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296
Chapter 8 
8.38.3
Concentrated acids and bases are very hazardous.For example,concentrated hydrochloric acid is so corrosive that it will burn throughclothing.A concentrated base is also highly corrosive.However,hydrochloric acid is also found in your stomach,and baking soda is safeenough to put in the food that you eat.A dilute solution ofhydrochloricacid is less acidic and less likely to react than a concentrated solution.Howcan we determine how acidic or basic a substance is?Chemists use the
pH scale
to represent how acidic or basic a solutionis.Most acids and bases can be ranked on this scale.A very acidic solutionhas a very low pH value.A neutral solution,like pure water,has a pH of7.A very basic (or alkaline) solution has a very high pH value.The pH valuesfor a variety ofcommon substances are shown in
Figure 1.
The pH Scale
Figure 1
The pH scale was developed in 1909 to allow scientists to compare the concentration of hydrogenions in various solutions.
The pH scale was so-namedbecause it represents the“
p
ower of
H
ydrogen”— that is, the concentration of hydrogenions — in a solution.
Did You Know?
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Bleach
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Dilution and pH
Try This
 Activity 
Ifyour school lab is equipped with a pH meterthat gives digital readouts ofpH,you could use itto investigate the effects ofdilution on pH.
•
Put on safety goggles and an apron.
•
Obtain 10 mL ofa solution with a pH of1.(A 1% hydrochloric acid solution would beappropriate.) Measure the exact pH ofthesolution using the meter.
•
Dilute the solution by a factor of10.Forexample,place 10 mL ofthe acid in agraduated cylinder and add 90 mL ofwaterto make 100 mL ofsolution.Measure the pHofthis dilute solution.
•
Repeat the process with successive dilutionsofacid.Record and analyze your resultsusing a table and graph.
(a)
Explain your results.
•
Repeat the process using a solution with apH of13.(A 0.5% solution ofsodiumhydroxide would be appropriate.)
(b)
Explain your results.
Acids and Bases 
297
pH: A Logarithmic Scale
The pH scale is a logarithmic scale
(Figure 2),
which means that every change ofone unit onthe scale represents a tenfold effect on theconcentration ofthe solution.For example,anincrease ofone on the scale represents dividingthe concentration by 10 (or 10
1
),and a decreaseoftwo represents multiplying the concentrationby 100 (or 10
2
).As the pH decreases,the solution becomesmore acidic.A solution with a pH of3 is 10 timesmore acidic than a solution with a pH of4 and100 times more acidic than a solution with a pHof5.As the pH increases,the solution becomesmore basic.Thus,a solution with a pH of13 is 10times more basic than a solution with a pH of12and 100 times more basic than a solution with apH of11.The pH is defined according to the followingformula:
pH =
−
log
10
[H
+
]
where the square brackets around the H
+
ionrepresent the “concentration ofhydrogen ions insolution.”The units ofconcentration are mol/L(read as “moles per litre”).
Figure 2
The Richter scale is a logarithmic scale. An increase of three units on the scalerepresents an earthquake that is 1000 times worse. The 1989 earthquake thatcaused serious damage in parts of California measured 7.1 on the Richter scale.
Sodium hydroxide is corrosive.Any spills on the skin,in the eyes,or onclothing should be washed immediately with cold water.Report any spills to your teacher.Hydrochloric acid is corrosive.Any spills on the skin,in the eyes,or onclothing should be washed immediately with cold water.Report any spills to your teacher.
 
298
Chapter 8 
pH and Soil
Have you ever seen someone adding lime to soil? Lime (CaO) can beadded to acidic soil to make the soil more basic.As you learned in Chapter3,the pH ofsoil determines the fertility ofthe soil.Plants differ in theirpreference for soil acidity.For example,many leguminous crops preferneutral to slightly alkaline soils (pH of7 to 10);corn and small grainsprefer slightly acidic soil (pHof5 to 6);and potatoes and blueberriesprefer acidic soils (pH ofless than 5).The sources ofsoil acidity includeorganic matter decay,naturally occurring acids,and acid precipitation.The correct management ofsoil pH is important for providing optimalgrowing conditions for plants,maintaining optimal levels of nutrients,and using fertilizers efficiently.
pH and Cosmetics
Have you ever heard pH mentioned inadvertisements for skin and hair products?Many products advertise that they are “pHbalanced”or that they “restore your hair’snatural pH”
(Figure 3).
Should youbelieve such claims? What do they mean?The acidity ofa shampoo can have adefinite effect on hair.The clear outerprotein layer ofhair is called the cuticle.Very basic (high-pH) shampoos cause theinner hair shaft to swell and push apart thecuticle.The harsh bases used in hairpermanents and hair colouring have evenstronger effects.They can dissolve the cuticleand damage the hair,making it dull and dry.Acidic (low-pH) shampoos shrink theinner shaft,causing the cuticle to lie flat and restoring the hair’s originalflexibility and shine.However,low-pH shampoos are not for everyone.People with thick,curly hair who would prefer their hair to be straightercan benefit from more alkaline (higher-pH) shampoos,which soften andstraighten the hair.The pH ofsoaps and other cosmetic products can also affect skin cells.The pH ofskin normally ranges between 5 and 6.Using basic (high-pH)products can remove the outer layer ofdead skin cells,which containprotein molecules.The skin will look brighter and clearer.But frequent useofbasic products may remove too many layers ofcells.Moreover,the toplayer ofthe skin contains natural acids that protect the skin from infection.Too much use ofvery basic soaps can remove these protective acids.
Many acids are used in cosmeticproducts. Alpha hydroxy acids(AHAs) are found in manypopular face creams. Salicylicacid is a white powder used inwart remover.
Did You Know?
1Some personal care productshave a particular pH. Does thepH of the product you havechosen have any effect on itsmarketability or its usefulness?
Challenge
Figure 3
Some cosmetic products advertise their pH.
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