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Autonomous
 
Military
 
Robotics:
 
Risk,
 
Ethics,
 
and
 
Design
 
Prepared
 
for:
 
US
 
Department
 
of 
 
Navy,
 
Office
 
of 
 
Naval
 
Research
 
Prepared
 
by:
 
Patrick
 
Lin,
 
Ph.D.
 
George
 
Bekey,
 
Ph.D.
 
Keith
 
Abney,
 
M.A.
 
Ethics
 
&
 
Emerging
 
Technologies
 
Group
 
at
 
California
 
State
 
Polytechnic
 
University,
 
San
 
Luis
 
Obispo
 
Prepared
 
on:
 
December
 
20,
 
2008
 
This
 
work 
 
is
 
sponsored 
 
by 
 
the
 
Department 
 
of 
 
the
 
Navy,
 
Office
 
of 
 
Naval 
 
Research,
 
under 
 
award 
 
# 
 
N00014
‐
07 
‐
1
‐
1152.
 
 
▌
i
 
Table
 
of 
 
Contents
 
Preface
 
iii
 
1.
 
Introduction
 
1
 
1.1.
 
Opening
 
Remarks
 
2
 
1.2.
 
Definitions
 
4
 
1.3.
 
Market
 
Forces
 
&
 
Considerations
 
5
 
1.4.
 
Report
 
Overview
 
9
 
2.
 
Military
 
Robotics
 
11
 
2.1.
 
Ground
 
Robots
 
12
 
2.2.
 
Aerial
 
Robots
 
14
 
2.3.
 
Marine
 
Robots
 
16
 
2.4.
 
Space
 
Robots
 
17
 
2.5.
 
Immobile/Fixed
 
Robots
 
18
 
2.6.
 
Robots
 
Software
 
Issues
 
19
 
2.7.
 
Ethical
 
Implications:
 
A
 
Preview
 
21
 
2.8.
 
Future
 
Scenarios
 
21
 
3.
 
Programming
 
Morality
 
25
 
3.1.
 
From
 
Operational
 
to
 
Functional
 
Morality
 
25
 
3.2.
 
Overview:
 
Top
‐
Down
 
and
 
Bottom
‐
Up
 
Approaches
 
27
 
3.3.
 
Top
‐
Down
 
Approaches
 
28
 
3.4.
 
Bottom
‐
Up
 
Approaches
 
34
 
3.5.
 
Supra
‐
Rational
 
Faculties
 
37
 
3.6.
 
Hybrid
 
Systems
 
38
 
3.7.
 
First
 
Conclusions:
 
How
 
Best
 
to
 
Program
 
Ethical
 
Robots
 
40
 
4.
 
The
 
Laws
 
of 
 
War
 
and
 
Rules
 
of 
 
Engagement
 
43
 
4.1.
 
Coercion
 
and
 
the
 
LOW
 
43
 
4.2.
 
Just
‐
War
 
Theory
 
and
 
the
 
LOW
 
44
 
4.3.
 
Just
‐
War
 
Theory:
 
 Jus
 
ad 
 
Bellum
 
45
 
4.4.
 
Just
‐
War
 
Theory:
 
 Jus
 
in
 
Bello
 
47
 
A u t o n o m o u s
 
M i l i t a r y
 
R o b o t i c s :
 
R i s k ,
 
E t h i c s ,
 
a n d
 
D e s i g n
 
Copyright
 
2008
 
©
 
Lin,
 
Abney,
 
and
 
Bekey.
 
All
 
trademarks,
 
logos
 
and
 
images
 
are
 
the
 
property
 
of 
 
their
 
respective
 
owners.
 
 
▌
ii
 
4.5.
 
Rules
 
of 
 
Engagement
 
and
 
the
 
Laws
 
of 
 
War
 
53
 
4.6.
 
Just
‐
War
 
Theory:
 
 Jus
 
 post 
 
Bellum
 
54
 
4.7.
 
First
 
Conclusions:
 
Relevance
 
to
 
Robots
 
54
 
5.
 
Law
 
and
 
Responsibility
 
55
 
5.1.
 
Robots
 
as
 
Legal
 
Quasi
‐
Agents
 
55
 
5.2.
 
Agents,
 
Quasi
‐
Agents,
 
and
 
Diminished
 
Responsibility
 
58
 
5.3.
 
Crime,
 
Punishment,
 
and
 
Personhood
 
59
 
6.
 
Technology
 
Risk
 
Assessment
 
Framework
 
63
 
6.1.
 
Acceptable
‐
Risk
 
Factor:
 
Consent
 
63
 
6.2.
 
Acceptable
‐
Risk
 
Factor:
 
Informed
 
Consent
 
66
 
6.3.
 
Acceptable
‐
Risk
 
Factor:
 
The
 
Affected
 
Population
 
68
 
6.4.
 
Acceptable
‐
Risk
 
Factor:
 
Seriousness
 
and
 
Probability
 
68
 
6.5.
 
Acceptable
‐
Risk
 
Factor:
 
Who
 
Determines
 
Acceptable
 
Risk?
 
70
 
6.6.
 
Other
 
Risks
 
72
 
7.
 
Robot
 
Ethics:
 
The
 
Issues
 
73
 
7.1.
 
Legal
 
Challenges
 
73
 
7.2.
 
Just
‐
War
 
Challenges
 
74
 
7.3.
 
Technical
 
Challenges
 
76
 
7.4.
 
Human
‐
Robot
 
Challenges
 
79
 
7.5.
 
Societal
 
Challenges
 
81
 
7.6.
 
Other
 
and
 
Future
 
Challenges
 
84
 
7.7.
 
Further
 
and
 
Related
 
Investigations
 
Needed
 
86
 
8.
 
Conclusions
 
87
 
9.
 
References
 
92
 
A.
 
Appendix:
 
Definitions
 
100
 
A.1
 
Robot
 
100
 
A.2
 
Autonomy
 
103
 
A.3
 
Ethics
 
105
 
B.
 
Appendix:
 
Contacts
 
107
 
A u t o n o m o u s
 
M i l i t a r y
 
R o b o t i c s :
 
R i s k ,
 
E t h i c s ,
 
a n d
 
D e s i g n
 
Copyright
 
2008
 
©
 
Lin,
 
Abney,
 
and
 
Bekey.
 
All
 
trademarks,
 
logos
 
and
 
images
 
are
 
the
 
property
 
of 
 
their
 
respective
 
owners.
 
of 00

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