TSL3104 Phonetics and Phonology Modul

PROGRAM PENSISWAZAHAN GURU (PPG)
MOD PENDIDIKAN JARAK JAUH
IJAZAH SARJANA MUDA PERGURUAN DENGAN KEPUJIAN
MODUL PHONETICS AND PHONOLOGY TSL3104
BAHASA INGGERIS MAJOR
INSTITUT PENDIDIKAN GURU KEMENTERIAN PELAJARAN MALAYSIA ARAS 1, ENTERPRISE BUILDING 3, BLOK 2200, PERSIARAN APEC, CYBER 6, 63000 CYBERJAYA Berkuat kuasa pada Jan 2012
Falsafah Pendidikan Kebangsaan Pendidikan di Malaysia adalah suatu usaha berterusan ke arah memperkembangkan lagi potensi individu secara menyeluruh dan bersepadu untuk mewujudkan insan yang seimbang dan harmonis dari segi intelek, rohani, emosi, dan jasmani berdasarkan kepercayaan dan kepatuhan kepada Tuhan. Usaha ini adalah bagi melahirkan rakyat Malaysia yang berilmu pengetahuan, berketrampilan, berakhlak mulia, bertanggungjawab, dan berkeupayaan mencapai kesejahteraan diri serta memberi sumbangan terhadap keharmonian dan kemakmuran keluarga, masyarakat, dan negara.
Falsafah Pendidikan Guru Guru yang berpekerti mulia, berpandangan progresif dan saintifik, bersedia menjunjung aspirasi negara serta menyanjung warisan kebudayaan negara, menjamin perkembangan individu, dan memelihara suatu masyarakat yang bersatu padu, demokratik, progresif, dan berdisiplin.
Cetakan Jan 2012 Kementerian Pelajaran Malaysia

Hak cipta terpelihara. Kecuali untuk tujuan pendidikan yang tidak ada kepentingan komersial, tidak dibenarkan sesiapa mengeluarkan atau mengulang mana-mana bahagian artikel, ilustrasi dan kandungan buku ini dalam apa-apa juga bentuk dan dengan apa-apa cara pun, sama ada secara elektronik, fotokopi, mekanik, rakaman atau cara lain sebelum mendapat izin bertulis daripada Rektor Institut Pendidikan Guru, Kementerian Pelajaran Malaysia.
MODUL PEMBELAJARAN INI DIEDARKAN UNTUK KEGUNAAN PELAJAR-PELAJAR YANG BERDAFTAR DENGAN INSTITUT PENDIDIKAN GURU, KEMENTERIAN PELAJARAN MALAYSIA BAGI MENGIKUTI PROGRAM PENSISWAZAHAN GURU (PPG) IJAZAH SARJANA MUDA PERGURUAN. MODUL PEMBELAJARAN INI HANYA DIGUNAKAN SEBAGAI BAHAN PENGAJARAN DAN PEMBELAJARAN BAGI PROGRAM-PROGRAM TERSEBUT.
Cetakan Jan 2012 Institut Pendidikan Guru Kementerian Pelajaran Malaysia
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CONTENT
Falsafah Pendidikan Kebangsaan Falsafah Pendidikan Guru Notis Hak Kerajaan Content Page Learners Guide Introduction Allocation of Topics SESSION 1:TOPIC 1 OVERVIEW AND SPEECH SOUND CLASSIFICATION 1.0 Synopsis 1.1 Learning Outcomes 1.2 Framework of Topics 1.2.1 Overview 1.2.1.1 Phonetics and Phonology 1.2.1.2 The Production of Speech Sounds (i) Egressive Pulmonic Airstream Mechanism (ii) The Vocal Tract 1.2.1.3 The International Phonetics Alphabet 1.2.2 Speech Sound Classification 1.2.2.1 The Phonemic Chart 1.2.2.2 Consonants 1.2.2.3 Vowels SESSION 2 - TOPIC 2 ENGLISH VOWELS 2.0 Synopsis 2.1 Learning Outcomes 2.2 Framework of Topics 2.2.1 English Vowels 2.2.1.1 Describing and Producing English Vowels (i) Short Vowels (Monophthongs) (ii) Long Vowels (Monophthongs) (iii) Diphthongs (iv) Triphthongs 2.2.1.2 Symbols and Transcription iii
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CONTENT
SESSION THREE: TOPIC 3 ENGLISH CONSONANTS 3.0 Synopsis 3.1 Learning Outcomes 3.2 Framework of Topics 3.2.1 English Consonants 3.2.1.1 Place and Manner of Articulation 3.2.1.2 Describing and Producing English Sounds (i) Voiced and Voiceless Consonants (ii) Fricatives and Affricates (iii) Nasals, Stops, Glides and Liquids SESSION FOUR: TOPIC 4 ENGLISH CONSONANTS: SYMBOLS AND TRANSCRIPTIONS 4.0 Synopsis 4.1 Learning Outcomes 4.2 Framework of Topics 4.2.1 English Consonants 4.2.1.1 Symbols 4.2.1.2 Transcription SESSION FIVE: TOPIC 5 THE SYLLABLE 5.0 Synopsis 5.1 Learning Outcomes 5.2 Framework of Topics 5.2.1 What is Syllable? 5.2.1.1 Structure of the English syllable 5.2.1.2 Strong and Weak syllables (i) The // vowel (schwa) (ii) Close Front and Close Back Vowels (iii) Syllabic Consonants (iv) Syllabic /l/ (v) Syllabic /n/ (vi) Syllabic /m, / (vii) Syllabic /r/ 5.2.1.3 Weak form iv
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CONTENT
SESSION SIX: TOPIC 6 STRESS PATTERNS 6.0 Synopsis 6.1 Learning Outcomes 6.2 Framework of Topics 6.2.1 Stress Patterns 6.2.1.1 Stress Timing 6.2.1.2 Stress in Simple Words (i) Rules of Word Stress in English 6.2.1.3 Complex Word Stress SESSION SEVEN: TOPIC 7 PHONEMIC ANALYSIS 7.0 Synopsis 7.1 Learning Outcomes 7.2 Framework of Topics 7.2.1 Phonemic Analysis 7.2.1 Problems in phonemic analysis (i) The English Vowel System (ii) Syllabic Consonants (iii) Cluster of s with Plosive (iv) (v) Schwa // Distinctive Features
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SESSION EIGHT: TOPIC 8 INTONATION 8.0 Synopsis 8.1 Learning Outcomes 8.2 Framework of Topics 8.2.1 Intonation 8.2.1.2 Functions of Intonation 87 87 88 89
CONTENT
SESSION NINE: TOPIC 9 ASPECTS OF CONNECTED SPEECH (SUPRASEGMENTAL) 9.0 Synopsis 9.1 Learning Outcomes 9.2 Framework of Topics 9.2.1 Aspects Of Connected Speech 9.2.1.1 Rhythm 9.2.1.2 Assimilati0n 9.2.1.3 Elision 9.2.1.4 Linking (i) Linking /r/ (ii) Intrusive /r/ (iii) Intrusive /w/ and /j/ 9.2.1.5 Liaison 9.2.1.6 Juncture 9.2.1.7 Contractions SESSION TEN: TOPIC 10 SPEECH VARIATION 10.0 Synopsis 10.1 Learning Outcomes 10.2 Framework of Topics 10.2.1 Speech Variation 10.2.1.1 Accents 10.2.1.2 Bilingual and Multilingual Speakers Accents 10.2.1.3 Reasons and Impacts of Accents on Communication and Comprehension. BIBLIOGRAPHY
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Module Writer Module Icons
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LEARNERS GUIDE
INTRODUCTION This module has been prepared to assist you in organising your own learning so that you may learn more effectively. You may be returning to study after many years from formal education or you may possibly be unfamiliar with a self-directed learning mode. This module gives you an opportunity to manage your own learning and to manage the way in which you use your resources and time.
SELF-DIRECTED LEARNING Self-directed learning requires that you make decisions about your own learning. You must recognise your own pattern and style of learning. It might be useful if you were to set your own personal study goals and standard of achievement. In this way you will be able to proceed through the course quite easily. Asking for help when you need it, ought to be viewed as creating new opportunities for learning rather than as a sign of weakness.
TARGET GROUP Bachelor of Education (TESL) Primary Education with Credit students registered with Institute of Teacher Education, Ministry of Education Malaysia who are following the Graduating Teacher Programme (Program Pensiswazahan Guru/PPG). STUDENT INTERACTION HOURS Based on Institute of Teacher Education, Ministry of Education Malaysia (IPG KPM) standard, students are required to complete 40 interaction hours for each credit hour. Estimated allocated learning hours are as in Table 1.
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Learning Activities
Allocated Learning Hour According To Course Credit 3 Credit 2 Credit 1 Credit Without With Without With Without With Practical Practical Practical Practical Practical Practical (3+0) (2+1) (2+0) (1+1) (1+0) (0+1) (1+2) (0+2) (0+3)
Reading learning module and completing exercises / self70 60 70 62 directed tasks / practical Attending face-toface interaction 10 10 5 5 (5 times) Practical * 10 8 Online Discussion 7 7 5 5 Coursework 20 20 20 20 Revision 10 10 10 10 Practical/ 2 2 2 2 Examination Total Learning 120 80 hours * Practical will be carried out on Sunday or during an intensive course.
70
65
5 5 15 5 2 40
5 5 5 15 5 2
SEQUENCE OF SESSIONS/TOPICS IN MODULE The module is written in Sessions. Each session will cover a few topics. How long you take to go through a Session or a topic clearly depends on your own learning style and your personal study goals. There are tasks set within a topic to help you recall what you have learnt or to make you think about what you have read. Some of these tasks will have answers and/or suggested answers. For tasks without answers provided, you might find it helpful to discuss them with someone like a colleague or make notes of your answers and take them along to the next Tutorial Session. You may discuss with your lecturer, tutor or colleague via email if you face problems with the module. Tasks that have been set for Tutorial discussion or to be handed in during Tutorial Sessions will need to be completed before the tutorial takes place. Assignments that have to be handed in must be handed in according to schedule. This will be a means for you (and your Tutor) to know how much progress you have made in your course. You should bear in mind that the process of learning that you go through is as important as any assignment you hand in or any task that you have completed. So, instead of racing through the tasks and the reading, do take time to reflect on them.
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ICON You will find that icons have been used to capture your attention so that at a glance you will know what you have to do. Appendix A gives you an explanation of what the icons mean. EXAMINATION AND ASSESSMENT Another important component of this course is the project for School-based Assignment for the Major course only. This component recognises the fact that teaching in the classroom is an important aspect of learning to become a teacher. Hence, the assignments that you do for this component will form part of the overall assessment of your performance. It is therefore important that you approach this assignment and all other coursework assignment with the right attitude. The School-based Assignment will be given in a separate document. There is an end of course examination that you will be required to do. The date and time will be made known to you when you sign up for the course. The written examination is expected to take place in an examination venue to be identified. Here are some useful hints for you to get you going. 1. Find a quiet study corner so that you may set down your books and yourself to study. Do the same when you visit a library. 2. Set a time every day to begin and to end your study. Once you have committed a set time, keep to it! When you have finished your module, continue to read other prescribed reference books or internet materials. 3. Spend as much time as you possibly can on each task without compromising your study goal 4. Revise and review what you read. Take time to recollect what you have read. 5. Consult sources other than what has been given to you. Do not accept information at face value. 6. Start a filing system so that you know where you have kept that insightful article! 7. Find a friend who could help you study.
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INTRODUCTION Welcome to English! Teaching English is fun. What you need is to be skilful in using the language. Graduating Teacher Programme or Program Pensiswazahan Guru (PPG) Distance Learning Mode (PPJ) English Language (Major) for Primary Schools, is one of the major subjects offered by the Institute of Teacher Education Malaysia (IPGM). It is offered to English language teachers who want to upgrade and enhance themselves in teaching English as a subject. There are seven modules offered for English Language (Major) for Primary Schools. This Module TSL3104 Phonetics and Phonology is a 3 credit hour module that will cover 45 hours. It has ten main topics: and are spread across ten interaction sessions. Session 1 covers two main topics which are Overview and Speech Sound Classification. In Overview, you will be inducted to definitions of Phonetics and Phonology, a brief description of the Production of Speech Sounds and the International Phonetics Alphabet. In Speech Sound Classification, you will be introduced to The Phonemic Chart, Consonants and Vowels. Session 2 covers the topic on English Vowels. In this topic, it focuses on two aspects which are Description and Production of English Vowels and Symbols and Transcription. Session 3 covers the topic on English Consonants. This includes exploring the Place and Manner of Articulation of Consonants and Describing and Producing English Consonants: voiced and voiceless consonants fricatives and affricates nasals, stops, glides Session 4 is an extension of the topic covered in Session 3 which is English Consonants. It focuses on Symbols and Transcription where more practice will be given to identify and apply symbols in transcribing words, phrases and sentences. Session 5 is on Syllable. It covers the area of structure of the English syllable. It further discusses the strong and weak syllables and the phonetic characteristics of weak form and strong form.
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Session 6 focuses on Stress Patterns. It covers stress timing, and the primary and secondary stress. It further discusses the differences between stress in simple and complex words.It also requires you to transcribe words into phonemic transcriptions and practice the spoken language using the correct stress, rhythm and intonation patterns. Session 7 is on Phonemic Analysis which covers the theoretical problems in the analysis of certain phonemes. Session 8 focuses on Intonation. The discussion covers the different functions of intonation. You will be guided with the correct intonation and variations of pitch. Session 9 focuses on Aspects of Connected Speech (Suprasegmental) such as Rhythm Assimilation Elision Linking Liaison Juncture Contractions It discusses these features and the production of connected speech in communication. Session 10 focuses on Speech Variation. The discussion covers the aspects of accents and how they affect comprehension and communication. By going through all the sessions diligently and doing the tasks given, you will be able to enhance your knowledge in English and become more confident in using it. You will also know your own strategies in teaching English There are no prescribed course books and the sessions are designed to be selfcontained. Before you begin working on the content of these sessions, we recommend that you should have access to certain reference books. It would be useful if you have an ESOL Learners Dictionary and a Modern Teachers Reference Grammar of English. We are sure that you are looking forward to begin this module with excitement. It is interesting to refresh your memory and obtain new ideas and knowledge. You should read the input notes carefully. You should also do all the exercises and then check your answers with the notes in the module, reference books or your tutor. When you have checked your answers (and revised if necessary),go on to do the tutorial questions. Good Luck and Happy Working! Remember, Practice Makes Perfect!
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ALLOCATION OF TOPICS Code & Name of Course: TSL3104 Phonetics and Phonology The are ten topics in this module and are divided into ten sessions. The table below shows the allocation of topics through the modular learning or/and during face interaction.
Session Topic Sub-Topic Phonetics and phonology The Production of Speech Sounds The International Phonetics Alphabet The Phonemic Chart Consonants Vowels Describing and producing English vowels - short vowels - long vowels - diphthongs - triphthongs Symbols and transcription Place and manner of articulation Int. hrs. Total no. of hrs.
Overview
1 Speech Sound Classification
6 3
English Vowels
English Vowels
English Consonants English Consonants
Describing and producing English consonants - voiced and voiceless consonants - fricatives and affricates nasals, stops, glides, liquids
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English Consonants The Syllable
Symbols and transcription Structure of the English syllable Strong and weak syllables Weak forms Stress timing Stress in simple words Complex word stress Problems in phonemic analysis Functions of intonation Rhythm Assimilation Elision Linking Liaison Juncture Contractions
Stress Patterns
Phonemic Analysis
Intonation
Aspects of Connected Speech (Suprasegmental)
10
Speech Variation
Accents TOTAL
45 hrs
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TSL3104 PHONETICS AND PHONOLOGY
TOPIC 1
OVERVIEW AND SPEECH SOUND CLASSIFICATION
1.0 SYNOPSIS
Topic 1 focuses on Overview and Speech Sound Classification. In Overview, it provides you with a brief description pertaining to Phonetics and Phonology, the process and functions of speech organs involved in the Production of Speech Sounds and the functions and symbols in the International Phonetics Alphabet. In Speech Sound Classification, it introduces you to The Phonemic Chart, Consonants and Vowels.
1.1 LEARNING OUTCOMES
By the end of Topic 1, you will be able to: distinguish between Phonetics and Phonology clarify the roles of the vocal organs in speech production. produce the English sounds found in the International Phonetic Alphabet
1.2 FRAMEWORK OF TOPICS
OVERVIEW
Phonetics and Phonology The Production of Speech Sounds The International Phonetics Alphabet
SPEECH SOUND CLASSIFICATION The Phonemic Chart Consonants Vowels
CONTENT
SESSION ONE (6 Hours)
1.2.1 Overview
What makes humans unique is their ability to produce and use language to communicate with others. This is achieved through speech and writing. Writing is the visual representation of speech and it is often learned (formally) later in life. Speech is the primary mode of communication as it is also the most natural and basic manifestation of language. Speech involves the sounds or phonemes of a language. In studying phonetics and phonology, we will be looking at this in greater detail.
1.2.1.1 Phonetics and Phonology
An analysis of sounds of a language reveals two levels: phonetically and phonologically.
The first level examines sounds in relation to speech. This is the concrete or phonetical level where it describes the physical characteristics of the sound and how it is produced, etc. For e.g., a speaker of English knows that the letters p, a and t are three different sounds that can be combined to form the word pat. Yet, the word physically appears to be one continuous sound. However, you can segment the one sound into parts and recombine them to form words such as, tap or apt because you know the sounds of English. You also know that the vowel // in pill is pronounced shorter than the long /i:/ sound in peel as they are two distinct phonemes that bring about a change of meaning when one is replaced with the other. This knowledge of sounds or judgement on the physical properties of sounds is based on our knowledge of the language. Therefore, phonetics refers to the
study of speech sounds in terms of how sounds are determined, how they vary, and how to describe them (Denham & Lobeck, 2010).
There are five branches of phonetics: physiological phonetics - the anatomical, neurological and physiological bases of speech. articulatory phonetics - the actions and movements of the speech organs in producing sounds. acoustics phonetics - the nature and acoustics of the sound waves, which transmit speech. auditory phonetics -how speech is received by the ears. perceptual phonetics - how speech is perceived by the brain. (Kelly, 2006:p.9) For teachers of English, articulatory phonetics is by far the most important branch of phonetics.
In the second level, it is concerned with sounds in relation to language. This is the abstract or phonological level where it examines the pattern, distribution and combination of possible sounds in a language. This includes both the linguistic knowledge that speakers have about the sound patterns of their language and the description of that knowledge which linguists try to produce. The patterns could be as simple as the fact that a word in English cannot begin or end with the sound ny or as complex as why the plosive /p/ is aspirated when it is in the initial position of a word such as pin but unaspirated when it is preceded by a /s/ sound in a word such as spin. Therefore, phonology is the study of how speech sounds form patterns in a language (Fromkin, Rodman & Hyams, 2011).
In conclusion, phonetics is part of phonology. When we study a language, we cannot but include a study on phonetics and phonology to understand the system of sounds in a language. In our case, the language under study is English, a language
that you are teaching or will be teaching in the future. You must have a sound knowledge of phonetics and phonology in order to teach it competently.
1.2.1.2 The Production of Speech Sounds
In studying the sound system of a language, we need to find out what people are doing when they are articulating speech sounds and how these sounds can be described.
(i)
Egressive Pulmonic Airstream Mechanism
First, air that is exhaled by the lungs passes through the vocal tract, which shapes it into different speech sounds. The air in the vocal tract is then expelled through the mouth or nose or both. An airstream initiated by the lungs is known as pulmonic. Nearly all languages use pulmonic air to produce speech sounds. The process by which air is pushed out of the lungs through the vocal cords, up the throat and into the mouth or nose and out of the body is called an egressive pulmonic airstream. All English sounds are produced in this manner. Now let us look at the different parts of the vocal tract, which play a crucial role in the production of speech sounds.
(ii)
The Vocal Tract
Fig. 1 4
The simplified diagram of the vocal tract in Fig. 1 above indicates a cross-section of the human head. You will need to study it carefully as the articulators are described:
The pharynx is a tube that starts just above the larynx and ends behind the root of the tongue. The top end of the tube is divided into two: one part is the back of the oral cavity while the other is the opening of the way through the nasal cavity. The back of the pharynx can be seen in the mirror when you open your mouth.
The velum or soft palate is the soft part of the roof of the mouth. You can feel it if you lift your tongue backwards and upwards. The velum ends with the dangling uvula. In speech, the velum may be raised to completely block the passage of the nasal cavity so that the airstream can only escape through the oral cavity. Sounds produced via the oral cavity are called oral sounds such as /s/ and /t/. The velum can also be lowered to completely block the oral cavity so that air can only escape through the nasal cavity. All nasal consonants in English such as /m/, /n/ and // are produced this way. The hard palate is also known as the roof of the mouth. It stretches from the alveolar ridge to the velum. Its curved surface is smooth if you feel it with your tongue. The palatal sound /j/ is produced in this region.
The alveolar ridge is located directly behind the top front teeth. Its surface is covered with little ridges. You can feel the uneven surface of the ridges with your tongue. Sounds produced by the tongue touching here are alveolar sounds such as /t/ and /d/.
The tongue is the most flexible articulator. It can be stretched, rolled, curled or moved sideways, upwards or downwards into many different places. The tongue together with the lips can considerably affect the shape and size of the oral cavity, thus changing the airstream and sound produced. The tongue is divided into different parts such as tip, blade, front, back and root as shown in Fig.2: 5
Fig. 2 Subdivisions of the tongue (Roach, 2010)
The teeth are lined round the upper and lower sides of the mouth, back almost to the soft palate. Most speech sounds are produced when the tongue is in contact with the upper teeth. For e.g., dental sounds such as // and // are made with the tongue touching the front teeth.
The lips are important in the formation of speech sounds. The lips may be pressed together and released suddenly to produce certain consonants such as /p/, /b/ or rounded to produce vowels like /u:/. Sounds produced by using the lips are called labial (or bilabial if both lips are involved) while sounds produced with the lip in contact with teeth such as /f/, /v/ are called labiodentals.
The seven articulators described above are the primary ones. However, there are a few others to bear in mind. The larynx is known as the Adams apple or the voice box. It is situated at the upper end of the trachea below the pharynx. Located in the larynx are the vocal cords that control the passage of air to and from the lungs. When the vocal cords are apart, its opening is known as the glottis. Right above the larynx is the epiglottis that acts as a cover to the glottis for food to be swallowed and guided into the oesophagus and on to the stomach. When speech sounds are produced, the vocal cords often vibrate/phonate. For e.g., your larynx vibrates when you produce the voiced consonant sound /z/.
The jaws are sometimes called articulators as they aid us in speaking. We certainly move the lower jaw a lot while we speak. However, the jaws cannot make contact with other articulators and so cannot be considered as articulators in the same manner as others.
The nose and nasal cavity are important, particularly in the production of nasal consonants such as /m/, /n/ or //. However, the nose and nasal cavity are not moveable as the other main articulators and thus cannot really be considered as articulators in the same way as them.
1.2.1.3 The International Phonetics Alphabet
The English spelling system has some irregularities. Consider the following: The letters ea are pronounced differently in words such as deal, dead, bear, heard, hear and heart. A single sound such as // (pronounced as sh) can be represented by different letters in words such as section, machine , fashion, mission and tension. The letters th in bath and bathe are actually two distinct sounds. These examples of the mismatches between spelling and sounds prove that the English spelling system is not really reliable in indicating the pronunciation of words.
In 1888, the International Phonetics Association developed phonetic alphabet to represent the sounds of all languages in the world (Fromkin, Rodman & Hyams, 2011).They consists of ordinary letters and invented symbols. The International Phonetics Alphabet or IPA is a writing system used by linguists to communicate with each other. Each character of the alphabet reflects exactly one sound of all the worlds languages. A person who knows the IPA will be able to pronounce words written in the phonetic symbols or transcribe the pronunciation of words using the symbols. The IPA is invented to have sufficient symbols to represent all the
fundamental sounds of all languages. However, noncrucial variation of the sounds like pitch is not included as it varies across speakers. Most dictionaries use a 7
system of phonemic transcription similar to the IPA as a pronunciation guide. Hence, learning the IPA is useful particularly for teachers of English to guide their own learning as well as to check students pronunciation. The following chart indicates letters and symbols in IPA:
1.2.2
Speech Sound Classification
In speech, we produce sounds or phonemes of a language. A phoneme is the smallest distinctive unit in a language (Ladefoged & Johnson, 2011). This can be shown through minimal pair. A minimal pair consists of two words that differ in one phoneme only in the same position (Denham & Lobeck, 2010). For example, sip and zip show a contrast of one sound. Therefore, /s/ and /z/ are separate phonemes in this pair of words.
1.2.2.1 The Phonemic Chart
In English, there are 44 phonemes that represent the 26 letters of the written alphabet. There is no one-to-one correspondence between phonemes and the alphabet and as such special symbols are created. These phonemes are further subdivided into 24 consonants and 20 vowels. The vowels consist of 12 single vowels or monophthongs and 8 diphthongs. The following chart lists the 44 English phonemes, giving an example of a word in which each appears:
Phonemic Chart
Vowels: Monophthongs 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. /i:/ // /e/ // /:/ // /:/ // /u/ // // // as in as in as in as in as in as in as in as in as in as in as in as in key bit pen sat art hot law book true mud earn enter /ki:/ /bt/ /pen/ /st/ /:t/ /ht/ /l:/ /bk/ /tru/ /md/ /:n/ /ent/ 9 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. Vowels: Diphthongs /e/ // /a/ /a/ // // /e/ // as in as in as in as in as in as in as in as in edge sew hive cow joy dear pair cure /ed/ /s/ /hav/ /ka/ /d/ /d/ /pe/ /kj(r)/
Consonants 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. /p/ /b/ /t/ /d/ /k/ /g/ /t/ /d/ /f/ /v/ // // as in as in as in as in as in as in as in as in as in as in as in as in peel bat tell dad cart god chair joke fool vine third bathe /pi:l/ /bt/ /tel/ /dd/ /k:t/ /gd/ /te/ /dk/ /ful/ / van / / :d/ /be/ 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. // /z/ // // /h/ /m/ /n/ // /l/ /r/ /j/ /w/ as in as in as in as in as in as in as in as in as in as in as in as in sob zinc shy visual horse men niece king love rude yet war /sb/ /zk/ /a/ /vl/ /h:s/ /men/ /ni:s/ /k/ /lv/ /rud/ /jet/ /w:/
1.2.2.2 Consonants
Speech sounds can be identified in terms of their articulatory properties that is, where and how in the vocal tract that the sounds are produced. Consonant sounds are produced by completely or partially blocking the flow of air from the lungs to the vocal tract (Finegan, 2008).
All English consonants can be described in terms of three properties: voicing: this indicates whether the vocal cords are vibrating or not in the production of consonant sounds. This is caused by air pressure from the lungs that repeatedly pushes the vocal cords to open and shut again which produces a buzzing sound. Speech sounds produced with the vocal cords vibrating are called voiced sounds while those produced with the vocal cords apart (not vibrating) are called voiceless sounds Place of articulation: the place in the oral cavity where the airstream is modified or most obstructed to produce speech sounds.
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Manner of articulation: the particular way we position and modify our lips, tongue and teeth to produce speech sounds.
The above properties indicate that all consonants are either described as voiced or voiceless. They are also described based on their place of articulation such as bilabial, labiodental, dental, alveolar, post-alveolar, palatal, velar and glottal. Besides that, consonants are also described based on their manner of articulation such as plosives, fricatives, affricates, nasals, lateral approximant and
approximants/glides.
Based on the properties stated above, consonants such as /p/ and /b/ will be described as bilabial as both phonemes are produced by pressing the lips against each other. The manner in which they are produced results from the total blockage of air in the oral cavity (when the lips are pressed together) which forms a compression of air that is suddenly released with a loud noise or plosion (plosive). However, /p/ is voiceless while /b/ is voiced. Hence, consonant /p/ is described as voiceless bilabial plosive while /b/ is described as voiced bilabial plosive. This illustrates how consonants are described.
You have been introduced to some basic concepts of consonants. A more detailed explanation of the consonants in Topic 3 will be given in the later part of this module.
1.2.2.3 Vowels
After being introduced to consonants, now let us look at vowels. Unlike consonants, vowels do not have specific point and manner of articulation. Hence, they are more difficult to describe. Vowels are produced with the flow of air unobstructed as the air passes from the larynx to the lips (Roach, 2010). In the articulation of vowels, the vocal cords or vocal folds are generally vibrating. Vowels are specifically produced by modifying the shape and size of the vocal tract through the movement of the following speech organs: 11
the jaw which can be raised or lowered changing the amount of space inside the oral cavity. the tongue which can be arched, curled or pointed to varying degrees in different places from front to back. the lips which can be rounded or spread changing the resonant characteristics of the vocal tract. the tongue root which can be moved changing the size of the pharynx.
Vowels are usually described based on the height of the tongue such as high, mid or low. They are also described based on how far front or back the horizontal position of the tongue is such as front, central or back. At times, it is also necessary to include the description of the shape of the lips such as rounded, spread or neutral. Say the vowel sounds in the words mar, me and moo. Which of these words is expressed with the tongue raised highest? Which is high (close), mid or low (open)? What is the shape of the lips? Are the lips open, rounded or spread? For the sound /:/ in mar, the tongue is low at the back and the lips are open and neutral. For the sound /i:/ in me, the front of the tongue is high and close to the palate and the lips are spread. On the other hand, the sound /u:/ in moo, the tongue is high at the back and the lips are rounded.
This section has introduced you to vowels. More information on the vowels will be given in the topic after this session.
Exercise 1 What is the difference between the terms Phonetics and Phonology? Give your own examples.
a.
b.
Describe the egressive pulmonic airstream mechanism.
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c.
Describe the functions of any two organs of speech in the production of speech sounds.
d.
Why was the IPA invented?
e.
How are phonemes classified? Elaborate.
Exercise 2
Identify the phonemes in the following words:
E.g.
cat
/k/ // /t/
i. ii. iii. iv. v. vi. vii. viii. ix.
tea shy bomb width right easily young weather endanger
____________ ____________ ____________ ____________ ____________ ____________ ____________ ____________ ____________
How is knowledge of the production of consonants and vowels relevant to a teacher of English?
Take a break before you move on to the next topic.
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TOPIC 2
ENGLISH VOWELS
2.0 SYNOPSIS
Topic 2 highlights on the articulation and description of short vowels, long vowels, diphthongs and triphthongs. You will also learn to identify the symbol representing each vowel sound and also transcribe words using those symbols.
By the end of Topic 2, you will be able to:

describe the place and manner of articulation of English short vowels, diphthongs and triphthongs.
write the phonemic symbols that correspond to the vowels described.
ENGLISH VOWELS
Describing and Producing English Vowels
Symbols and Transcription
Short Vowels
Long Vowels
Diphthongs
Triphthongs
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CONTENT
SESSION TWO (6 Hours)
2.2.1 English Vowels
2.2.1.1 Describing and Producing English Vowels Say a, e, i. o u. What do you notice about the movement of your tongue and the shape of your lips when you articulate these sounds? According to Kelly (2006),
vowels are produced when the air stream is voiced through the vibration of the vocal cords in the larynx, and then shaped using the tongue and the lips to modify the overall shape of the mouth. In the classification of vowels, tongue position and
jaw height are the main dimensions. Study the diagram below. The diagram is a representation of the vowel space in the centre of the mouth. Front Close Half Close Mid Half Open Open Fig.1 The characteristics sound of a vowel is determined by the horizontal tongue position (front-centre-back) vertical tongue position (high-mid-low) or the distance between the tongue and the roof of the mouth (close-mid-open) lip position (rounded-neutral-spread) typical length of the vowel (long-short) 15 Low Central Back High
Look at the diagram below and pronounce each vowel sound. Note the shapes of your lips when you pronounce the sounds. Are they similar to the diagram shown?
close lip spreading /i:/
neutral lip position /a:/ / : //e/
open lip rounding // Fig. 2
close lip-rounding /u:/
One of ways to remember the articulation of vowels is to visualise and associate it with particular ideas.
Exercise 1 Practise the following: Vowels Suggestions /i:/ // / / /u/ /e / // A smiling sound. Smile widely, hold the sound and demonstrate that it is a long sound. Make the sound obviously short. Contrast the sound with /i:/ A short sound. Exaggerate the forward position of your lips and make noise like a gorilla. Make the sound and use a rising and falling intonation as if youve heard an interesting gossip. (uuUUuuUU) A short sound. Loosely spread your lips to make the sound. The Friday afternoon sound. Relax your whole body, slump your shoulders and say // as if utterly exhausted.
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Vowels Suggestions / / /:/ // // /:/ // The something horrible sound. Pretend to look at something nasty in the litter bin, curl your upper lip and make a long sound. The either/ or sound. Liken it to the word or. Make a long sound. Make the sound and point out the neutrally open shape of your lips. Make the sound, and throw your head slightly back as you do. This works well if contrasted with //. The holding the baby sound. Place your arms as though holding a baby and say /:/. Make a long sound. Make the sound and point out your slightly rounded lips. (Kelly, 2006: p.38)
You have learned how to articulate vowels. Now, let us examine the different classification of vowels. English vowels consist of 12 pure single vowels or monophthongs. They are categorised as two main types: short and long. Both are further specified as front, central and back based on their points of articulation. The table below illustrates the vowel sounds from high to low (top to bottom of the table) and front to back (left to right of the table).
Exercise 2 Say each sound and notice the movements of your jaw or tongue height, frontness or backness of the tongue and shape of your lips.
HIGH
(Underhill, 2005) 17
(i)
Short Vowels (Monophthongs)
a.
front short vowels
There are three short front vowels. Their descriptions and examples are listed below: // high, half close, slightly front, slightly spread vowel kit lid bill mist wish sick
/e/
mid, half open, front, slightly spread vowel pet tent bread beg fell death
//
low, open, front, slightly spread vowel mat dad trap axe rag lamp
b.
back short vowels
The points of articulation for these short vowels are in the back of the oral cavity and the shapes of the lips are generally rounded. They are: // high, slightly back, half close, rounded, short vowel cook bull push pull should foot
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//
low, slightly open, back, slightly rounded vowel job spot gone rod sausage what
c.
central short vowels
These vowels are produced generally in the central region of the oral cavity. The lips shapes are often neutral. They are: / / mid, half open, central, neutral vowel up hunt judge // bug rough won
mid, slightly half open, central, neutral vowel upon were sender again murmur arise
(ii)
Long Vowels(Monophthongs)
a.
front long vowels
There is only one long front vowel. Its description and examples are given below.
/i:/
high, close, front, long, slightly spread vowel seep piece money bee copy field 19
b.
back long vowels
Unlike the front vowels, these vowels are produced in the back region of the oral cavity with the lips generally rounded. They are described below: /u/ high, back, close, moderately rounded, long vowel blue shoot grew /:/ shoe group rude
mid, back, slightly half open, strongly rounded, long vowel bore your draw order coral oral
c.
central long vowels
The points of articulation for these vowels are in the central region of the mouth. The lips are neutral. They are: // mid, slightly half open, central, neutral vowel fur earn verse / :/ girl were worm
low, open, slightly back (between centre and back), neutral vowel farm mast aunt arm ask star
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(iii)
Diphthongs
Kelly (2006) defined a diphthong as a glide (or movement of the tongue, lips and jaw) from one pure vowel to another. The first sound in each phoneme is longer and louder than the second in English. In short, a diphthong is the result of a glide from one vowel to another within a single syllable (Underhill, 2005). If we listen to the word foul (the diphthong in question is /a/, we can hear the // part of the sound is longer than the final // part. If you try to make the // part longer, you will hear the difference.
A diphthong is perceived as one phoneme not two, and therefore as one syllable not two. Thus, tie /ta/ has a consonant and a diphthong which occupy one syllable, whereas being /bi:/ is a sequence of two monophthongs occupying two syllables. In English, there are two main types of diphthongs: centring and closing. The closing diphthongs are further subdivided into two as indicated in the chart below:
Centring diphthongs end with a glide towards //. They are called centring because / / is a central vowel. E.gs. hear pear poor // /e/ //
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Closing diphthongs end with a glide towards // or towards //. The glide is towards a higher position in the mouth. E.gs. bail /e/ row // owl /a/
right /a/ toy //
(iv)
Triphthongs
A triphthong is a glide from one vowel to another and then to a third, all produced rapidly and without interruptions (Roach, 2010). For e.g., a careful pronunciation of the word our starts with a vowel similar to /:/ which then glides towards the back close rounded area (as represented by the symbol //) then ends with a mid-central vowel (schwa, // ). our is transcribed as /a/.
The triphthongs are composed of the 5 closing diphthongs described earlier but they end with a schwa //. Thus, we get:
/e/ + / / = /e/ as in mayor, payer /a/ + / / = /a/ as in tire, dryer // + / / = // as in royal, loyal // + // = // as in buoyant, follower /a/ + / / = /a/ as in sour, flower
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2.2.1.2 Symbols and Transcription
Phonemic transcription is the process by which every speech sound must be identified as one of the phonemes and written with the appropriate symbol (Roach, 2010). The following table indicates lists of words with a certain phoneme in different positions. Articulate each sound of the phonemes to spell/transcribe the words: Phoneme /p/ Initial pick / pk / k buyer /ba/ junk /dk/ yacht /jt/ Medial report /rp:t/ p carbon /k:bn/ changing /tend/ cute / kjut/ Final damp p /dmp/ robe / rb/ b barge /b:d/
/b/ /d/
/j/
Tutorial Tasks A. Read the poem below. ENGLISH VOWELS a, e, i o u are five letters that represent the English vowels. Yet, they vary in pronunciation and spelling. Their irregularity is mind-boggling. Take for example the word honey It looks almost similar to phoney Yet, it rhymes with the word bunny Isnt that utterly strange and funny? 23
How come the word treat rhymes with the word beet yet, its spelling is closer to threat? Dont you think students might fret? What about the word through that rhymes with true? Isnt it a horror when its spelling ends like thorough? Likewise the word though that rhymes with doe. it is spelt almost like tough of which rhymes well with stuff. Can anyone explain why the letter a does not sound the same in ward, want and wax? They seem to rhyme with ford, one and axe. What about the letter i that is pronounced differently in dim, dirt and die that rhyme with hymn, hurt and high? The pronunciation of oo in words is confusing too. It is a short u in soot but a long u in shoot. It is also short in good but long in mood.
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No wonder this irregularity in spelling and pronunciation is a cause of contention when learning English vowels and phonetic transcription. Laila Hairani Sanggura, 2011
Write the phonemic symbols that represent the vowel sounds for the letters in bold in words indicated in the poem above. honey phoney bunny funny treat beet threat fret through true horror thorough though doe tough stuff ward want wax bond one axe dim dirt die hymn hurt high soot shoot good mood
25
B.
Transcribe the words in phonemic script into orthography.
How to prepare chicken curry: 1 /jus m:t(r) nd pesl : blend(r), grand njn g:lk nd n(r) nt pest/ /n sm:l bl, kmban mi:t kri pad(r) nd tli pad(r), d fju teblspunz v w:t(r) nt k pest/ /n wk : pt, hi:t l n ha, d grand pest, st(r) fra ntl kwat trnslusnt/ /d kri pest, rdjus hi:t t l, st(r) fra ntl kwat tstd nd l st:ts t uz frm pest du nt bn/ /d tkn, br hi:t p t md-ha, st(r) t kt tkn wel w kri pest /d kknt mlk, si:zn w s:lt, st(r) wel/ /grli br t bl, en rdjus hi:t t md, sm(r) kvd 20-25 mns., st(r) kenli/ /d ptetz, sm(r) nkvd10-15 mns., ntl ptetz kkt, nd tkn z tend(r)/ /tn f hi:t, skm f kses l n sfs/ /sv w rti tana, rti al : sti:md ras/ Adapted from: http://www.malaysianfood.net/recipes/ 26
6 7
9 10
Exercise 1 Transcribe the following text into phonetic script. My favourite food is nasi lemak. Its coconut-flavoured rice is delicious! I also like its anchovy sambal. Its hot and spicy! My mother finds nasi lemak too rich and fattening. She prefers eating seafood tom yam as its soup is light and less oily. My father and sister, on the other hand, do not mind eating either food. However, they are both crazy about Penang Cendol! They love the blend of sweet and creamy taste of the coconut milk when it is mixed with thick syrup. So, when we go out to eat as a family, we will each definitely have our own favourite food. Laila Hairani Sanggura,2007 __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ 27
__________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________
Relax your mind for a while before you move on to the next session. Thats all you have to do. Take a break and move on to topic 3 when you are ready.
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TOPIC 3
ENGLISH CONSONANTS
3.0 SYNOPSIS
Topic 3 is focused on the English consonants. In this session, a more detailed explanation on the place and manner of articulation of consonants will be given. It will also describe more specifically how consonants are classified and how each type of consonants is articulated.
By the end of this Session, you will be able to:

describe generally the place and manner of articulation of English consonants. differentiate between voiced and voiceless sounds. identify and describe more specifically the production of different types of consonant sounds.
ENGLISH CONSONANTS
Place and Manner of articulation
Describing and Producing English Consonants
Voiced and Voiceless Consonants
Fricatives and Affricates Nasals, Stops, Glides and Liquids
29
CONTENT
SESSION THREE (3 Hours)
3.2.1 English Consonants We can think of consonant sounds as the solid blocks used to construct words, phrases and sentences. These blocks or consonants are held together by a more flexible matter - the vowels of the language. Together, consonants and vowels provide the basic building blocks we need to create the architecture of language.
Producing a consonant involves making the vocal tract narrower at some points of contact between the various speech organs such as tongue, lips, teeth, roof of the mouth, etc. We call this narrowing a constriction. This constriction causes the airflow to be restricted in various ways, each giving a different characteristic sound. Restriction can be produced either by friction applied to the airflow, or by a brief blocking of the airflow or by redirecting the airflow through the nose. All consonants are produced with some restrictions to the airflow except /j/ and /w/ (Underhill, 2005). Although /j/ and /w/ are consonants, they are also regarded as semi-vowels as they have some characteristics of vowel sounds. This will be explained in more detail later.
3.2.1.1 Place and Manner of Articulation
Consonants are described based on three variables: Place of articulation Manner of articulation, and Voicing
In speech, the place of articulation refers to the articulators (organs of speech) and the point of articulation (the exact place where the sound is produced in the 30
vocal tract). The table below indicates the articulator and point of articulation involved for each place of articulation of phonemes:
Articulator lower lip lower lip tip of tongue tip of tongue blade of tongue tip of tongue
blade of tongue back of tongue
Point of Articulation upper lip upper teeth upper teeth alveolar ridge between the alveolar ridge and the hard palate
hard palate
Place of Articulation Phonemes bilabial labiodental dental alveolar post-alveolar /p/, /b/ /f/, /v/ //, // /t/, /d/ , /l/ //, / / /t/ , // palatal velar glottal /j/ /k/, /g/, // /h/
velum/soft palate
Velum/ soft palate glottis
The manner of articulation of consonants, on the other hand, is the dimension, which essentially describes how the speech sound is produced. It refers to the interaction between the various articulators and the airstream such as how narrow the constriction is, whether air is completely blocked and suddenly released through the mouth, whether air is flowing through the nose and so forth. The manners of articulation are briefly described in the table below.
Manners of articulation stops/ plosives fricatives
Description A complete closure is made in the vocal tract and the soft palate is also raised. Air pressure increases behind the closure and is then released explosively. When two vocal organs come close enough together, air is squeezed between them without being stop, causing a hissing or friction sound. A complete closure is made in the mouth and the soft palate is raised. Air pressure increases behind the closure, and is released more slowly than the plosive. 31
affricates
Manners of Description articulation nasals lateral approximant approximants The lips or the tongue against the palate makes a closure, the soft palate is lowered, and air escapes through the nose. The blade of tongue against the alveolar ridge makes a partial closure. Air flows around the sides of the tongue. Vocal organs come near to each other, but not so close as to cause audible friction
The voicing parameter specifies whether the vocal folds are vibrating. The vocal folds or vocal cords have a pair of muscular bands controlling the flow of air to and from the lungs. The two muscular bands of tissue are stretched from front to back in the larynx, behind the Adams apple. In normal breathing, the vocal cords are relaxed and wide apart allowing air to flow freely from the lungs. When the vocal cords are apart, the space in between is known as the glottis. In speech, the right amount of air and tension of the two bands of muscles cause the vocal cords to vibrate. Many speech sounds are produced with the vocal folds vibrating/phonating.
3.2.1.2
Describing and Producing English Sounds
Based on the three variables described above, let us study more closely the different classifications of consonants.
(i)
Voiced and Voiceless Consonants
There are two main types of consonants: voiced and voiceless. When a sound is produced with the vocal cords vibrating, it is said to be voiced. In contrast, if the sound produced does not involve vibration of the vocal cords, it is said to be unvoiced or voiceless. In English, the difference between voiced and voiceless consonants tends to coincide with gentle and strong aspiration; also referred to as lenis and fortis (Underhill, 2005). This means that voiced consonants are expressed with weaker aspiration (force) of air or lenis while voiceless consonants
32
are expressed with stronger aspiration of air or fortis. This distinction is particularly useful when differentiating English consonant sounds that are essentially uttered in similar manner except one with voicing (vibration) and the other, without. For e.g., the sounds /f/ and /v/ are both labiodental fricatives but /f/ is voiceless and fortis while /v/ is voiced and lenis. However, there is an exception in the case of plosives. Although a voiceless plosive such as /p/,/t/ or /k/ is aspirated or fortis in initial position, it is unaspirated if it is preceded by the consonant /s/ in words such as spin, stick or skill (Roach, 2010). Now, lets practise contrasting the voiceless (fortis) from the voiced (lenis) consonants: /p/ /b/ /t/ /d/ /k/ /g/ /f/ /v/ // // Hold a small piece of paper in front of your lips. Make the sounds. The paper should move for /p/, but not for /b/. Hold a match of lighter in front of your face. Make the sounds. You should be able to make the flame flicker for /t/ and /k/, but less for /d/ and /g/. Hold your palm in front of your mouth. Make both sounds. You should feel some air for /f/, but less for /v/. Place a finger against your lips. Try to touch your finger with your tongue. Breathe out. Now add your voice. (This exaggerates the positions, but will help nonetheless. What noise does a snake make? (/s/). Now add your voice. What noise do you make if you want someone to be quiet? (Show Shh.... gesture if necessary). Now add your voice. Hold your palm in front of your mouth. Open your mouth and breathe out. Dont use your voice; try to make sure you can feel the air on your palm. Link this with liking something (e.g. food, as in Mmm, nice). Use a word as an example, with /n/ as the last sound. Hold the sound, and get students to copy. Use _ing words as example (e.g. singing) Use repeated syllables, as in lalalalala Point your tongue towards the roof of your mouth, but dont let the tip touch. Breathe out, using your voice, and hold the sound for as long as you can. 33
/s/ /z/ //// /h/
/m/ /n/ // /l/ /r/
/j/ /w/
Smile, and say /i:/. Now quickly say //. Say the two together, and keep it short. What shape is your mouth if you are going to whistle? Now use your voice, and say /w/. Also try /wwwi:w:wu:/ etc., to practise using different vowels after /w/ (Kelly, 2006: p. 56)
(ii)
Fricatives and Affricates
Fricatives are sounds produced when the airstream is forced through a narrow passage in the oral cavity and released continuously but with some restrictions. As the articulation of fricatives involves continual or uninterrupted airflow, they are also known as continuant consonants (Roach, 2010). They are listed below: Symbol Description Fricatives /f/ A voiceless labiodental fricative. The point of contact involves the lower lip touching lightly the upper teeth. The soft palate is raised. For example: fine. A voiced labiodental fricative. The sounds represented by the symbols /f/ and /v/ only differ only in voicing. For example: vine. A voiceless (inter)dental fricative. The sound symbolised as //, as well as its voiced counterpart //, are spelled with th in the current English writing system. The interdental sounds are produced when the tongue tip touches lightly against the back of the top front teeth. For example: thin. A voiced interdental fricative. The symbol // is called eth or crossed d. You can hear the difference between the sounds symbolised by // and // if you say then and thin slowly. A voiceless alveolar fricative. The tongue blade makes light contact with the alveolar ridge. The soft palate is raised. The turbulence is created by air passing between the front of the tongue and the alveolar ridge. For example: sip. A voiced alveolar fricative. The sounds represented by the symbols /s/ and /z/ differ only in voicing, /z/ being voiced. For example, zip. A voiceless post alveolar fricative. During the articulation, the tongue blade is positioned either near the alveolar ridge or just behind the 34
/v/ //
//
/s/
/z/ //
alveolar ridge. The upper lip in front of the top teeth is raised. The soft palate is also raised. For example: ship. // /h/ A voiced post alveolar fricative. More commonly occurs in the middle of English words. For example: s in decision and measure. A voiceless glottal fricative. Air flows from the lungs through the open glottis, causing audible friction. The point where the friction is created is determined by the vowel that follows the /h/. For example: heap - the tongue body is positioned high and forward, the fricative noise is produced in the palatal region. For example: how and here
An affricate is a single sound articulated initially as a stop but ends like a fricative. It is produced when the airstream is totally blocked momentarily and slowly released with some friction. Affricates are /t/ and //. They are described below: Description Affricates A voiceless post-alveolar affricate. In articulating the sound /t/ as in chip, the tongue tip, blade and rims close against the alveolar ridge and side teeth. The front of the tongue is raised and when air is released, there is audible friction like //. Unlike // though, /t/ begins with a complete blockage of the vocal tract (a stop), but then is immediately released into a fricative sound like //. A voiced post-alveolar affricate. The sounds represented by the symbols /t/ and /d/ differ in voicing. The symbol /d/ represents the first and last sounds of the judge Nasals, Stops, Glides and Liquids
Symbol /t/
//
(iii)
Nasals occur when the soft palate or velum is lowered to totally block the oral cavity so that the airstream is released through the nasal cavity. They are described below:
Symbol /m/
Description Nasals A voiced bilabial nasal. Similar to /b/, the sound represented by the symbol /m/ is articulated by pressing the lips together (bilabial). However, the airstream, which is blocked from the mouth, is released through the nose. For example: mice
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/n/
A voiced alveolar nasal. The tongue blade closes against the alveolar ridge and the rims of the tongue against the side teeth. The velum is lowered and air passes out through the nasal cavity. For example: nice A voiced velar nasal. The back of the tongue closes against the soft palate while releasing air through the nose. The sound represented by the symbol / / does not occur in initial position in English words but only in medial and final positions. For examples: finger, sing
//
Stops or plosives occur when the airstream in the oral cavity is totally blocked. This builds up air pressure behind the closure, which is then released suddenly. The consonants classified as stops are /p/, /b/, /t/, /d/, /k/ and /g/. They are described below: Symbol Description Stops/Plosives /p/ /b/ /t/ A voiceless bilabial plosive. The airflow is stopped by the complete closure of the two lips and then, released suddenly. For example: pin A voiced bilabial plosive. The sound represented by /b/ has the same articulation as /p/, but it is accompanied by voicing. For example: Bob A voiceless alveolar plosive. The alveolar consonants are produced when the tongue tip touches the roof of the mouth at or near the alveolar ridge behind the upper teeth. For example: tin A voiced alveolar plosive. The sound represented by /d/ has the same articulation as /t/ with /d/ being voiced. For example: Dad A voiceless velar plosive. Velar consonants are formed when the body of the tongue approaches or in the case of /k /and /g/ touches the roof of the mouth on the soft palate. For example: kite A voiced velar plosive. The sound represented by the symbol /g/ has the same articulation as /k/, with /g/ being voiced. For example: gag A voiceless glottal stop. An alternative pronunciation of p, t, k in certain context. Example of // sound: bottle, button, frighten, uh, oh
/d/ /k/
/g/ //
The glides /w/ and /j/ have the characteristics of both vowels and consonants. They are phonetically like vowels because their articulation involves less narrowing of the articulator towards the point of articulation. This is unlike the formation of most consonants. They are phonologically like consonants because their location in the syllable is similar to that of consonants. This means that they only occur before 36
vowel phonemes just as all consonants do. For e.g., if the consonant /w/ is placed before the vowel /i:/, it forms the word we /wi:/. Similarly, if the consonant /j/ is placed before the vowel /u:/, it forms the word you /ju:/. In contrast, /w/ and /j/ cannot be placed before other consonants such as /t/ or /k/ to form words like wt, wk, jt or jk. Such combinations of consonants to form words are non-existent in English and therefore, incomprehensible. This shows that they are unlike vowels because vowels such as /i:/ and /u:/ can be placed after other consonants such as /t/ and /k/ to form words such as tea /ti:/ and key /ki:/ or too /tu:/ and coo /ku:/. Due to these characteristics, /w/ and /j/ are also known as semi-vowels. Their detailed descriptions are given below: Symbol Description Approximants Glides /j/ A voiced palatal semi-vowel or a voiced palatal approximant. The blade of the tongue is raised towards the hard-palate in the position of a close front vowel. The tongue moves or glides away to or from a position associated with a neighbouring vowel sound. For example: yes, young A voiced labio-velar semi-vowel or a voiced bilabial approximant. This sound is made with rounded lips while the tongue is in the position of a close back vowel. For example: wool, wax
/w/
Another term for the liquid consonant /l/ is lateral approximant (Roach, 2010). Unlike other types of approximant where the articulators are usually not in contact with each other, lateral approximant is produced with a complete closure along the centre of the mouth. More specifically, it is described as: Symbols Descriptions Lateral Approximant /l/
A voiced lateral approximant. In the articulation of English /l/, the tongue blade is raised and the tip usually makes contact with the alveolar ridge. The airflow is around the sides of the tongue. For example: life
Like other approximants, the liquid consonant /r/ is also produced with the narrowing of the vocal tract but not close enough to cause friction. More specifically, it is described as:
37
Symbols Descriptions Approximant /r/ A post-alveolar approximant. The tongue tip is pulled up slightly but not touching the alveolar ridge making the tongue slightly concave. Air flows down the middle of the tongue. For example: ran, bury
The description of all English consonants is best summarised in the chart below. For a pair of phonemes with the same place and manner of articulation, the symbol for the voiceless consonant (fortis) is placed to the left of the voiced consonant (lenis). Do take note that all single sounds except /h/ and // are voiced.
PLACE OF ARTICULATION bilabial labio dental dental Postalveolar palatal velar glottal alveolar
Manner of Articulation
Plosive Fricative Affricate Nasal Lateral approximant approximant
b f v
t s
d z
t d m n l w r l
(Roach, 2010: p. 52)
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Tutorial Tasks
Exercise 1 Give the English phonemic symbol that corresponds to the following articulatory descriptions. Descriptions a. voiceless bilabial plosive b. voiced alveolar plosive c. voiceless alveolar fricative Symbol f. g. h. i. j. Descriptions voiced lateral approximant voiceless alveolar plosive voiceless dental fricative voiced labiodental fricative voiceless glottal fricative Symbol
d. voiced(inter)dental fricative e. voiceless velar plosive
Exercise 2 Describe each of the following phonemic symbols using articulatory features. Write an example of a word with the sound and underline the letter/s that represent/s the sound. Description E.g. a. b. c. d. e. f. g. h. i. j. // /f/ /m/ // /r/ /g/ /z/ // /t/ /j/ /d/ voiced velar nasal __________________________ __________________________ __________________________ __________________________ __________________________ __________________________ __________________________ __________________________ __________________________ __________________________ 39 Word linger _______ _______ _______ _______ _______ _______ _______ _______ _______ _______
Exercise 3 Circle the correct answers. a. Identify the words that begin with a voiceless fricative. hang b. dogs cut ship chip foot zip sit
Select the words that begin with a voiced sound. nap jug knock lot pet jump n
c.
Identify the words that end with a stop sound. nap hang jug nudge bet lamb lots
d.
Identify the words that end with an alveolar sound. pot sad boss lamb lamp size hen call
e.
Identify the words that contain an approximant consonant wash hall map sing sigh red yellow
Exercise 4 Examine each set of words listed and answer the questions that follow.
a.
What do the initial consonants of these words have in common? wash let right yet wish rough
________________________________________________________ b. What do the nal consonants of these words have in common? hop hot pass wish rough lock scratch
________________________________________________________ c. What do the initial consonants of these words have in common? sh ship zip sigh house view
________________________________________________________ 40
Questions to ponder
1.
How are /w/ and /j/ different from other consonants? Explain with examples.
2.
Why is contrasting voiced from voiceless consonants important in the pronunciation of words? How can your knowledge of articulatory phonetics be applied to help students overcome this problem? Support your answer with specific examples.
Take a break before you move on to the next topic.
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TOPIC 4
ENGLISH CONSONANTS: SYMBOLS AND TRANSCRIPTION
4.0 SYNOPSIS
Topic 4 is an extended practice of English consonants taught in the previous session. However, the emphasis here is on the identification of phonemic symbols and transcription of English consonants. You will learn how to transcribe English words, phrases and sentences using those symbols as well as read and change transcribed words or short texts into orthography.
By the end of this Session, you will be able to:

read and write phonemic transcriptions of English words and sentences. Read and change transcribed words, phrases or sentences into orthography.
ENGLISH CONSONANTS Symbols Transcription
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CONTENT
SESSION FOUR (3 Hours)
4.2.1 English Consonants
Earlier, you have learned about the production of English consonant sounds which
include a detailed study of the specific characteristics of the consonants based on their voicing, place and manner of articulation. You have also been exposed to phonemic symbols that represent each sound in English. Now, let us study the relationship between sounds and symbols and how these symbols are used in transcription.
4.2.1.1 Symbols
In this module, there is a variety of symbols seen in the International Phonetic Alphabet chart on page 8. Each symbol or character in the IPA chart represents one fundamental sound of all languages. However, our focus here will be on symbols that represent phonemes of the English language. There are 44 phonemic symbols that represent the 26 letters of the English Language alphabet. They are already listed in the phonemic chart on page 9 and 10. As the purpose of this session is to teach you how to apply the symbols of English consonants in the transcription of words or utterances, this will be explained in greater detail below.
4.2.1.2 Transcription
There are two main types of transcription; phonemic and phonetic transcription. Roach (2010) has defined phonemic transcription as a one to one identification of every speech sound into a phoneme and written with the appropriate symbol. This indicates that only phonemic symbols are used to transcribe words and/or utterances and the symbols are enclosed within slant brackets / /. For e.g., the word put is transcribed as /pt/. This has an advantage because it is easy and quick to
43
use. However, it may not be sufficient when you begin to study the more complex supra-segmental features of English language later. You will discover that there are lots of variations of sounds arising from the different accents in English. Therefore, it is also necessary for you to learn about phonetic transcription which not only displays a one-to-one relationship between symbols and sounds but also examines the differences in pronunciation between dialects within a given language.
There are two types of phonetic transcription; broad transcription and narrow transcription. A broad phonetic transcription only indicates the more noticeable phonetic features of an utterance or has a little more information than a phonemic transcription. On the other hand, a narrow phonetic transcription is the transcription of every speech sound with more phonetic detail, either by using specific symbols or by representing some allophonic differences.
When symbols are used to narrowly transcribe words phonetically, they are placed within square brackets [ ] as the symbols represent precise phonetic values. For example, the word kill will be transcribed as [k] in a narrow phonetic transcription where allophonic details are given. The symbol [k] indicates that it is an allophone (variant) of the phoneme /k/ which is aspirated in initial position. The dark /l/ represented by the symbol [] is an allophone of the phoneme /l/ which always occurs after a vowel at the end of a syllable or word. Both allophones are in complementary distribution as neither can occur in the same linguistic environment with the other variants; the unaspirated [k] and the clear [l].
Such allophonic details are not required in the broad form of phonetic transcription. For example, the word kill can either be transcribed as /kl/ or /kl/ (with a stress mark) in phonemic transcription. Now, let us study once again the symbol that represents each consonant sound. Each symbol is listed on the left of the table while a word with letter(s) in bold representing the consonant sound and the phonemic transcription of the word are indicated on the right:
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Symbol /p/ /b/ /t/ /d/ /k/ /g/ /t/ /d/ /f/ /v/ // // // /z/ // // /h/ /m/ /n/ // /l/ /r/ /j/ /w/ pin bay to do key go
Example of word = /p + + n/ = /b + e/ = /t + u/ or /t + / = /d + u/ or /d + / = /k + i:/ = /g + /
cheap = /t + i: + p/ bulge = /b + + l + d / fee veal thick then so zoo show beige hi map nap sing lake room yak win = /f + i: / = /v + i: + l/ = / + + k/ = / + e + n/ = /s + / = /z + u / = / + / = /b + e + / = /h + a / = /m + + p/ = /n + + p/ = /s + + / = /l + e+ k/ = /r + u + m/ = /j + + k/ = /w + + n/
Now, lets do more practice on phonemic transcription so that you can learn to read words in phonemic script and transcribe words using the symbols. With this 45
knowledge, it will enable you to model correct pronunciation of English words as well as
identify and rectify students pronunciation errors.
Practice 1 Identify and match the correct transcription for each word on the left. /p:st/ /pk/ /tn/ /dz/ /tkn/ /best/ /fi:l/ /t/ /sli/ /p/ /gret/ tin chicken best silly past pack does great feel thought shop
Practice 2 Transcribe each word into phonemic script. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. large volume these zip leisure meeting heavy lovely wild 46
Practice 3 Change the sentences below written in phonemic script into orthography / i selz si: elz ba si: r/ ____________________________________________________________ 2. /wi rli l si: sn an sun/ ____________________________________________________________ 3. /rbr bebi bgi bmp(r)/ ____________________________________________________________ 4. /tmi tms tt t:ts ha tu tk/ ____________________________________________________________ 5. /red lri, jel lri/ ____________________________________________________________ 6. /i std n blkni/
1.
____________________________________________________________ 7. / sks sk i:ks sks i:ps sk/
____________________________________________________________ 8. / bg blk be bt bg blk bg/
____________________________________________________________
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Practice 4 Transcribe the expressions below into phonemic script.
How much wood would a woodchuck chuck If a woodchuck could chuck wood? He would chuck, he would, as much as he could, And chuck as much as a woodchuck would If a woodchuck could chuck wood.
___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________
Land of loss and gain Fortunes down the drain Riches still remain Rethink, re-train, Clauda wins again
___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________
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Tutorial Tasks
Task 1: Transcribe the words below into orthography or phonemic symbols. Initial thin // / brels/ breathe // / z/ // shyer /be/ action / b/ // /nr/ visual rouge Medial Final cloth
Task 2: Transcribe the words in bold either into orthography or phonemic script in each line of the jazz chant below.
ABC Phonics Chant
// //
/nt/ _________
/b/
/b/
/ bi:/ _________
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/k/
/k/
cow
grazing by a tree
______________________________________ d /d/ /d/ / dg / _________ e /e/ /e/ / elfnt / _________
/f/
/f/
frog
croaking for attention
______________________________________ g /g / /g / / gt / _________ h /h/ /h / / hz / _________ i // // insect crawling on my nose
______________________________________ j / d / / d / / dd / _________ k /k/ /k/ / kg/ _________ 50
/l/
/l /
lamb
sleeping by a log
________________________________________ m /m/ /m/ / mu:n / _________ n / n / /n/ / nestl / _________ o // // octopus with tentacles to cling
________________________________________ p / p / / p / / ppi/ _________ q / kw / / kw / / kwel / _________ r /r/ /r/ rat running along a trail
_______________________________________ s /s/ /s/ / sneik / _________ t /t/ /t/ / ta / _________
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////
uncle
putting out the fire
________________________________________ v /v/ /v/ / vlt(r)/ _________ w /w/ /w/ / wlf / _________ x / ks / / ks / ox so stubborn and aloof
________________________________________ y /j/ /j/ / jk / _________ z /z/ /z/ / zebr / _________ Sounds, symbols and letters, we must remember _________________________________________________________ (Laila Hairani Sanggura, 2011)
Task 3: Read aloud the completed lyrics of the jazz chant above in correct pronunciation, stress, rhythm and intonation patterns.
Take a break and move on to topic 5 when you are ready.
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TOPIC 5
THE SYLLABLE
5.0 SYNOPSIS
Topic 5 introduces you to the structures of the English Syllables. It discusses in detail about the structure of the English syllables and it provides you the knowledge on the strong and weak syllables with some discussion on the phonetic characteristics of syllables.
By the end of this Session, you will be able to: describe and analyse the structures of the English syllables; differentiate between strong and weak syllables; distinguish between weak form and strong form pronunciation in English words.
THE SYLLABLE
Structure of the English Syllable
Strong and Weak Syllables
Weak Forms
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CONTENT
SESSION FIVE (3 Hours)
5.2.1 What is Syllable?
A syllable is a unit of organisation for a sequence of speech sounds. It is a basic unit of speech studied on both phonetics and phonological levels of analysis. Phonetic syllables are usually described as consisting of a centre which has little or no obstruction to the airflow and which sounds comparatively loud; before and after that centre (i.e. at the beginning and end of the syllable), there will be greater obstruction to airflow and/or less loud sound (Roach, 2009:56).
In the monosyllable (one-syllable) word such as cat /kt/, the vowel // is the centre at which little obstruction takes place, whereas we have a complete obstruction to the airflow for the surrounding plosives /k/ and /t/. Phonological syllable is a complex unit made up of nuclear and marginal elements. Nuclear elements are the vowels or syllabic segments; marginal elements are the consonants or non-syllabic segments. In the syllable paint /pent/, the diphthong /e/ is the nuclear element, while initial consonant /p/ and the final cluster /nt/ are marginal elements.
Here are some examples of syllables: i) A minimum syllable is a single vowel in isolation. For example the words: are /:/, or /:/ err //.
These are preceded and followed by silence. Isolated sounds such as /m/, which we sometimes produce to indicate agreement, or //, to ask for silence, must also be regarded as syllables. 54
ii)
Some syllables have an onset. This is when they have one or more consonants preceding the centre of the syllable. For example the words: bar /b:/ key /ki:/ more /m:/
iii)
Syllables may have no onset but have a coda. This is when they end with one or more consonants. For example the words: am /m/ ought /:t/ ease /i:z/
iv)
Some syllables have both onset and coda: ran /rn/ sat /st/ fill /fl/
5.2.1.1 The Structure of the Syllable
Most speakers of English have no trouble dividing a word up into its component syllables. Sometimes how a particular word is divided might vary from one individual to another, but a division is always easy and always possible. Here are some words divided into their component syllables (a period is used to mark the end of a syllable): tomato = to.ma.to (3 syllables) window = win.dow (2 syllables)
Syllables have internal structure: they can be divided into parts. The parts are onset and rhyme; within the rhyme you will find the nucleus and coda. Not all syllables have all parts; the smallest possible syllable contains a nucleus only. A syllable may or may not have an onset and a coda.
Study the table below. Parts Onset Rhyme Description Initial segment of a syllable Optionality Optional
Core of a syllable consisting of a nucleus and Obligatory coda. 55
Nucleus Coda
Central segment of a syllable Closing segment of a syllable
Obligatory Optional
Onset: The beginning sounds of the syllable; the ones preceding the nucleus. These are always consonants in English. The nucleus is a vowel in most cases, although the consonants / r /, / l /, / m /, / n /, and the velar nasal (the 'ng' sound) can also be the nucleus of a syllable. In the following words, the onset is in bold; the rest underlined. read flop strap
If a word contains more than one syllable, each syllable will have the usual syllable parts: win.dow to.ma.to pre.pos.te.rous fun.da.men.tal
Rhyme (or rime): the rest of the syllable, after the onset (the underlined portions of the words above). The rhyme can also be divided up: Rhyme = nucleus + coda The nucleus, as the term suggests, is the core or essential part of a syllable. A nucleus must be present in order for a syllable to be present. Syllable nuclei are most often highly 'sonorant' or resonant sounds that can be relatively loud and carry a clear pitch level. In English and most other languages, most syllable nuclei are vowels. In English, in certain cases, the liquids or approximants / l / , / r / and nasals /m/, /n/ and the velar nasal usually spelled 'ng' can also be syllable nuclei. The diagram below shows the syllable structure analysis of the words 'read', and 'window' and the IPA symbols are used to show the sounds in the word/syllable, read = /r i:d/ one syllable onset r rhyme i:d
nucleus i:
coda
d 56
window /wnd/ = 2 syllables First syllable: /wn/
Onset [ w ] Rhyme = [n] w Nucleus Coda Second syllable: /d/ Onset d Nucleus The initial syllable has a zero onset if the first syllable of the word begins with a vowel (but // is rare). If the syllable begins with one consonant, that initial consonant may be any consonant phoneme except // and //. If the syllables begin with two consonants, this is called a consonant cluster. (This syllable has no coda) Rhyme n
A consonant cluster has two types. One type is composed of /s/ followed by one of a small set of consonants. For example, in words like sting/st/, sway/swe/, smoke /smk/. The /s/ in these clusters is called the pre-initial consonant and the other consonants (t, w, m as examples above) the initial consonant.
Another type begins with one of a set of about fifteen consonants and followed by one of the set /l/, /r/, /w/ and /j/. For example in words like play/ple/, try/tra/, quick /kwk/ and few /fju/. The first consonant of these clusters is the initial consonant and the second is the post-initial.
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There is a relationship between the three-consonant clusters and the two types of two consonant clusters. For example in the three-consonant initial clusters like split /splt/, stream /stri:m/ and square /skwe/. The /s/ is the pre-initial consonant, the /p/,/t/,/k/ that follow /s/ are the initial consonant and the /l/, /r/ and /w/ are the postinitial (Roach, 2009) as shown in the table below. ONSET CODA PreInitial Post- VOWEL Pre- Final PostPostinitial initial final final 1 final 2 s p l t s t r i: m s k w e -
Postfinal 3 -
The second type of the three-consonant clusters shows how more than one postfinal consonant can occur in a final cluster: final plus post-final 1 plus post-final 2. post-final 2 is again one of /s, z, t, d, /. See the examples of three-consonant cluster words such as fifths and next in the table below. ONSET CODA PreInitial Post- VOWEL Pre- Final PostPostinitial initial final final 1 final 2 f f s n e k s t
Postfinal 3 -
Most four-consonant clusters can be analysed as consisting of a final consonant preceded by a pre-final and followed by post-final 1 and post-final 2. Examples of four-consonant cluster words; twelfths and prompts are shown in the table below: ONSET CODA PreInitial Post- VOWEL Pre- Final PostPostinitial initial final final 1 final 2 t w e l f s p r m p t s
Postfinal 3 -
A small number of cases seem to require a different analysis, as consisting of a final consonant with no pre-final but three post-final consonants as seen in the table below: 58
ONSET CODA PreInitial Post- VOWEL Pre- Final PostPostinitial initial final final 1 final 2 s k s t e k s t 5.2.1.2 Strong and Weak Syllables
Postfinal 3 s s
The study of syllable is closely related to the aspects of stress and tone. The strong syllables are stressed and weak syllables are unstressed. In the weak syllables, the vowel tends to be shorter, of lower intensity (loudness) and different in quality. For example in the word beta /bi:t/, the second syllable is weak, and less loud than the first syllable. In a word like settle /set /, the weak second syllable contains no vowel at all, but consists only the consonant / /, a syllabic consonant.
It is also important to note that the strong syllable will have as its peak one of the vowel phonemes or possibly a triphthong but not /, i, u/. If the vowel is one of /, e, , , , /, then the strong syllable will always have a coda as well. Weak syllables can only have one of a very small number of possible peaks. At the end of a word, a weak syllable may have an ending with a vowel (i.e. with no coda). The // vowel (schwa)
(i)
// (schwa) is always related with weak syllables. However, not all weak syllables contain //. The rough guide to the correct pronunciation of weak syllables below would be useful for you.
Spelt with 1 2 a ar
Strong pronunciation // /:/
Examples (pronunciation of weak syllables) address / dres/, character /krkt/ particular /ptkjl /, monarchy /mnki/ 59
Spelt with 3 ate
Strong pronunciation /e/
Examples (pronunciation of weak syllables) intimate /ntmt/ legitimate / ldtmt/ tomorrow /tmr/ carrot /krt/ forget /fget/, opportunity /ptu:nti/ settlement /setlmnt/, postmen /pstmn/ perhaps /phps/, superman /su:pmn/ autumn /:tm/, halibut /hlbt/ thorough /r/ , borough /br/
4 5 6 7 8 9
o or e er u ough
// / or // /:/ /e/ // // many pronunciation /a /
10
ou
gracious /gres/ curious /kjris/
(ii)
Close Front and Close Back Vowels
There are two other vowels which are normally found in weak syllables. The first one is close front (/i:,/) and the second one is close back rounded (/u:,/). In strong syllables, it is rather easy to differentiate /i:/ from // or /u:/ from //, but in weak syllables the difference is not so clear. For example the words seat or sit, we can hear the difference of vowel sound easily as compared to the words easy or busy; we cannot distinguish the vowel sound in the second syllables easily (Roach, 2009).
Most syllables that contain a short close front unrounded vowel will be represented with the // phoneme as in the first syllable of resist /rzst/, the middle syllable of incident /nsdnt/, and in the final syllable of swimming /swm/. Weak syllables
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with close back rounded vowels /u/ are unstressed. For example in the words you, to, into, and do (Roach, 2009).
(iii)
Syllabic Consonants
Other than vowels in weak syllables, a consonant, either /l, r/ or a nasal, stands as the peak of the syllable is counted as a weak syllable. A small vertical mark ( ) beneath the symbol, for example cattle /kt / shows that it is a weak syllable.
(iv)
Syllabic /l/
It occurs after another consonant, and the way it is produced depends to some extent on the nature of that consonant. For examples:
i.
With alveolar consonant preceding cattle /ktl / wrestle /resl / bottle /btl / muddle /mdl /
ii.
With non-alveolar consonant preceding couple /kpl / strugggle /strgl / trouble /trbl / knuckle /nkl /
iii.
At the end, with one or more consonant letters followed by al or el panel /pnl / kernel /knl / papal /pepl / ducal /dju:kl /
(v)
Syllabic / /
It is most common after alveolar plosives and fricatives; in the case of /t, d, s, z/ followed by /n/ the plosive is nasally released by lowering the soft palate, so that in the word eaten /i:t /, the tongue does not move in the /t / sequence but the soft palate is lowered at the end of /t/ so that compressed air escapes through the nose. 61
(vi)
Syllabic /m, /
Both can occur as syllabic, but only as a result of processes such as assimilation and elision. Word like uppermost, which could be pronounced as / p st/, though /pmst/ would be more usual. Examples of possible syllabic velar nasals would be thicken /k / (where /kn/ and /k / are also possible.
(vii)
Syllabic / /
Syllabic / / is very common in American accents and is less common in BBC pronunciation. It is found in weak syllables such as the second syllable of preference /pref ns/. There are words that contain the combination of syllabic consonants as in the examples below. national /n / literal /lt / visionary /v i/ veteran /vet /
5.2.1.3
Weak Forms
English words can be pronounced in two ways which are strong forms and weak forms. When we talk about weak forms in the phonetics of English, this regards as series of words which have one pronunciation (strong forms) when we pronounce the words alone, or when we emphasize them. Weak forms are usually distinguished by a change in vowel quality and very often pronounced with a schwa //. The article a can be pronounced as /e/ (strong form) or // (weak form). The sentence A car is pronounced /e k:/ and the sentence I bought a car pronounced /a b:t k:/. is
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Almost all English words that have both a strong and weak form are function words. Function words are words such as auxiliary verbs (e.g., is, has), prepositions (e.g., on, under), conjunctions (e.g., but, yet), etc. However, it is important to remember that in certain circumstances only the strong form is acceptable. For examples: i. The word of has the weak form /v/ in: Its made of cotton /ts med v ktn/ but when of comes at the end of the sentence, it has the strong form /v/ as in: That is what its made of /t z wt ts med v/. ii. A weak form word is being contrasted with another word in a sentence: The cake is for me, not from me / kek z f:r mi nt frm mi:/ In the case of co-ordinated use of prepositions, the function words (e.g., to /tu/ and from /frm/ ) also take the strong form as in the example below: The airlines travel to and from Dubai /i: elans trvl tu nd frm Dba / iii. A weak form word is pronounced in a strong form for the purpose of emphasis as in the example below: You should stay at home /ju d ste t hjm/ iv. A weak form word is being cited or quoted as in example below: The word an is deleted / wd n z dli:td/ There is a logical explanation behind the occurrence of weak forms. They are present in words which are necessary to construct a phrase yet, at the same time, do not communicate a large quantity of information. In other words, they are not content words. For example in the following phrase:
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I went to the hotel and booked a room for two nights for my father and his best friend. The most important words, those that are central to the message, can be emphasised: I went to the hotel and booked a room for two nights for my father and his best friend. If you eliminate the words that are not emphasised, can you still understand the message? went hotel booked room two nights father best friend.
The words which you emphasised would bear the stress, while many of those which you eliminated would become weak forms, simply because they are less important in the conveyance of the message. Now look at the sentence in transcription: a went t htel n bkt ru:m f tu: nats f ma f:r n hz best frend/ Can you identify the words that take the weak forms above?
Weak forms are also easy to spot, because of the use of contractions in the spelling as shown below: I am French (strong form) /I m frent / I'm French (weak form) /am frent/
When words are pronounced in a phrase or sentence, the weak form is used. He is humble but clever /h z hmbl bt klevr Tell him to go /tel m t g /
As you can see, the words but him and to are unstressed and have a weak form when pronounced inside a sentence.
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Another example: I would like some fish and chips /a wd lak sm f nd tps/ (strong forms) The way the sentence above is pronounced sounds so unnatural and, believe it or not, more difficult to understand for a native speaker. The weak form is, /a wd lak sm f n tps/
Now, lets move to the tutorial tasks
Exercise 1 a. How many syllables are there in the words below? 1 or 2 ? Words i. ii. iii. iv. v. vi. vii. painted rented walked landed caused laughed folded No of syllables
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b.
Analyse the structure of the following one-syllable English words. Follow the example: slumped
initial s i. ii.
post initial l
peak
pre-final m v. vi. think ring
final p
post-final t
cracked cats
iii. iv.
songs spark
Exercise 2
a.
Using the models on the 'Syllable structure in English', analyse the following words into their syllable structure. (i) Write the word with periods between the syllables; use IPA symbols Example: 'baby' = /be.bi/ (ii) List and identify the parts of each syllable Example: 'segment' = /seg.mnt/ First syllable: /seg/ Onset /s/ Rhyme /eg/ Nucleus /e/ Coda /g/ Second syllable: /mnt/ Onset /m / Rhyme /nt/ Nucleus // Coda /nt/
Remember that diphthongs count as single vowel segments. Here are your words: playdough, thanks, toys, straw, plastic
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Exercise 3
Transcribe the sentences below using the phonetic symbols. Use the appropriate forms (weak or strong).
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10.
Sarah at least has never pretended she could sing. June can play piano. Tom is from Chicago. Give it to me! It takes three hours to get from here to London. Could you give me a light? Whats that knife for? The book that she bought was more expensive than mine. They can walk to school tomorrow, theyre old enough. They were there in the corner, didnt you see them?
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TOPIC 6
STRESS PATTERNS
6.0 SYNOPSIS Topic 6 introduces you to the stress patterns in English. It covers the stress timing and the importance of stress timing in English. Then, it will further discuss the characteristics of primary and secondary stress in English words with the emphasis on the difference of stress in simple and compound words.
6.1 LEARNING OUTCOMES By the end of this Session, you will be able to: define stress timing discuss the importance of stress timing determine the characteristics of stress primary & secondary stress differentiate between stress in simple and compound words
STRESS PATTERNS
Stress Timing
Stress in Simple Words
Complex Word Stress
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CONTENT SESSION SIX (6 Hours)
6.2.1 Stress Patterns
The study of word stress is related to the study of syllables. Hence in order to understand word stress, it helps to understand syllables because every word is made from syllables. Each word has one, two, three or more syllables. For example: Words green o.range ex.pen.sive No. of Syllables 1 2 3
Notice that (with a few rare exceptions) every syllable contains at least one vowel (a, e, i, o or u) or vowel sound.
Can you think of other words with one, two, three and more syllables? Discuss the words with your partner.
In English, we do not say each syllable with the same force or strength. In one word, we stress ONE syllable. We say one syllable very loudly (big, strong, important) and all the other syllables very quietly. Let's take 3 words: photograph, photographer and photographic. Do they sound the same when spoken? No. Because we stress ONE syllable in each word. And it is not always the same syllable. So the shape of each word is different.
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Word PHO. to.graph pho .TO .graph er pho to GRAPH ic
No of syllables 3 4 4
No of stressed syllables 1 2 3
This pattern happens in ALL words with 2 or more syllables: TEACHer aBOVE imPORtant, AMErica INteresting deMAND CHINa converSAtion etCETera
The syllables that are not stressed are weak or quiet. Native speakers of English listen for the STRESSED syllables, not the weak syllables. Thus if you use word stress correctly in speech, you will instantly and automatically improve your pronunciation and comprehension.
There are two very important rules about word stress: 1. One word, one stress. (One word cannot have two stresses. So if you hear two stresses, you have heard two words, not one word.) 2. The stress is always on a vowel. The stress syllable has the primary stress and is marked with in front of the syllable, above the line. The secondary stress is marked with and is read with less loud than the primary stress, for example the words:
engineer
foreknowledge
particularity
Stress placement depends on: 1. 2. whether a word is morphologically simple or complex or a compound. the grammatical category of a word. 70
3. 4.
the number of syllables in a word. the phonological structure of the syllables.
Why is Word Stress Important?
Word stress is not used in all languages. Some languages, Japanese or French for example, pronounce each syllable with eq-ual em-pha-sis. Other languages, English for example, use word stress.
Word stress is not an optional extra that you can add to the English language if you want. It is part of the language. English speakers use word stress to communicate rapidly and accurately, even in difficult conditions. If, for example, you do not hear a word clearly, you can still understand the word because of the position of the stress.
6.2.1.1
Stress Timing
What do you mean by a word stress? It means that you are giving a special attention to part of a word. How do you do that? There are three basic things that you have to do. You do the part that you stress louder, longer and at a higher pitch. For example the word STEAMboat the first part is louder, longer and at a higher pitch compared to the second part. Take note that you stress vowel sounds and not consonant sound. That means in word stress, you make the vowel sound louder, longer and at a higher pitch.
Read the sentences below with the correct stress. Ask your friend to listen to you. i. ii. iii. STEAMboat BEAUtiful Uniform Sarah worked on a steamboat. The steamboat was beautiful. Sarah wore a uniform. 71
iv. v.
STAtion SCEnery -
Sarah worked at the pursers station. There were interesting scenery along the river.
English does not have a fixed word stress. It can be found at the beginning, middle and final syllable as these examples show:
Asymmetrical
abDUCtion
emploYEE
Stress also serves an important grammatical function in English, as it is capable of indicating word class. For example, the word survey can be either a verb or a noun: We want to surVEY all viewers of Channel 7 in order to learn more about their tastes. This SURvey indicates that the students are extremely bored. In the first sentence survey is a verb and stressed on the second syllable, whereas in the second sentence it is a noun and stressed on the first syllable. Normally, function words such as and, to and of (which are often monosyllabic) are unstressed in English.
The shifting of word stress also has effects on the meaning. Read the sentences below and study how shifting a word stress affects the meaning.
Sentence HARRY doesnt like pie. Harry DOESNT like pie. Harry doesnt LIKE pie. Harry doesnt like PIE.
Meaning Harry doesnt like pie, Sarah does Someone assumed that he likes pie, but he actually doesnt He doesnt just like it, he loves it! He doesnt like pie, but hes crazy about donuts.
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Content words are always stressed. The examples of content words are: Words carrying the meaning main verbs nouns adjectives adverbs negative auxiliaries Example SELL, GIVE, EMPLOY CAR, MUSIC, JUNE RED, BIG, INTERESTING QUICKLY, LOUDLY, NEVER DON'T, AREN'T, CAN'T
Normally, function words (which are often monosyllabic) are unstressed in English. The examples of function words are: Function words pronouns prepositions articles conjunctions Example he, we, they on, at, into a, an, the and, but, because
6.2.1.2
Stress in Simple Words
When you learn a new word, you should also learn its stress pattern. If you keep a vocabulary book, make a note to show which syllable is stressed. If you do not know, you can look in a dictionary. All dictionaries give the phonetic spelling of a word.
(i)
Rules of Word Stress in English
There are two simple rules about word stress: One word has only one stress. (One word cannot have two stresses. If you hear two stresses, you hear two words. It is true that there can be a "secondary" stress in some words. But a secondary stress is much smaller than the main (primary) stress, and is only used in long words.) 73
We can only stress vowels, not consonants.
Here are some more, rather complicated, rules that can guide you to understand where to put the stress. However you must remember that there are many exceptions. Rule 1: Stress on the first syllable Rule Most 2-syllable nouns Most 2-syllable adjectives Example PRESent, EXport, CHIna, Table PRESent, SLENder, CLEVer, HAPpy
Rule 2:
Stress on the last syllable Rule Example to preSENT, to exPORT, to deCIDE, to beGIN
Most 2-syllable verbs
There are many two-syllable words in English whose meaning and class change with a change in stress. For examples: Two-syllable words present record export import contract object Verbs /przent/ /rk:d/ /ksp:t /mp:t/ /kntrkt/ /bdekt/ Nouns/Adjectives /preznt/ (N) & (Adj) /rek:d/ (N) /eksp:t (N) /mp:t/ (N) /kntrkt/ (N)
/bdkt/ (N)
Normally, when the words function as verbs, the stress is on the second syllable and the stress is on the first syllable for nouns. For certain words like present, the stress is also on the first syllable when it functions as an adjective. 74
6.2.1.3
Complex Word Stress
Complex words can be divided into two types. The first is words which have a stem and the addition of an affix and the second is compound words, which are made of two or more words. For examples: a stem + an affix (prefix or suffix) compound words suggest + ion = suggestion ice cream, armchair
The addition of affixes has one of three possible effects on word stress: The affix itself receives the primary stress, e.g. semi-+ circle semicircle / /semskl/; -ality + person personality /psnlti/. The word is stressed as if the affix were not there, e.g. pleasant /pleznt/ unpleasant /npleznt /; /; market/m:kt/ marketing /m:kt/,. The stress remains on the stem, not the affix, but is shifted to a different syllable, e.g. magnet /mgnt/ magnetic /mgntk/. (Roach, 2009:p. 83) There are suffixes that carry primary stress themselves. You will find the primary stress is on the first syllable of the suffix. If the stem consists of more than one syllable, there will be a secondary stress on one of the syllables of the stem. The stress cannot fall on the last syllable of the stem and is, if necessary, moved to an earlier syllable. However, when the stress-carrying suffix-ese is added, the primary stress is on the suffix and the secondary stress is placed on the first and not on the second syllable. As for examples: -ese-eer-eeJapan /dpn/ mountain /mantn/ refuge /refju:d/ Japanese /dpni:z/. mountaineer /mantn/, refugee / /refjdi:/
There are some suffixes that do not affect stress placement, as for examples:
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-able-age-ful-
comfort /kmft/ anchor /k/ wonder /wnd/
comfortable /kmftbl/ anchorage /krd/ wonderful /wndfl/
There are some suffixes that influence stress in the stem, as for examples: -eous-graphy-ialadvantage /dv:ntd / photo /ft/ proverb /prvb/ advantageous/ dvnted s/
photography /ftgrfi/ proverbial / /prvbil/
Unlike suffixes, prefixes do not carry primary stress in one or two-syllable words. Hence, words with prefixes will follow the polysllabic words without prefixes. The rules for compound words (words with two parts) are given below. Rule For compound nouns, the stress is on the first part For compound adjectives, the stress is on the second part For compound verbs, the stress is on the second part Example BLACKbird, GREENhouse bad-TEMpered, old-FASHioned to underSTAND, to overFLOW
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Now, lets answer the tutorial tasks
Exercise 1
Rewrite the stressed syllable in capital letters.
E.g., She records (CORD) everything in her diary
1.
Can you pass me a plastic (___________) knife?
2.
I want to take a photography (___________) class.
3.
China (__________) is the place where I was born.
4.
Please turn off the television (____________) before you go out. I cant decide (___________) which book to borrow.
5.
6.
Do you understand (____________) this lesson?
7.
Comel is a happy (__________) kitten.
8.
It is critical (____________) that you finish your essay.
9.
My grandfather wears an old-fashioned (____________) coat.
10.
There is a lot of traffic (__________) on the highway today.
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Question 2
Match the stress patterns to the meaning i. I said she might consider a new haircut. ii. I said she might consider a new haircut. iii. I said she might consider a new haircut. iv. I said she might consider a new haircut. v. I said she might consider a new haircut. vi. I said she might consider a new haircut. vii. I said she might consider a new haircut. She should think about it. it's a good idea Not another person. Don't you understand me? Not something else. It was my idea. It's a possibility. Not just a haircut.
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Question 3 Identify the primary and secondary stress in the following compound words and transcribe them.
1.
teaspoon
_______________ 6.
overdone
________________
2.
coffee cup
_______________ 7.
underneath
________________
3.
dinner plates _______________ 8.
hard boiled
________________
4.
lunch box
_______________ 9.
half-baked
________________
5.
supper time _______________ 10.
short-changed ________________
b.
Mark the primary and secondary stress in the following conversation. A: What's your name? B: Harry Barrymore A: And what did you do? B: I broke the world's record for walking on my hands. A: I see. How long did you walk on your hands? A: I walked on my hands for 36 hours.
Practise the conversation with your partner
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TOPIC 7
PHONEMIC ANALYSIS
7.0
SYNOPSIS
Topic 7 introduces you to a few theoretical problems in relation with phonemic analysis. The discussion will revolve around these theoretical problems and how they fit into the language sound system.
By the end of this Session, you will be able to: express different views of the problems of phonemic analysis. discuss the problems in phonemic analysis
PHONEMIC ANALYSIS Problems in Phonemic Analysis
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CONTENT
SESSION SEVEN (3 Hours)
7.2.1 Phonemic Analysis
A phonemic analysis is a process that takes as its input either a set of utterances, transcribed phonetically or a speaker of a language, and produces a set of symbols which represent distinct phonemes.
However, there is no such thing as a single correct form of transcription of English because different styles are appropriate for different purposes. However it is essential to keep within one style of transcription on any one occasion. It is important to be consistent in order to avoid confusion. The transcription of English vowels is complex because they have been symbolised differently by different authors. Some represent the way they are pronounced in different regions of the English speaking world namely in the United Kingdom and the USA.
7.2.1.1
Problems in Phonemic Analysis
Speech is composed of phonemes which represent the sounds produced. There are exceptions especially in theoretical terms from the point of learning about phonology of English, not so in learning pronunciation.
For example the affricates /t, d/ are composed of a plosive followed by a fricative. One phoneme analysis will treat /t, d/ as a single phoneme. Another way is to treat them as two phonemes each /t/ +//, and /d/+ // and this is called twophoneme analysis.
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Look at the common examples below:
Two-phoneme analysis/ t - - - t - / , /d - - - d - / = (5 phonemes) One-phoneme analysis /t - - t /, /d - - d/ = (3 phonemes)
Many phonologists prefer one-phoneme analysis than two-phoneme analysis. However, the phonetic quality of the /t/ and //, /d/ and // in /t /, /d/ are different from realisations of /t/, //, /d/, // found elsewhere in similar contexts. The phonemes /t /, /d/ have distributions similar to other consonants in initial, medial and final positions. /t/, /d/ are not able to combine freely with other consonants to form consonant cluster except in final position in the syllable in limited words like watched (/wtt/, wedged /wedd/, squelch/skwelt/, bulge /bld/, belch /belt/, and clutched /klt/.
(i)
The English Vowel System
There is a different analysis that reduces the number of vowel phonemes, and that long vowels and diphthongs as composed of two phonemes. The long vowels use two short vowels twice. For example: (i:) (:) (u)
Diphthongs would be composed of a basic vowel followed by i, u, . For example: ej (e) j (a) j () w () w (a)
Another way is to treat long vowels and diphthongs as composed of a vowel plus a consonant . For example: tj (i:) h (:) 82 h (:) h ()
If you notice in the analysis above, diphthong and long vowels now have the same phonological composition. (ii) Syllabic Consonants
Syllabic consonants are phonologically different from their non-syllabic counterparts. Syllabic coddling /kdl/ Non-syllabic codling /kdl/ hungry /hgri/ (Roach, 2009)
hungrary /hgri/
In the example above, the phonemes /
are examples of new consonant
phonemes. For a word like cotton /kt / or bottle /bt /, the phoneme / , / would be necessary to be included in the first post-final set because phonemes are counted as part of a syllable-final consonant cluster. These phonemes are classed as vowels. This is also called syllabicity, symbolised by the mark (
). For the
examples of the word codling, it consists of six phonemes and coddling has seven phonemes. Some phonologists believe that a syllabic consonant is actually a vowel and a consonant that have become combined. Hence, Hungary is phonetically hgri, while hungry is hgri in which // is not pronounced as a vowel.
(iii) Cluster of s with Plosive Another analysis is cluster of s with plosives which is found in wwords like spit, stilt, skit are usually represented with the phonemes /p/,/t/,/k/ preceded by the s. The contrasts between p and b, between t and d, and between k and g are neutralised in this context.
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(iv)
Schwa //
The last analysis to discuss here is schwa //. // mostly occurs in weak syllables, and there are no minimal pairs found to show a clear contrast between // and // in unstressed syllables. It is suggested that // represents any occurrence // and / /. Hence, // phoneme has two allophones // and //, meaning that in a weak syllable with stress, // allophone is used and when there is no stress, the // allophone would be pronounced. // also represents as an allophone of several other vowels. Compare the middle two syllables in the words photograph and photographer /f t gr:f/. and /f t gr f/. It seems that the syllable // is not stressed, the vowel becomes //. (v) Distinctive features
Many theoretical approaches have been developed and no area of phonology has been free from critical analysis. The principle in the distinctive features analysis is phonemes should be regarded as the combinations of different features but not as independent and indivisible units. It means that each phoneme possesses certain features that other phonemes do not have or do not have certain features that other phonemes possess. For example, the English /s/ differs from /b/ for not being bilabial and /n/ for not being nasal. Thus in distinctive feature analysis, the features of phonemes becomes important components of the phonology.
84
Now lets answer tutorial tasks
Question 1 The words below are phonetically transcribed material from an English accent different from BBC English pronunciation. Decide on the best way to interpret the words below in broad phonemic transcription. E.g. sing [sk] finger [fg] /snk/ /fng/ /lngkng/
linking [lgkg] -
(In the data above, there is no evidence of /n/ contrasting with // since // never occurs except before /k/ or /g/. So all phonetic // consonants are phonemic /n/) a. b. c. d. e. thing [g] think [k] thinking [kg] singer [sg] singing [sgg] ______________________ ______________________ ______________________ ______________________ ______________________
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Question 2 Transcribe the words below phonemically and use syllabic consonants (, in the transciptions.
E.g., panel /pn / a. b. c. d. e. f. g. h. i. j. apple battle thicken muddle struggle knuckle struggle sharpen trouble couple _______________________________ _______________________________ _______________________________ _______________________________ _______________________________ _______________________________ _______________________________ _______________________________ _______________________________ _______________________________
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TOPIC 8
INTONATION
8.0 SYNOPSIS
Topic 8 introduces you to the different forms of intonation in the English Language. It
further discusses the different functions of intonation and how they can help to improve the communication.
By the end of Topic 8, you will be able to:

define intonation describe the different forms of intonation. talk about the purpose of intonation
INTONATION
Functions of Intonation
87
CONTENT
SESSION EIGHT (3 Hours)
8.2.1 Intonation
Do you know what intonation is?
Intonation refers to the patterns of pitch change over an utterance or series of utterances (Underhill, 2005). The patterns may be partly personal and conventional and to a certain extent, they are also systematic. This means at some level there are rules according to which the speaker of the language chooses one intonation pattern rather than another. Underhill (2005) also defined intonation as the patterns of pitch variation which count the overall pitch pattern and the relative pitch heights within it. Therefore pitch of voice plays an important part of intonation.
Pitch is described in terms of high and low- arbitrary choices for endpoints of the pitch scale that carry some linguistic information. The overall behaviour of pitch is known as tone. Tones can be static, level tones or moving tones, either rising or falling depending on the manner of the speech.
For the purpose of analysing intonation, a tone-unit is normally used. Tone-units consist of at least one tonic syllable (a tonic syllable being a syllable with tone and prominence). For example, the word answer is a tonic syllable. Tone-units also have a head, which is that part of the tone-unit that extends from the first stressed syllable up to (but not including) the tonic syllable, for example complete (head) answer. The syllable complete is marked as stressed. If there is no stressed syllable before the tonic syllable, then there cannot be a head. Before the head, there may be a pre-head, which includes all the unstressed syllables in a tone unit preceding the first stressed syllables. Sometimes there is even a tail, that is, some
88
syllables following the tonic syllable up to the end of the tone-unit. So, the structure of a tone-unit is (pre-head) (head) tonic syllable (tail). As the example shows: In a | complete | answer | tomorrow Pre head 8.2.1.1 head tonic tail
Functions of Intonation
Intonation is very important for communication, as it helps the listener to interpret the message. There have been different proposals to explain how intonation can help communication, some of which are: 1. The attitudinal function of intonation - it enables us to express emotions and attitudes as we speak. For example: Fall Tone - finality, definiteness Rise Tone - General questions Listing That is the end of the \story. Im absolutely \ free. Can you do me a / favour? I stopped in / Virginia, / Nebraska and / Miami.
Fall-rise tone - uncertainty, doubt, I dont think he could \ do / that. requesting, surprised 2. The accentual function of intonation - it helps to produce the effect of prominence on stressed syllables. For example: Compare the different emphasis on the two sentences below. SHE lost her pen. She lost her PEN. 3. The grammatical function of intonation - it helps to recognise the grammar and syntactic structure of the utterance. Sentence type declarative WH question declarative falling 89 Intonation
yes/no question multiple interrogative imperative exclamation question tags expecting confirmation less certain expectation
rising rising then falling falling falling falling rising
(Underhill, 1994: p.84) 4. The discourse function of intonation - it conveys the given-new information, or provides information for turn-taking. For example: It's raining. Isnt it? It's raining, isn't it? telling a person- telling pitch asking a person-asking pitch and expecting an answer)
As it was mentioned in the early part of this topic, there are three simple possibilities for intonation: level, fall and rise. However, more complex tones are also used, such as fall-rise or rise-fall. Each of these tones is functionally distinct, that is, they convey different attitudes, intentions and meanings to the listener, as it has been stated above. Thus, the fall tone is regarded as quite neutral and it conveys a certain sense of finality (so, it is normally used to yield the floor in turn-taking). The rise tone, on the other hand, conveys an impression that something more is to follow (so, it is frequently used to keep the floor in turn-taking). The fall-rise tone is quite frequent and it conveys, among many other possibilities, limited agreement or response with reservations. The rise-fall tone is normally used to convey strong feelings of approval, disapproval or surprise.
As a result the way in which a speaker breaks up a sentence depends largely on what that person considers to be important points in the sentence. Usually it is impossible to predict which syllable will be the tonic syllable in a tone group. English intonation is closely linked with English sentence rhythm. Intonation and rhythm help us to understand the whole context and, in the position of speaker, to express 90
his/her own intentions. Without the appropriate usage of intonation, clear stressing, and/or knowledge of the context, it is very hard to understand what a speaker is trying to convey. With a different intonation, a speaker can change the meaning of the utterance. For example if one said: It is twelve oclock in five minutes. Possible interpretations could be: Speaker is just hungry. Time for a lunch break is coming. Speakers daughter sits for an examination at twelve oclock. Speakers favourite football team will play an important match on TV. Speaker has been waiting for his friend nearly for an hour.
There is a connection between speakers emotions and intonation used for the utterance being illustrated. One sentence can represent large amount of interpretations. Without intonation it would be very hard for a speaker and listener to understand each other and to communicate properly without misunderstandings. (Kenworthy, 1992: p.19) Now, read the sentences below aloud in different moods or attitudes - miserable, matter-of-fact, insistent, disbelieving, furious, optimistic, and etc.
Practise these sentences with your friends. Sarah got a job. She was so happy I dont think she should get a job Do you notice the variations in pitch direction, range and placement within your voice range?
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Now, lets answer tutorial tasks
Question 1 Mark the stressed words in the following sentences. After you have found the stressed words, practice reading the sentences aloud with the correct intonation.
1.
John is coming over tonight. We are going to work on our homework together.
2.
Ecstasy is an extremely dangerous drug.
3.
We should have visited some more castles while we were traveling through the back roads of France.
4.
Jack bought a new car last Friday.
5.
They are looking forward to your visiting them next January.
6.
Exciting discoveries lie in Tom's future.
7.
Would you like to come over and play a game of chess?
8.
They have had to work hard these last few months on their challenging experiment.
9.
Shakespeare wrote passionate, moving poetry.
10.
As you might have expected, he has just thought of a new approach to the problem.
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Question 2 First speak the sentence, trying to carefully pronounce EVERY word. Notice how unnatural this sounds. Next, focus on speaking the sentences and only working on stressing the content words. Ask your friend to listen to you.
1.
He drove to work after he had finished working in the garden.
2.
You'll find the apples next to the oranges on the shelf over there.
3.
Maggie must have been visiting her aunt in Springtown last holiday.
4.
Could you pass me the mustard, please?
5.
They have been considering buying a new car as soon as they have saved enough money
Question 3 Read the paragraph Our school is the best in town. The teachers are friendly, and very knowledgeable about English. I've studied at the school for two years and my English is becoming very good. I hope you will visit our school and try an English class. Maybe we can become friends, too! Read the paragraph with Sound Scripting Mark-up Our school is the BEST in town. The teachers are friendly, and VERY KNOWLEDGEABLE about English. I've studied at the school for two years and my English is becoming VERY GOOD. I hope you will visit our school and try an English class. MAYBE we can become FRIENDS!
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Question 4 Write a sentence for each sentence type below. Then read your sentences with the correct intonation. Sentence type declarative WH question yes/no question multiple interrogative imperative exclamation question tags -expecting confirmation Examples
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TOPIC 9
ASPECTS OF CONNECTED SPEECH (SUPRASEGMENTAL)
9.0 SYNOPSIS
Topic 9 introduces you to the features in connected speech. It will further discuss the characteristics of all the aspects of connected speech and enhance your knowledge about the process that takes place in producing a fluent flow of pronunciation in your speech. 9.1 LEARNING OUTCOMES By the end of Topic 9, you will be able to: identify all the aspects of connected speech. define all the aspects of connected speech. differentiate the characteristics of all the aspects of connected speech.

ASPECTS OF CONNECTED SPEECH (SUPRASEGMENTAL)
Rhythm Assimilation Elision Linking
Liaison
Juncture
Contractions
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CONTENT
SESSION NINE (6 Hours)
9.2.1 Aspects of Connected Speech (Suprasegmental)
Speaking involves the pronunciation of words, however when we speak, we do not pronounce a word, stop, and then say the next word in the sentence. The fluent speech flows with a rhythm and the words bump into each other. To make speech flow smoothly, the way we pronounce the end and beginning of some words can change depending on the sounds at the beginning and ending of those words. These changes are described as features of connected speech.
9.2.1.1
Rhythm
English speech is rhythmical and the rhythm is found in the regular occurrence of stressed syllables. The major part of the rhythm is formed by the word stress and sentence stress and that it is called stress-timed rhythm. Very often when we
speak, we vary our rhythm, for example when we are hesitant or nervous, we tend to speak without rhythm and in some styles of public speaking, and we speak very rhythmically. Many foreign English learners need to practise speaking English with a regular rhythm by following their teacher clapping hands on the stressed syllables.
9.2.1.2
Assimilation
Assimilation is a process when the phonemes of a word would be pronounced differently (as compared to the word is pronounced in isolation) as a result of being near some other phoneme belonging to a neighbouring word. It is often found in rapid and casual speech than in slow, careful speech. Sometimes the difference caused by assimilation is very noticeable, and sometimes it is very slight. Normally, 96
the most common assimilations occur with consonants, that is, when a word ends in a consonant and is immediately followed by a word that starts with a consonant. The two types of assimilation are regressive and progressive. Regressive is when the articulation of the following sound affects the phoneme that precedes it. Progressive is when the articulation of the phoneme that comes first continues in the next sound. In most cases, assimilation is regressive than progressive. For examples: / t / changes to / p / before / m / / b / or / p Great Britain, set piece, fruit machine /z/ changes to /ch/ before /sh/ or /j/ is young, rose show, Where's yours / n / changes to / m / before / m / / b / or / p / action planning, iron man, American plan 9.2.1.3 Elision
Elision occurs when a sound is omitted and it is a typical feature of connected speech. Despite the fact that in a word spoken in isolation, a sound would be present, in connected speech it would disappear (Underhill,1994: p. 61). This kind of reduction occurs mainly in words ending with /t/ and /d/ and particularly when they are between two other consonants: a) omission of /t/: next please I dont know post the letter b) omission of /d/: old man you and me sandwich stand there /l mn/ /ju: n mi:/ /snwt / /stn e/ (Underhill,1994: p.61) 97 /neks pli:z/ /a d n / /ps let/
9.2.1.4
Linking
In connected speech, words are linked together in a number of ways.
(i)
Linking /r/
In connected speech, the sound r at the end of a word may be pronounced or not, depending on whether the following word begins with a vowel or with a consonant (Underhill,1994; p 66). Linking /r/ appears in situations when the letter r is presented in the written form and: a) the next word begins with a vowel b) the first sound of the next word is a consonant (Underhill, 1994: p.66) For example: (ii) her English, war area, bar of chocolate, etc. her German, war brides, bar code, star light, etc.
Intrusive /r/
This is a special type of liaison when many native speakers join the words with the letter r even when it does not occur in the written form. This sound is just inserted and pronounced by the speaker. It appears between two words in situation where the first word ends with // or /:/ and the next word begins with a vowel. For example: Formula A /f:mjlr e/ (Roach,1991: p.128) America and Canada /merk rn knd/ (Underhill,1994:p.66) 98
It depends on a speaker whether s/he uses intrusive r or not, it is optional (Underhill,1994:p. 66). However, when a speaker wants to produce continuous speech, the use of intrusive r will prevent his/her utterance from interruption. For example when speaker says America and without use of intrusive r, the pause between them is to be clearly heard. However, when he says those two words with the help of intrusive r they are pronounced continuously as a one word.
(iii)
Intrusive /w/ and /j/
These two intrusive sounds occur when we face a vowel-vowel word junction: i. Intrusive /w/: you are go off /ju: w:/ /g wf/ /su: w :lwez wnts t w i:t/
Sue always wants to eat ii. Intrusive /j/: he is they are /hi: j z/ /e j:/
she always takes my arm
/i: j :lwez teks ma j:m/ (Underhill,1994: p. 67)
9.2.1.5
Liaison
Liaison is a common feature of continuity and natural flow of speech. To link the words means to join them together and it often entails different types of fusing sounds at word boundaries (Underhill,1994; p 65).
The other version of the term liaison is a smooth linking: final consonant is linked to following initial vowel initial consonant is merged in preceding final vowel (Underhill,1994: p. 65) 99
9.2.1.6
Juncture
Juncture is a special situation when it is really hard for foreign learners to distinguish between two phrases that sound nearly the same. Those phonetically resembling connections or junctions consist of words that are easily recognisable in a way, they are pronounced in isolation: Examples of juncture: might rain X my train X keeps ticking X all the time after today (Roach,1991: p.129) the way to pour it I scream its a name X X X the waiter pour it
keep sticking
all that Im after today
ice cream its an aim (Underhill,1994: p.68)
9.2.1.7
Contractions
Contractions are one of the typical features of connected speech which arose naturally to simplify and speed up communication and are used either in spoken or in written discourse. If foreigners want to speak naturally in English, they have to be aware of their existence. Contraction could be embodied by the definition saying that it is a process when a weak form occurs with or next to another word and they together go through another reduction. Then, the two words are pronounced as one Underhill,1994: p. 65).
Common cases of contraction are represented by this formula and definitions: personal pronoun + auxiliary verb and verb + not two single-syllable words are usually combined into one syllable an elision ( omission) of sounds
100
an omission of one or two letters also occurs in the written form; their place marked an apostrophe. (Underhill,1994: p. 65)
Examples of contractions: Hes, Its, Im, theyre , Ive, theyve, hell, theyll, shed, cant, couldnt, dont, doesnt, havent, hasnt, wasnt, werent Now, lets answer the tutorial tasks
Question 1 Transcribe the phrases below correctly. Bear in mind the features of connected speech. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 'Don't you' 'For a' 'Good place' 'Must get' 'Last year' 'Wouldn't talk' Went through' = = = = = = = _______________________ _______________________ _______________________ ______________________ ______________________ ______________________ ______________________
101
Exercise 2
Transcribe the phrases below correctly. Consider the features in connected speech in doing transcription.
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.
the next day the last car lunchtime strange days I can speak I cant speak hold the dog! care about
= = = = = = = =
_____________________ _____________________ _____________________ _____________________ _____________________ _____________________ _____________________ _____________________
Question 3 Discuss and share How do native speakers and non-native speakers differ in the amount of connected speech produced? The production of connected speech could make speech more intelligible and natural. Discuss Could connected speech be taught and improved through instruction? How?
102
TOPIC 10
SPEECH VARIATION
10.0 SYNOPSIS
Topic 10 introduces you to the definition of accent and its needs in a society. It brings to your understanding the bilingual and multi-lingual speakers accents in a society. It also highlights some reasons and impacts of accents on communication and comprehension.
By the end of Topic 10 you will be able to: define and discuss accents in a society. talk about the bilingual and multilingual speakers accents. highlight the reasons and impacts of accents on communication and comprehension.
SPEECH VARIATION
Accents
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CONTENT
SESSION TEN (3 Hours)
10.2.1
Speech Variation
The study of speech variation involves at the phonetic and phonological levels of utterances.
10.2.1.1
Accents
The term "accent" usually refers to the sound aspect of language. Most people think of an accent as something that other people have. In some cases, they speak disparagingly about one accent compared to another. The reason that you can tell the difference between people from Boston and the Appalachians, or between London and Manchester is because each group of people has a different way of pronouncing the same words. In other words, accent is all about sound. When it comes to changes in vocabulary in different regions, then that is dialect. Dialect refers to differences in accent, grammar and vocabulary among different versions of a language. For example, depending on where you live in England, one type of baked goods could be called buns, cobs or rolls. It is likely that when you speak in the dialect of a particular region, you will also speak in the accent of a particular region. However, incomers may speak the dialect of a region with a different accent. This may also apply to people who have emigrated from one country to another. They may speak a different form of a language from those born in that country.
So, what does all this have to do with writing? Most written English is based on a dialect of English. The variety of English known as standard English uses a certain type of grammar and vocabulary which is taught to students of English all over the world. They may speak with a different accent, but the dialect is basically the same.
104
The fact is that everyone has an accent, because an accent is simply a way of pronouncing words. Variations occur in the way different individuals produce sounds and the two main sorts of differences between accents are phonetics and phonology. When two accents differ from each other only phonetically, usually it involves differences in stress or intonation at the segmental level. Take for an example Australian English which has the same set of phonemes and phonemic contrast as BBC pronunciation. However, Australian pronunciation is different than the other recognised English accents. An example of phonetic difference in stress would be the stress of final syllable of verbs ending in -ise in some Scottish and Northern Irish accents (e.g. realise rlaz) (Roach, 2009). The most noticeable type of difference in the area of segmental phonology is where one accent has a different number of phonemes from another. For example, to many speakers of northern English accents, they do not have a contrast between // and //, so luck and look are pronounced the same /lk/. Bilingual and Multilingual Speakers Accents
10.2.1.2
Everyone has an accent in his native form of speech. Our brain and nervous system master the motor skills and cognitive patterns for the language we first hear and learn around us. The pattern first mastered to become competent in the mother tongue then affects how an individual would learn and master the speech requirements of a foreign language. Thus we bring an "accent" from the patterns of our first language into the next language that we learn. Some individuals or whole communities have the advantage of learning two languages simultaneously as mother tongues. These are referred to as native bilinguals. Accents involve the pronunciation of sounds in any certain speech form. Thus a German sounds a certain way speaking his native speech form. A Hollander sounds a certain way speaking his native speech form. An American sounds a certain way speaking his native speech form. All these speech forms are broadly related, as all can be traced back to a proto form which may be called Proto105
Germanic. Some speech forms are more similar so we can call them by one name, such as English, Dutch or German or as we look in closer, American, British and Australian. Then closer, Cockney, Geordie and Glaswegian, etc. The patterns learnt and internalised when a person learns his first language (called "mother tongue" or "native language") are carried over into the pronunciation and production of a second language. This applies not only to the pronunciation patterns and intonation, but also to grammar formats and thought forms.l. The patterns follow the speaker's mother tongue, enabling us to systematically identify the "accent." Thus one set of native language patterns leads to a German accent in English, an English accent in Swahili, an Italian accent in Arabic. In multilingual persons, an accent in their third language often reflects the pronunciation of the speaker's second language. Therefore, it is quite fascinating to observe a West African from a French-sphere country speaking English. Though he sounds like an African, he has a French accent in English also. Likewise, a European in East Africa, who has become proficient in Swahili before learning Kikuyu, might reflect not only an English or Norwegian accent in Kikuyu, but a Swahili one also (if he learned Swahili well).
10.2.1.3
Reasons and Impacts of Accents on Communication and Comprehension.
No one is born with the ability to speak a language, but we are all with the ability to learn any language? The only way we can learn a particular language is by
hearing and imitating those around us. Additionally the form of our speech is affected by the form of speech around us. The reason people in one area sound more alike is that they learn their language from those around them. The one aspect of what we call dialects. A way of speaking found only in a certain area or among a certain group or class of people. When a person says She done did it while another says She did it both using different dialects because grammatical
106
differences are involved. However pronouncing bathroom with a short // or with a long /: / is a matter of accent. In our current ear of constant and global media access, more new generations are affected by the variety or varieties of speech commonly heard universally on the general national or international media. Thus influences external to one's family and initial ethnic or regional community have more affect now than in previous generations. All these bring some impacts of accents on communication and comprehension such as People do not understand you (effect on intelligibility) - In order to communicate, two conditions need to be met. Understanding and being understood. People avoid social interaction with those who may not understand you. It creates frustration from having to repeat yourself all the time. People focus on your accent more than on what you are trying to say. The types of communication problems may have negative effects on job performance, educational advancement, and everyday life activities Now, lets answer the tutorial tasks
Discuss and share 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. What exactly does it mean to have an accent? Are people born with accents? How can you overcome an accent? Can you briefly explain the relationship between language and dialect? Does accent interfere with communication?
107
TSL3104 ENGLISH PHONETICS AND PHONOLOGY
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Denham,K. & Lobeck, A.(2010).Linguistics for Everyone.An Introduction. Wadsworth:USA.
2.
Finegan, E.N. (2008). Language: Its Structure and Use. San Diego. Harcourt Brace Jovanovich
3.
Fromkin, V., Rodman, R. & Hyams, .N. (2010). An Introduction to Language. 10th. Edition. Sydney: Holt, Rine and Winston.
5.
Kelly, G. (2006). How to Teach Pronunciation, England: Longman
6.
Kenworthy, J. (2009). Teaching English Pronunciation, Longman Handbooks for Language Teacher.
th
7.
Ladefoged, P. & Johnson, K. (2011). A Course in Phonetics .6 Ed. Wadsworth CENGAGE Learning: US.
8. Laila Hairani Bt. Abdullah Sanggura. (2007). Food Glorious Food. Unpublished text. Available from English for Effective Communication: Listening and Speaking, Kursus Pendek Kelolaan Institut teaching-learning module. Kuala Lumpur: IPG Kampus Bahasa Antarabangsa.
9. Laila Hairani Bt. Abdullah Sanggura.(2011). English Vowels. Unpublished poem. Available from Phonetic Transcription 2, TSL 3104 English Phonetics and Phonology Tutorial Tasks. Kuala Lumpur: IPG Kampus Bahasa Antarabangsa.
108
TSL3104 ENGLISH PHONETICS AND PHONOLOGY
10. Laila Hairani Bt. Abdullah Sanggura.(2011). ABC Phonics Chant. Unpublished jazz chant. Available from Phonemic Transcription, TSL 3104 English Phonetics and Phonology Tutorial Tasks. Kuala Lumpur: IPG Kampus Bahasa Antarabangsa.
11. Roach, P.(2010). English Phonetics and Phonology. A Practical Course. CUP: Cambridge.
12. Roach, P.(2004). British English: RP in Journal of the International Phonetic Association 34/2.
13. Underhill, A.(2005). Sound Foundations. Learning and Teaching Pronunciation. UK:Macmillan Education.
14. Sharifah Zainab Syd Abd. Rahman.(n.d.). English Phonetics and Phonology, UPM:Serdang.
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PANEL PENULIS MODUL PROGRAM PENSISWAZAHAN GURU MOD PENDIDIKAN JARAK JAUH (PENDIDIKAN RENDAH) NAMA LAILA HAIRANI BT. ABDULLAH SANGGURA PPPS DG 48(Hakiki) lhairani@hotmail.my lhairani2@gmail.com KELAYAKAN KELULUSAN: M.ED. Management and Language Teaching B.Ed.(Hons) TESL Sijil Perguruan TESL PENGALAMAN KERJA: Pensyarah dalam bidang TESL 10 tahun pengalaman sebagai guru di sekolah. 20 tahun pengalaman sebagai pendidik guru di IPG. Berpengalaman menulis: Modul Bahasa Inggeris Major bagi program Foundation B.Ed.TESL (IPBA-Overseas link Universities) untuk Komponen Language Development dan Language Description. Modul latihan Introduction to Linguistics dan ELT Methodology untuk pelajar Tahun 1 dan Komponen Linking Theory and Practice untuk pelajar Tahun 4 Program B.Ed. TESL (IPBAOverseas link Universities). Modul Latihan Komponen Aural-Oral untuk PraProgram Khas Pengsiswazahan Guru(PKPG), Modul Introduction to Linguistics For ELT Teachers untuk Program PKPG IPBA-UM dan PKPG IPBA-UIA. Modul Collaborative Teaching untuk KPKI dan Guru Cemerlang Pendidikan Islam dan J-QAF, JAPIM. Modul latihan Selection and Adaptation of Listening and Speaking Materials untuk Pensyarah Matrikulasi MARA. Modul Grammar untuk Kursus Latihan Perkembangan Staf JPWP. Modul Komponen Grammar untuk LPS GuruGuru Sains dan Matematik dalam PPSMI, JPWP. Modul Developing Classroom Skills dan English for Effective Communication untuk Malaysian Technical Cooperation Programme (MTCP) untuk peserta-peserta daripada negara-negara ketiga, Modul Kursus Mentoring untuk Pensyarah dan Guru Pembimbing Bagi Praktikum Program KPLI dan B.Ed. (TESL) (IPBA-Overseas link Universities) dan lain-lain. 110
NAMA PUAN NORIAH BT. TALIB PPPS DG 48 (Hakiki)
KELAYAKAN KELULUSAN: M.ED.TESL B.A Linguistics-ESL Postgraduate Certificate-Professional Development (International) Diploma Pendidikan PENGALAMAN KERJA: Pensyarah dalam bidang Bahasa Inggeris 12 tahun pengalaman sebagai guru di sekolah. 7 tahun pengalaman sebagai pendidik guru di IPG. Berpengalaman menulis modul Bahasa Inggeris Major bagi: program Foundation B.Ed.TESL (IPBAOverseas link Universities) untuk Komponen Language Development , Modul latihan Introduction to Linguistics untuk pelajar Tahun 1 Modul latihan Selection and Adaptation of Listening and Speaking Materials untuk Pensyarah Matrikulasi MARA.
PENGHARGAAN: Setinggi-tinggi penghargaan di atas sumbangan ide atau bahan secara langsung atau tidak langsung dalam penulisan modul ini:
Dr. Norasiah Bt. Ismail, Pensyarah Cemerlang DG 54
Pasukan Tenaga Pengajar TSL 3104 English Phonetics And Phonology (JunDisember 2011), IPG Kampus Bahasa Antarabangsa:
Pn. Noriah Bt. Talib En. Tan Chee Chieng Dr. Suraya Bt. Sulyman Pn. Joanne Goh Sung Sze En. Thirrummurthy A/L A.Maruthai Pn. Laila Hairani Bt. Abdullah Sanggura (Ketua Komponen)
111
IKON
Rehat
Perbincangan
Bahan Bacaan
Buku Rujukan
Latihan
Membuat Nota
Senarai Semakan
Layari Internet
Panduan Pengguna
Mengumpul Maklumat
Tutorial
Memikir
Tamat
NOTA:
SILA GUNAKAN IKON-IKON Di ATAS BAGI TUJUAN / MAKSUD SEPERTI YANG DINYATAKAN.
112

TSL3104 Phonetics and Phonology Modul

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PROGRAM PENSISWAZAHAN GURU (PPG)

MOD PENDIDIKAN JARAK JAUH

IJAZAH SARJANA MUDA PERGURUAN DENGAN KEPUJIAN

MODUL PHONETICS AND PHONOLOGY TSL3104

BAHASA INGGERIS MAJOR

Cetakan Jan 2012 Kementerian Pelajaran Malaysia

Cetakan Jan 2012 Institut Pendidikan Guru Kementerian Pelajaran Malaysia

i ii iii-vi vii-ix x-xi xii-xiii

103 103 103 104 104 105 106

108 110 112

Module Writer Module Icons

1 Speech Sound Classification

English Consonants English Consonants

English Consonants The Syllable

Aspects of Connected Speech (Suprasegmental)

TSL3104 PHONETICS AND PHONOLOGY

OVERVIEW AND SPEECH SOUND CLASSIFICATION

1.1 LEARNING OUTCOMES

1.2 FRAMEWORK OF TOPICS

SPEECH SOUND CLASSIFICATION The Phonemic Chart Consonants Vowels

TSL3104 PHONETICS AND PHONOLOGY

SESSION ONE (6 Hours)

1.2.1.1 Phonetics and Phonology

An analysis of sounds of a language reveals two levels: phonetically and phonologically.

TSL3104 PHONETICS AND PHONOLOGY

TSL3104 PHONETICS AND PHONOLOGY

1.2.1.2 The Production of Speech Sounds

Egressive Pulmonic Airstream Mechanism

The Vocal Tract

TSL3104 PHONETICS AND PHONOLOGY

TSL3104 PHONETICS AND PHONOLOGY

Fig. 2 Subdivisions of the tongue (Roach, 2010)

TSL3104 PHONETICS AND PHONOLOGY

1.2.1.3 The International Phonetics Alphabet

TSL3104 PHONETICS AND PHONOLOGY

TSL3104 PHONETICS AND PHONOLOGY

Speech Sound Classification

1.2.2.1 The Phonemic Chart

TSL3104 PHONETICS AND PHONOLOGY

TSL3104 PHONETICS AND PHONOLOGY

TSL3104 PHONETICS AND PHONOLOGY

Describe the egressive pulmonic airstream mechanism.

TSL3104 PHONETICS AND PHONOLOGY

Why was the IPA invented?

How are phonemes classified? Elaborate.

Identify the phonemes in the following words:

i. ii. iii. iv. v. vi. vii. viii. ix.

tea shy bomb width right easily young weather endanger

____________ ____________ ____________ ____________ ____________ ____________ ____________ ____________ ____________

Take a break before you move on to the next topic.

TSL3104 PHONETICS AND PHONOLOGY

2.1 LEARNING OUTCOMES

By the end of Topic 2, you will be able to:

write the phonemic symbols that correspond to the vowels described.

2.2 FRAMEWORK OF TOPICS

Describing and Producing English Vowels

Symbols and Transcription

TSL3104 PHONETICS AND PHONOLOGY

SESSION TWO (6 Hours)

2.2.1 English Vowels

TSL3104 PHONETICS AND PHONOLOGY

close lip spreading /i:/

neutral lip position /a:/ / : //e/