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1.0 The OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) model:

Definition: The OSI model defines internetworking in terms of a vertical stack of seven layers. Theupper layers of the OSI model represent software that implements network services likeencryption and connection management. The lower layers of the OSI model implement moreprimitive, hardware-oriented functions like routing, addressing, and flow control.The OSI model was introduced in 1984. Although it was designed to be an abstract model, theOSI model remains a practical framework for today's key network technologies like Ethernet andprotocols like IP.The OSI model should be used as a guide for how data is transmitted over the network. It is anabstract representation of the data pathway and should be treated as such.The OSI model was specifically made for connecting open systems. These systems are designedto be open for communication with almost any other system. The model was made to break downeach functional layer so that overall design complexity could be lessened. The model wasconstructed with seven layers for the flow of information. These are:1.Application Layer 2. Presentation Layer 3. Session Layer 4. Transport Layer 5. Network Layer 6. Datalink Layer 7. Physical Layer

1.1 Application layer: P

rovides a means for the user to access information on the networkthrough an application. This layer is the main interface for the user to interact with the applicationand therefore the network.The application layer is the OSI layer closest to the end user, which means that both theOSI application layer and the user interact directly with the software application. This layer interacts with software applications that implement a communicating component. Suchapplication programs fall outside the scope of the OSI model. Application layer functions typicallyinclude identifying communication partners, determining resource availability, and synchronizingcommunication. When identifying communication partners, the application layer determines theidentity and availability of communication partners for an application with data to transmit. Whendetermining resource availability, the application layer must decide whether sufficient networkresources for the requested communication exist. In synchronizing communication, allcommunication between applications requires cooperation that is managed by the applicationlayer.Some examples of application layer implementations include Telnet, File Transfer Protocol (FTP), and Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP).

1.2 Presentation layer:

Manages the presentation of the information in an ordered andmeaningful manner. This layer's primary function is the syntax and semantics of the datatransmission. It converts local host computer data representations into a standard network formatfor transmission on the network. On the receiving side, it changes the network format into theappropriate host computer's format so that data can be utilized independent of the host computer.ASCII and EBCDIC conversions, cryptography, and the like are handled here.The presentation layer provides a variety of coding and conversion functions that areapplied to application layer data. These functions ensure that information sent from theapplication layer of one system would be readable by the application layer of another system.

Some examples of presentation layer coding and conversion schemes include common datarepresentation formats, conversion of character representation formats, common datacompression schemes, and common data encryption schemes.Common data representation formats, or the use of standard image, sound, and videoformats, enable the interchange of application data between different types of computer systems.Using different text and data representations, such as EBCDIC and ASCII, uses conversionschemes to exchange information with systems. Standard data compression schemes enabledata that is compressed. or encrypted at the source device to be properly decompressed, or deciphered at the destination.Presentation layer implementations are not typically associated with a particular protocolstack. Some well-known standards for video include QuickTime and Motion Picture ExpertsGroup (MPEG). QuickTime is an Apple Computer specification for video and audio, and MPEG isa standard for video compression and coding.Among the well-known graphic image formats are Graphics Interchange Format (GIF), JointPhotographic Experts Group (JPEG), and Tagged Image File Format (TIFF). GIF is a standard for compressing and coding graphic images. JPEG is another compression and coding standard for graphic images, and TIFF is a standard coding format for graphic images.

1.3. Session layer:

Coordinates dialogue/session/connection between devices over the network.This layer manages communications between connected sessions. Examples of this layer aretoken management (the session layer manages who has the token) and network timesynchronization.The session layer establishes, manages, and terminates communication sessions.Communication sessions consist of service requests and service responses that occur betweenapplications located in different network devices. These requests and responses are coordinatedby protocols implemented at the session layer. Some examples of session-layer implementationsinclude Zone Information Protocol (ZIP), the AppleTalk protocol that coordinates the name bindingprocess; and Session Control Protocol (SCP), the Decent Phase IV session layer protocol.

1.4. Transport layer:

Responsible for reliable transmission of data and service specificationbetween hosts. The major responsibility of this layer is data integrity--that data transmittedbetween hosts is reliable and timely. Upper layer data grams are broken down into network-sizeddata grams if needed and then implemented using appropriate transmission control. Thetransport layer creates one or more than one network connection, depending on conditions. Thislayer also handles what type of connection will be created. Two major transport protocols are theTCP (Transmission Control Protocol) and the UDP (User Data gram Protocol).Important features of Transport layer:

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Transport layer ensures reliable service.

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Breaks the message (from sessions layer) into smaller packets, assigns sequencenumber and sends them.

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Reliable transport connections are built on top of X.25 or IP.

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In case IP, lost packets arriving out of order must be reordered.Important features of TCP/UDP:

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TCP/IP Widely used for network/transport layer (UNIX).

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TCP: (Transport Control Protocol) This is a connection oriented protocol.

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UDP (Universal Data gram Protocol): This is a connectionless transport layer protocol.

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Application programs that do not need connection-oriented protocol generally use UDP.

1. 5 . Network layer:

Responsible for the routing of data (packets) through the network; handlesthe addressing and delivery of data. This layer provides for congestion control, accountinginformation for the network, routing, addressing, and several other functions. IP (InternetProtocol) is a good example of a network layer protocol. Network layer does not deal with lostmessages.Important features of Network layer protocols:

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Concerned with the transmission of packets.

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Choose the best path to send a packet (routing).

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The routing may be complex in a large network (e.g. Internet).

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Routing packets through a network may be accomplished by using simple static routes or by using complex dynamic routing algorithms.

1 . 6. Data link layer:

Provides for the reliable delivery of data across a physical network. Thislayer deals with issues such as flow regulation, error detection and control, and frames. This layer has the important task of creating and managing what frames are sent out on the network. Thenetwork data frame, or packet, is made up of checksum, source address, destination address,and the data itself. The largest packet size that can be sent defines the maximum transmissionUnit (MTU).Important features of Data link layer:

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Handles errors in the physical layer.

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Groups bits into frames and ensures their correct delivery.

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Adds some bits at the beginning and end of each frame plus the checksum.

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Receiver verifies the checksum.

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If the checksum is not correct, it asks for retransmission. (Send a control message).

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Consists of two sub layers:Logical Link Control (LLC) defines how data is transferred over the cable and provides data linkservice to the higher layers.Medium Access Control (MAC) defines who can use the network when multiple computers aretrying to access it simultaneously (i.e. Token passing, Ethernet [CSMA/CD]). The data link layer provides reliable transit of data across a physical network link. Differentdata link layer specifications define different network and protocol characteristics, includingphysical addressing, network topology, error notification, sequencing of frames, and flow control.Physical addressing (as opposed to network addressing) defines how devices are addressed atthe data link layer. Network topology consists of the data link layer specifications that often definehow devices are to be physically connected, such as in a bus or a ring topology. Error notification