens, speeches finely tricked out with words and phrases, as theirs are, nor carefully arranged, but you will hear things said at random with the words that happen to occur to me for I trust that what I say is just and let none of you expect anything else. (Transl. Fowler)
Comment: There are two sets of corresponding ... (lines 1 and 7), both marking a contrast (your experience vs. my experience; their speech vs. my speech)
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24. Particles
The combination (1) marks the contrast (with ), and brings the new point (about Socrates himself) to the forefront, marking it as the new relevant step. In 7, is used to pick up the main line of the argument after a long digression (the points specifically back to the point that picks up). (2) latches on to Socrates admiration for the speech of their accusers: he immediately wants to make the point (calling into question the whole admirability of that speech) that they spoke falsely. And yet (Fowler) is a perfect translation. With (3), Socrates moves on to, or perhaps zooms in on, a specific lie that the Athenians made. But (Fowler) is good. Two instances of (4, 6) introduce an explanation of why Socrates found the one point particularly amazing, and within that explanation another explanation (note how the second is joined with a which is not picked up: perhaps marking a contrast which is left unexpressed note here the potential : Socrates implies that his accusers did not mean that). The last (9) explains why Socrates will not go through a planned speech (by the way, the whole speech is of course carefully planned...). (8) goes against the expectation that so-called truthful oratory requires careful composition and ornamentation: Socrates rather plans to use words as they occur to him. (Fowlers however is quite adequate). (9), (8, 10) and (8) are all used regularly (see comments above).
24.3. PARTICLES OF SCOPE

The particles #, # and (negative ) are particles that delimit the scope or applicability of a certain statement. Instead of saying that X is true, these particles denote that X is true at least in the case of Y, even in the case of Y or only in the case of Y. # The basic idea expressed by is that of concentration: it focuses attention on the word (group) it follows, and limits the applicability of the statement to (at least) that specific element. Sometimes, the only way of translating is by emphasis, but in many cases, it means roughly at least, in any case: In an answer to a yes/no-question, often means yes, concentrating the answer on a specific aspect:
. (Xenophon, Hellenica 1.6.14) He said that, at least while he was commander, no Greek would be reduced to slavery, as far as was in his power. . (Plato, Apology 17a) And yet, so to say, theyve said nothing that was true. (or: theyve said nothing, or in any case not anything truthful) ; , , . (Sophocles, Antigone 1102) Does it seem best to you that I should give way? Yes, my lord, and with all speed.
Note:
The combination + is written #; it is often used in arguments used to prove an assertion, meaning in any case, at any rate, at least (as in John is a coward; at least, he ran away.)
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24. Particles
# The particle limits the applicability exactly and exclusively to the word (group) it follows. It is very common with relatives ( = exactly who) and with (exactly if, if and only if) In earlier Greek (e.g. Homer, Hesiod, Aeschylus), often has concessive force, especially with participles (also, preceding the participle, with => ):
, , . (Plato, Republic 538c) He said: You say all exactly as it may occur. . (Aeschylus, Agamemnon 1084) The divine power remains in the mind, even though it is enslaved.
(in its adverbial use) signals that the applicability of a statement extends even or also to the word (group) following it. The negative is (not even):
... . (Xenophon, Cyropaedia 5.4.15) And wanting also himself to do something illustrious, he ran off. ( is historic present.) , ... (Plato, Phaedo 92d) For, I think, it was said by us that the soul, even before it enters the body, is of the following nature ...
24.4. INTERACTIONAL PARTICLES

The particles #, , #, #, # and # (also , and described above) play a role in the attitudes and beliefs that speaker and hearer have towards what is said. English has similar devices, such as perhaps, surely, really, apparently, etc. By using these particles, a speaker can signal that his utterance should be interpreted in a specific way, or he can anticipate what the hearer might or should think about it. These particles (often called modal or attitudinal) are by far the hardest to translate, and the definitions below are by no means certain (the debate about the exact function of these particles, especially , and , is ongoing). # signals that the speaker is forced by what precedes to conclude (often surprisingly) what he now says: paraphrasing very elaborately, it may mean something like I have no other choice but to conclude, in view of what I (and you) have said before, that.... To translate, one can often do no better than (well) then, so. As a marker of surprise (apparently, it seems, then), it is especially common with the imperfect (used when someone realises to his surprise that something was the case).
, . (Xenophon, Anabasis 1.7.18) And he said to him that the king would not fight within ten days. And Cyrus answered: Well then, if he does not fight within that time, he will not fight at all any more. , . , ; . , , . (Euripides, Ion 309-12) I am called a slave of the god, and I am one, lady. As an offering of some city, or sold by someone? I know nothing but this one thing: it is said about me that I belong to Apollo Then I, in turn, pity you, stranger. ... : , . (Xenophon, Hellenica 3.4.9) And not bearing his disgrace well, he said: It seems that you, at any rate, Agesilaus, knew how to humiliate your friends.
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24. Particles
In statements, signals that the speaker considers what he is saying absolutely true: really, certainly, truly. In questions (also combined with => ), it has a force similar to do you really mean..?; sometimes, it introduces a suggested answer (disguised as a question, often sarcastic):
. (Lysias 2.40) Truly, these men greatly surpassed all in valour. ;. (Euripides, Hippolytus 97) Do you really expect that the same is this same thing is true among the gods? ; ; | , (Aeschylus, Agamemnon 1542) Who is the one that will bury him? Who the one that will sing the lament? I assume you will dare to do that ...?
# With , a speaker signals that what he says is true no matter what the hearer believes. anticipates possible disbelief or scepticism on the part of the hearer. As possible translations, I assure you, truly, certainly, etc. can work; sometimes the particle is best left untranslated, or paraphrased:
; , , . . (Sophocles, Oedipus Coloneus 26-8) But should I really go and find out which place it is? Yes, child, at least if it is really habitable. Oh, but it is inhabited, be assured of that. . , , , . (Lysias 8.7) And I myself have certainly discovered no ground on which you could reasonably have despised my company. For neither could I see that you were very wise but I very stupid, nor indeed that you were surrounded with friends but I myself was destitute of them.
Note:
and are often combined in oaths: then means truly and honestly, vel sim.
# With , a speaker throws his own weight behind something which he considers important, often because he is personally involved. It is sometimes used with a single word to put specific, sometimes emotional emphasis on that word. Translating adequately is virtually impossible, but indeed, truly or simple emphasis occasionally suffice. The particle often does little more than to mark the importance of a new point in a narrative or argument, or of a question or a command. In such cases, it perhaps also gets somewhat of a connective function, structuring the discourse. (Well) now, then or the use of a so-called cleft sentence (it was X who did Y rather than X did Y) are often the best one can do for a translation.
. (Euripides, Electra 36) (I come from) parents of Mycenean ancestry: on that at least, indeed, I am above reproach. . (Aristophanes, Knights 1387) I am returned to my original state, how happy I am!. (Thucydides 1.1.2) For this was, certainly, the greatest movement in history, for the Greeks as well as a part of the barbarian world. | ... (Euripides, Alcestis 26-8) And after that, when she had entered her bedchamber, it was there that she wept and said this: ... , . (Plato, Laws 925e) To these considerations, then, the lawgiver may perhaps appear to some to be paying no heed a false appearance.
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24. Particles
Note:
The particle is a stronger form of , used specifically in questions.
# (Ionic: ) By using a speaker signals that he is not completely sure about what he is saying: perhaps, I think, it appears to me, etc. are good translations
. (Herodotus 1.87.4) No, it was perhaps the desire of a god that it happened in that way. , , ... (Isocrates 15.75) I said, I think, before these words were read, that I was responsible not only for ...
# (originally a dative of the personal pronoun, second person) is used to bring a point to the specific attention of the hearer, often to change his mind about something. You should know, be aware, mark, are all good translations:
. (Aeschylus, Persae 245) Mark you, you utter terrible words! , . (Plato, Protagoras 316b) Protagoras, it is to you, know that, that we have come.
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25. NEGATIVES
25.1. INTRODUCTION
The distinction between two different negatives in Greek, and , extends throughout their use in various compound forms:
... ... not neither ... nor; not ... and not and not; but not; not even no one / nothing nowhere never not yet (in poetry also: in no way) no longer
Before vowels, gets the form . Before vowels with rough breathing, . There is also an intensive, emphatic form, . Very generally speaking, the distinction between the two negatives is as follows: is the neutral negation, expressing something about truth or fact. It contradicts or denies: = that is not true; is the subjective negation, expressing something about what is what is desired or hoped. It rejects and deprecates: = let that not be true.
25.2. MULTIPLE NEGATIVES

If there are two or more negatives in one clause, they cancel each other if (and only if): The second negative is not a compound form; Both negatives have the same domain (they belong to the same word or group of words):
. (Herodotus 5.56.1) No unjust man will not get punishment = Every unjust man will be punished.
The second negative is not a compound form and both negatives belong to the same domain, so they cancel each other.
A second negative that is a compound intensifies the first (only one should be translated!):
. (Plato, Apology 41d) Nothing evil happens to a good man.
The second negative is a compound form, so it strengthens the first.
Two negatives belonging to different expressions both keep their force:

. (Antiphon 3..6) It was not because they didnt throw (lit.: because of the not-throwing) that they didnt hit him.
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25. Negatives
25.3. IN MAIN CLAUSES

In statements, and its compounds are used, with the following moods: The indicative. The optative with (potential). The modal past indicative with or imperfects like /() without (counterfactual).
In negative wishes, negative adhortations, prohibitions, etc., and its compounds are used: With the imperative or aorist subjunctive (in prohibitions) (see 7.7.3-4, 14.1). With the first- or third-person subjunctive (in negative adhortations) (see 7.7.3, 14.1). With the optative without (in negative wishes) (see 7.7.2, 14.2).
Note:
The combination () + subj. can express a doubtful assertion (see 7.7.3). The combination + (aor.) subj. expresses a strong belief that something will not be the case (see 7.7.3).
25.4. IN QUESTIONS
When introducing a yes/no-question, / signals that the answer yes is expected: isnt it X?, it is X, isnt it?, surely its X? (see 13.2). / is used in yes/no-questions to indicate that the answer no is expected/desired: is it really X?, it isnt X, is it?, surely it isnt X? (see 13.2).
25.5. WITH INFINITIVES

The negative with the declarative infinitive (used in indirect speech) is (see 9.2, 12.2). The negative with the dynamic infinitive (to supplement verbs) is . This negative is always used (and left untranslated) with verbs of preventing, denying, forbidding, etc (see 9.3, 9.6).
Note:
When a verb that takes a dynamic infinitive is itself negated, the negative is . When a verb of preventing, etc. is negated, it is followed by (which is left untranslated): . It is possible for you not to be a slave. . It is not possible for you not to be a slave. . I prevent you from doing this. . I do not prevent you from doing this.
The articular infinitive (with the article) has negative (see 9.7).
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25. Negatives
25.6. WITH PARTICIPLES

With the supplementary participle with verbs (e.g. , , ), the negative is (see 10.2). The attributive participle (used as an adjective, or with the article as a noun) has: when it is used as an adjective: = the man who is not walking when it is used as a noun and the noun is specifically identifiable: = the (specific) man who is not walking Generic when it is used as a noun and the noun denotes an entire species or class: = whatever man is not walking (see 10.3)
Note:
This same generic use of is also common with nouns and with adjectives used as nouns: = whoever are not rich (the non-rich); = whoever is not a doctor.
The circumstantial participle (connected or in a genitive absolute construction) has , unless it is used to express a conditional relationship, in which case it has : = he will come if he isnt prevented somehow (see 10.4).
25.7. IN SUBORDINATE CLAUSES

In the following types of subordinate clause, is used: Declarative /-clauses (indirect speech) (see 12.3); Clauses with verbs of fearing (N.B. in these clauses means that/lest) (see 16.1); Temporal clauses referring to the present or past (, , etc.) (see 17.2); Result clauses () with the moods of independent sentences (result = fact) (see 20.2); Causal clauses (, ) (see 18.3); Most digressive relative clauses (, etc.), including relative clauses with causal force; also relative clauses with result-meaning (see 22.3).
In the following types of subordinate clause, is used: Clauses with verbs of effort () (see 16.2); Purpose clauses (, , ) (see 19.2); Result clauses () with the infinitive (result = likely, natural) (see 20.2); Conditional clauses () and concessive clauses ( / ) (see ch. 21); Temporal clauses referring to the future or to repeated/habitual occurrences (see 17.3-4); Most determinative relative clauses (, etc.), including relative clauses with the force of purposeclauses (see 22.3).
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26.
26.1. AS A CONJUNCTION
The word functions as a conjunction in the following cases: In (relative) clauses of comparison, such as, like, either with or without () in the main clause (see 22.1):
as it appears as it seems to me
, , ... (Xenophon, Anabasis 1.2.15) He ordered that the Greeks be stationed as was their custom in battl
After verbs of speaking/etc., that (see 12.3):

he says that
In indirect questions, how (see 13.5):

he asks how
In purpose clauses with the subjunctive (or optative in historic sequence), sometimes with , so that, in order to (see 19.2):
... . (Xenophon, Anabasis 3.1.47) And as soon as he had said these things, he stood up, so that what was required would not be delayed.
In temporal clauses, when, after, as soon as (especially in the form ... ) (see 17.1):
, . (Xenophon, Anabasis 4.3.9) As soon as a shimmer of daylight appeared, they sacrificed. , ... (Herodotus 1.189.1) When Cyrus tried to cross, at that moment ...
In result clauses ( is far more common), with infinitive or moods of independent sentences, so that, with the result that (see 20.2):
( ...) . (Herodotus 2.111) ... so high that it was impossible to see the mountaintops.
After verbs of effort, with the future indicative ( is far more common): that (see 16.2)
26.2. AS AN ADVERB
In the following constructions, is an adverb: In exclamations, how!:
. (Herodotus 7.46.1) How different from each other the things that you have done!
With a superlative, as as possible:

as strong as possible
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26.
With a participle, giving a subjective reason, cause, purpose (future participle) or comparison, on the grounds that, to, as if (see 12.3):
. (Xenophon, Anabasis 1.2.19) He turned this country over to the Greeks to ravage, on the grounds that it was hostile. . (Thucydides 2.7.1) They made preparations to go to war. . (Herodotus 4.95.5) They mourned him thinking he was dead.
With numerals and words indicating degree, roughly:

(Xenophon, Anabasis 1.2.3) having about five hundred hoplites
As a demonstrative adverb, normally accented , so, thus, that way:

even so not even in that case in the same way
26.3. AS A PREPOSITION
functions as a preposition meaning to only with persons (see 6.2):
to Socrates
111

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Evert van Emde Boas

7.7. Other Moods in Main Clauses

8. THE VERB: VOICE

4.3. The Dative

10. THE PARTICIPLE

4.4. The Accusative

11. IMPERSONAL CONSTRUCTIONS

5. TIME AND SPACE

12. INDIRECT DISCOURSE

7. THE VERB: TENSE & ASPECT, MOOD

21. CONDITIONAL CLAUSES

14. COMMANDS & EXHORTATIONS, WISHES

15. INTRODUCTION TO SUBORDINATE CLAUSES 75

22. RELATIVE CLAUSES

16. VERBS OF FEARING AND EFFORT

23. OVERVIEW OF SUBORDINATE CLAUSES 24. PARTICLES

17. TEMPORAL CLAUSES

18. CAUSAL CLAUSES

19. PURPOSE CLAUSES

20. RESULT CLAUSES

1.2. NOUN - ADJECTIVE/PRONOUN

1.3. ANTECEDENT - RELATIVE PRONOUN

For relative attraction, see 22.2.

Abstract nouns (identifiable as a discrete concept) usually take the article:

Infinitives (translate with an English gerund):

2.2. POSITION OF THE ARTICLE AND ADJECTIVAL PHRASES

This is especially important with participles (see 10.2-3):

Note also the different interpretation of prepositional phrases:

Some words always take the predicative position:

2.3. PRONOMINAL USES OF THE ARTICLE

In attributive position (always with the article), means the same:

Some idiomatic translations of , self: By itself, in itself, unaided, alone, bare:

With ... others (with ordinals):

3.2. DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS (, , )

refers to something relatively remote from the speaker (physically or mentally):

3.3. PERSONAL PRONOUNS (, , X; , , X)

3.4. POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS (, , X; , , X)

3.5. REFLEXIVE PRONOUNS (, , /; , , /)

3.6. THE RECIPROCAL PRONOUN ()

(with the article) means the rest, the other(s):

3.8. THE INDEFINITE PRONOUN ()

4.2. THE GENITIVE

The following adjectives are supplemented by a genitive:

takes the dative; * is impossible.

4.2.2. With nouns (attributively)

lit: the good among the people (= the good people)

4.2.3. With sentences (adverbially)

The price of something is expressed in the genitive genitive of price/value (pretii):

4.3. THE DATIVE

The following adjectives are supplemented by a dative:

4.3.2. With nouns (attributively)

4.3.3. With sentences (adverbially)

The dative of cause (causae) expresses reason or cause:

4.4. THE ACCUSATIVE

4.4.2. Internal object

Occasionally, the noun in the accusative is omitted:

4.4.3. With sentences (adverbially)

4.4.4. Apposition to a sentence

With the article, this genitive can be used distributively:

5. Time and Space

5.2. SPATIAL MODIFIERS

In general, the accusative is used with prepositions to indicate motion towards: