PDHengineer.

com
Course M-1009

Advanced Boiler Cycles

Thisdocumentisthecoursetext.Youmayreviewthismaterialat yourleisurebeforeorafteryoupurchasethecourse.Ifyouhavenot alreadypurchasedthecourse,youmaydosonowbyreturningtothe courseoverviewpagelocatedat: http://www.pdhengineer.com/pages/M1009.htm (Pleasebesuretocapitalizeandusedashasshownabove.) Oncethecoursehasbeenpurchased,youcaneasilyreturntothe courseoverview,coursedocumentandquizfromPDHengineersMy Accountmenu. Ifyouhaveanyquestionsorconcerns,rememberyoucancontactus byusingtheLiveSupportChatlinklocatedonanyofourwebpages, byemailatadministrator@PDHengineer.comorbytelephonetoll freeat1877PDHengineer. ThankyouforchoosingPDHengineer.com.

PDHengineer.com,aservicemarkofDecaturProfessionalDevelopment,LLC.M1009C1

Advanced Boiler Cycles (1 PDH) Course No. M-1009

Introduction
Supercritical phase of steam is reached when its pressure is raised above the crititical point (3,208 psia). When in this phase, there is no physical delineation between the liquid and the vapor phases. Conventional drum-type boilers have no application at supercritical pressures. There is a considerable increase in efficiency in cycles operating within this pressure and temperature range. There were several power plants built in the late 1950's and early 1960's that were designed to operate in the supercritical range. They earned reputations of high efficiencies, but low reliability and non suitablity for cycling operation. Their popularity and utilization, however, continued in Europe and Asia. Development in metallurgy and welding techniques overcame many of the early problems, and there is a resurgence of interest in supercritical technology in the United States.

Advanced Boiler Cycles For studies involved in the variation of the basic steam cycle, it is necessary to thoroughly understand the properties of steam, the effects of pressure and temperature, and the use of superheat. A brief review of the fundamentals that apply to the generation of steam will be helpful. The theoretical amount of work that can be obtained from steam used in a prime mover is equivalent to the change in its total heat content from its condition at the entering state to that at its exhaust state. The vaporization of water occurs in two steps: First by adding heat to the water to raise it to boiling from the vapor / water interface, the continued addition of heat will cause the steam to become superheated. The superheated steam cannot condense as long as it is above the saturation temperature corresponding to the saturation pressure. In a drum-type boiler, this water / vapor interface is maintained in the steam drum. Once the saturated steam leaves the steam drum, it passes to the superheater tube banks where it is superheated. Basic Ideal Rankine Cycle The basic reversible Rankine superheat cycle plotted on Temperature / Entropy coordinates is illustrated below. This is the ideal cycle upon which drum type boilers are based.

The boiler feed pump raises the feedwater temperature isentropically from point a to point b. Next, heat is added in the boiler at constant pressure as the twophase fluid circulates through the boiler generating tubes and steam drum. After the saturated steam leaves the drum, it enters the superheated phase, and the temperature rises to point c. The area under the curve (the integral of Tds) represents heat. Heat is added from point a to point d, and is rejected from point d to point a. The shaded area represents heat rejected from the cycle in the condenser. The net work of the cycle, therefore, is represented by the area under a b c d minus the shaded area. The heat rejected is a function of the temperture of the heat sink, which nearly always is a large body of water or the atmosphere. The heat sink average temperature is generally about 60 deg. F. This fixes the heat rejected from a cycle as a function of a 60 deg. F. temperature. Therefore, to increase the net work, and thus the efficiency of a cycle, the area under the curve a b c d must be maximized. Rankine Regenerative Cycle A nearly universal variation to power plant Rankine cycles is the regeneration cycle. The Rankine regenerative cycle utilizes partially expanded steam

extracted from the turbine at various points to heat the condensate and feedwater on its way back to the boiler or steam generator. The schematic of a regenerative cycle with two stages of feedwater heating is shown below. High pressure steam is extracted and directed to the high pressure feedwater heater # 1 (line 3). Low pressure steam is extracted at a lower pressure turbine stage and is directed to low pressure feedwater heater #2 (line 4). For simplicity, only two feedwater heating stages are shown here, however in large power plants as many as eight stages may be employed. Completely reversible heat transfer can take place only when there is no temperature difference between the heating and cooling media. This is physically impossible, of course, because a temperature difference is required for heat transfer to take place. Therefore, completely reversible heat transfer is impossible. (Heat can flow only from hot to cold). However, as the temperature difference between hot and cold are closer, the increase in entropy is less, so the heat transfer is more efficient. This does not mean that the heat transfer is more effective when the temperature difference is less. The rate of heat transfer is proportional to the temperature difference between hot and cold, but the greater the temperature difference, the greater the increase in entropy during the process. What this means is that incremental steps of heat transfer to the feedwater increases the cycle efficiency over having all of the heat transfer taking place within the boiler.

The regenerative Rankine cycle is illustrated below. It can be shown that the best efficiency for a given number of heaters is realized when the temperature range per heater is approximately equal. Accordingly, for the cycle being illustrated for additional heaters, the same plan would be followed, solving

temperature difference between the saturated vapor at the boiler pressure and the saturated liquid at the condenser is divided into three equal parts. The optimum extraction pressures are the saturation pressures corresponding to these saturation temperatures. The weight of steam to be removed at each extraction point is calculated by setting up a heat balance across each heater. Equating the total heat transferred from the extracted steam to heater #1 gives Q steam = Q feedwater. h = enthalpy in BTU / lb. w = steam flow in lb / hr w1( h3 - h s ) = (1-w 1 )(hs -h7 ). In a similar manner, a heat balance may be drawn across the second heater to give: w 2 (h4 - h7) = (1-w1 -w 2 )(h7 -h 6 ) By getting the enthalpies from the steam tables and solving for w1, the result may be used to solve for w2 . The thermal efficiency for the cycle would be: (h2 - h1)- (1-w1 - w2)(h5 - h6) h2 - h1 For additional heaters, the same plan would be followed, solving for each weight in order. The increase in efficiency must result in an operating cost reduction that is greater than the increased capital cost of the heaters and the additional piping. In a large power plant with today's fuel costs, this can economically justify eight stages of feedwater heating.

Diagram for Regenerative Rankine cycle

Reheat Cycle Another common variation of the basic Rankine cycle is the Rankine reheat cycle. In order to take advantage of the additional heat added, as well as to gain the practical advantage of drier steam at the turbine exhaust, most power plants use the Rankine Reheat cycle, illustrated in the diagrams below, in enthalpyentropy (h-s) coordinates to the left, and temperature-entropy coordinates to the right. In the reheat cycle, the superheated steam that is passed through and exhausted from the high pressure turbine is brought to the reheat section of the boiler, where the temperature is raised to approximately the original reheat temperature. The hot reheat steam is then returned to the lower pressure turbine stages to complete its expansion. The gain in net work, therefore efficiency, is realized as the heat added, represented by the area under the curve 3, 4, 5 on the T-s coordinates, is greater than the additional heat rejected, represented by the area a, 5, c, d. The upper temperature limit of the superheated steam is limited by the current metallurgy of the boiler tubes, hot reheat steam lines, and turbine blading. The majority of present-day reheat cycles operate at 1050 deg. F.

Supercritical Steam When water is heated at a constant pressure of 3,208 psia and above, it does not boil and does not produce a two-phase mixture of water and steam. At 3,208 psia and above, there is no physical differentiation between water and steam. This "critical point" is at the apex of the saturation line as shown on T-s coordinates. Above this pressure, the physical properties (density, compressibility, and viscosity) change continuously from those of a liquid to those of a vapor. The temperature steadily rises. The specific heat and rate of rise varies considerably during this transition. During the boiling process at subcritical pressures, individual molecules break out of the dense liquid clusters and form a separate vapor phase. At supercritical pressures, as heat is added to the liquid, the clusters gradually divide into smaller clusters, and the spacing of the molecules gradually become less dense until the transition to the wide-spaced, random molecular arrangement of vapor is attained. Supercritical Steam Cycles As new coal-fired plants are being considered in this country, many developers are looking seriously at supercritical technology. The capital costs are higher than the more conventional subcritical plants, but the cost of fuel and environmental concerns are playing a large role in decision making. Also, the increased interest in efficient coal-fueled plants may be a result of the disenchantment with the nuclear power industry. Babcock Borsig Capital Corporation {U.S. office: Boston) maintains that coal is completely competitive with gas-fired combined cycles when gas is priced around $3 per MBtu, assuming a 85% capacity factor and a coal price of $1.25 per MBtu.

Looking at the basic Rankine cycle once again, it can be seen that the heat added, and thereby the net work and efficiency, can be increased by pressurizing the liquid above the critical point and thereby eliminating the horizontal path through the saturated zone that occurs in subcritical boilers. This increases the heat added area. The temperature rises continuously along the constant pressure line. Increases in efficiency not only reduce fuel cost, but also reduces the specific (per MW) emissions of many pollutants compared to subcritical coal-fired boilers. Also, the efficiency of supercritical boilers does not fall off significantly at part-load, particularly if the plants can operate in a sliding pressure mode. (More about sliding pressure operation later.) The earliest supercritical boilers were built in the late 50's and early 60's. These units established a reputation for high efficiencies (around 35%) and low reliabilities. 35% efficiency may not seem high when compared to claims being made by gas-fired cogeneration plants, but we are looking at two different definitions of efficiency.( Refer to the PDHengineer course "Thermodynamics of Cogeneration") The materials of the 1950's and 1960's era were not up to the demands of high temperatures and pressures. Supercritical units became unpopular for new construction in this country. Gas-fired and combined cycles got most of the attention of power plant project developers. In Europe and Asia, however, supercritical technology continued to be pursued, and by the 1990's it dominated new capacity projects. Of the new coal fired power plants commissioned abroad between 1995 and 2000, 85% were supercritical, some 20,000 mw of capacity. Equipped with advanced materials and digital controls, these new supercritical plants are delivering high efficiency (around 44% LHV) and topnotch availability factors, around 85 to 90%. Supercritical Steam Generators Nearly 200 supercritical steam generators are operating world-wide today, with pressures up to 4,500 psig. More advances in materials and designs introduced in the late 90's have raised steam temperatures as high as 1,150 deg.F., achieving efficiencies of 44% LHV. As higher steam temperatures up to 1,200 deg. F. come into being, efficiencies of 50% are being predicted. The nature of supercritical steam generation rules out the use of a boiler drum to separate steam from water. Drumless "once through" steam generators are universally used for supercritical operation. The term "steam generator" will be used instead of "boiler" for once-through steam production, because boiling as such does not really take place. Turbines for subcritical systems are usually designed for steam pressures of 2,520 psig. A drum operating pressure of 2,750 to 2,850 is required to allow for pressure drops in the superheater and main steam line. The densities of steam and water rapidly approaching each other

above this pressure level represents an approximate limit for drum-type boilers incorporating steam separation and recirculation. A significant characteristic of once through steam generators is that all impurities in the feedwater must either be deposited in the generating tubes or superheating surfaces, or be carried over into the turbine. Therefore, only the best possible feedwater treatment is acceptable because blowdown from the drum and generating tubes is not available to remove impurities from the system. The makeup water and the condensate must be purified. Otherwise the concentration of impurities in the system would gradually build up and force an outage for cleaning or repairs. In all boilers and steam generators, flow through the tubes must be maintained in order to control the tube metal temperature and prevent tube failure caused by the combustion. In a once through steam generator, circulation can only be established by operating the feedwater pumps and continuously admitting feedwater to the system to cool the steam generating and superheating surfaces. A certain minimum water flow must be established prior to full firing of the steam generator. It has been normal practice to design once-through systems to ensure a flow rate of at least 30% at rated flow at all times. Therefore at start up and for low loads, a turbine by-pass system is utilized to divert the steam to flash tanks. The fluid system start up for once through steam generators is different, and somewhat more complicated than for drum type boilers. Once through steam generators come equipped with an integral start up system, which will vary in details from manufacturer to manufacturer. In any case, the unit is initially fired, warmed up, and brought to partial load on the by-pass system. The boiler feed pump establishes a flow through the economizer and waterwall tubes. The flow continues through the flash tanks (or separators) and on to the condenser, then through the condensate polishers and back to the steam generator. The burners are lit, and gradually the waterwall temperature is raised to the point where the turbine can be rolled. Supercritical Steam Generator Design Configurations The major differences between the various once-through steam generator designs on the market are the configuration of the furnace enclosure circuits and the systems used to circulate water at start up and low loads. The three leading designs are:

Vertical tube multipass furnace, upon which early supercritical designs were based. These proved suitable for base load operation, but were not as well-suited for cycling because of the thermal stresses involved.

The spiral tube Benson furnace configuration, in combination with a boiler recirculation pump was developed to minimize thermal shock during transients. Spiral tube Sulzer furnaces are very similar to the Benson furnaces. Both use separator vessels for start up.

Sliding Pressure Operation Sliding pressure operation can be utilized in certain drum type boilers as well as once-through steam generators (with some qualifications). The main advantage is higher part load efficiencies. In a conventional drum type boiler-turbine combination, the boiler pressure remains essentially constant throughout the operating range, with load control accomplished by the turbine throttle valves. Throttling steam flow is not a reversible process and therefore introduces inefficiencies to the cycle. With sliding pressure operation with drum type boilers, the turbine operates essentially with throttle valves wide open throughout most of the load range, but admits steam to only a portion of the throttle valves (partial arc admission) rather than all of the valves (full arc admission), and the turbine power is controlled by varying the boiler pressure. Sliding pressure operation has the further advantage of maintaining full superheat temperature over a wider load range than conventional throttling control. This reduces the cyclic thermal stresses experienced during cycling operation. Cycling operation may be defined as rapid rates of load increase and a significantly larger number of start up and shut down cycles compared to a base load unit. In once through steam generators, load is a function of the steam flow, which in turn is controlled by the feedwater pumps. If the pressure throughout the steam generating tubes is allowed to drop below the critical pressure, two-phase flow and steam-water separation will result. This will result in some of the secondary superheater tubes having variations in the steam-water mix. Because of the differences in densities between steam and water, flow will be restricted in the tubes having a greater steam concentration, and uneven heat transfer could cause tube failures. In order to take advantage of the benefits of variable pressure operation during load turndown, pressure control division valves are installed between the primary and secondary superheaters. These valves keep the steam generator tubes above the critical pressure, while permitting the turbine to operate under its optimum pressure for a given load. With partial arc steam admission, the full steam throttle pressure can be maintained down to about 60% load. Because of the requirement to maintain steam generator pressure, the advantage of reducing feed pump pressure at reduced loads cannot be realized with supercritical cycles. The steam temperature is controlled by the firing rate, and is augmented in some units by injecting superheating water between the superheat stages. A once through steam generator requires a more precise balance of

inputs and outputs than drum type boilers because of the lack of the flywheel effect of a boiler drum.

References: 1. The statistics on supercritical boiler use is from Power Magazine, July, 2002 2. The diagrams are taken from Elements of Applied Thermodynamics, United States Naval Institute Press. 3. Comparisons of supercritical cycles are taken from Combustion Fossil Power Systems published by Combustion Engineering, Inc.