Fatigue How and Why

Fatigue and Fracture ( Basic Course )
Fatigue, How and Why Physics of Fatigue
Professor Darrell F. Socie

Department of Mechanical Science and Engineering University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign
2009 Darrell Socie, All Rights Reserved
Fatigue, How and Why

Physics of Fatigue Material Properties Similitude Fatigue Calculator
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Size Scale for Studying Fatigue

Atoms Dislocations Crystals Specimens Structures
10-10
10-8
10-6
10-4
10-2
100
102
Understand the physics on this scale Model the physics on this scale Use the models on this scale
Fatigue, How and Why 2009 Darrell Socie, All Rights Reserved 2 of 120
The Fatigue Process

Crack nucleation Small crack growth in an elastic-plastic stress field Macroscopic crack growth in a nominally elastic stress field Final fracture
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Mechanisms Crack Nucleation

Nucleation in Slip Bands inside Grain Nucleation at Grain Boundaries Nucleation at Inclusions
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1903 - Ewing and Humfrey

Cyclic deformation leads to the development of slip bands and fatigue cracks
N = 1,000 N = 2,000
N = 10,000
N = 40,000
Nf = 170,000
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Ewing, J.A. and Humfrey, J.C. The fracture of metals under repeated alterations of stress, Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society, Vol. A200, 1903, 241-250
Crack Nucleation
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Slip Band in Copper
Polak, J. Cyclic Plasticity and Low Cycle Fatigue Life of Metals, Elsevier, 1991
Slip Band Formation
Extrusion Undeformed material Intrusion
Loading
Unloading
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Slip Bands
Ma, B-T and Laird C. Overview of fatigue behavior in copper sinle crystals II Population, size, distribution and growth Kinetics of stage I cracks for tests at constant strain amplitude, Acta Metallurgica, Vol 37, 1989, 337-348
2124-T4 Cracking in Slip Bands
N = 60
N = 240
N = 300
N = 1200
N = 2000
Crack at Particle
Material: BS L65 Aluminum Loading: 63 ksi, R=0 for 500,000+ cycles, followed by 68 ksi, R=0 to failure. Cracks found during 68 ksi loading.
S. Pearson, Initiation of Fatigue Cracks in Commercial Aluminum Alloys and the Subsequent Propagation of Very Short Cracks, RAE TR 72236, Dec 1972.
2219-T851 Cracked Particle
10 m James & Morris, ASTM STP 811 Fatigue Mechanisms: Advances in Quantitative Measurement of Physical Damage, pp. 46-70, 1983.
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Crack at Bonded Particle

Material: BS L65 Aluminum Loading: 63 ksi, R=0 for 500,000+ cycles, followed by 68 ksi, R=0 to failure. Cracks found during 68 ksi loading.
S. Pearson, Initiation of Fatigue Cracks in Commercial Aluminum Alloys and the Subsequent Propagation of Very Short Cracks, RAE TR 72236, Dec 1972.
7075-T6 Cracking at Inclusion
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Crack Initiation at Inclusions
Langford and Kusenberger, Initiation of Fatigue Cracks in 4340 Steel, Metallurgical Transactions, Vol 4, 1977, 553-559
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Subsurface Crack Initiation
Y. Murakami, Metal Fatigue: Effects of Small Defects and Nonmetallic Inclusions, 2002
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Fatigue Limit and Strength Correlation

1250 0.6 0.5
Fatigue Strength, MPa
1000 750 500 250
0.35
500
1000
1500
2000
Tensile Strength, MPa

From Forrest, Fatigue of Metals, Pergamon Press, London, 1962
Crack Nucleation Summary

Highly localized plastic deformation Surface phenomena Stochastic process
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Surface Damage
surface surface bulk
10 m
100 m
20-25 austenitic steel in symmetrical push-pull fatigue (20C, p/2= 0.4%) : short cracks on the surface and in the bulk
From Jacques Stolarz, Ecole Nationale Superieure des Mines Presented at LCF 5 in Berlin, 2003
Stage I and Stage II

loading direction
free surface
Stage I
Stage II
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Stage I Crack Growth

S
Single primary slip system
S individual grain near - tip plastic zone
Stage I crack is strongly affected by slip characteristics, microstructure dimensions, stress level, extent of near tip plasticity
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Small Cracks at Notches

notch plastic zone notch stress field
crack tip plastic zone
Crack growth controlled by the notch plastic strains

Small Crack Growth
Inconel 718 = 0.02 Nf = 936

1.0 mm
N = 900
Crack Length Observations

2.5 F-495 H-491 I-471 C-399 G-304 1.5 J-603
Crack Length, mm
0.5
0 0 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000 12000 14000
Cycles
Crack - Microstructure Interactions
da/dN, mm/cycle 10-6
E D
10-7 A B C
0.03 0.025 0.02 0.015 0.01 0.005 0 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 0.025 Crack Length, mm
Akiniwa, Y., Tanaka, K., and Matsui, E.,Statistical Characteristics of Propagation of Small Fatigue Cracks in Smooth Specimens of Aluminum Alloy 2024-T3, Materials Science and Engineering, Vol. A104, 1988, 105-115
Strain-Life Data
10m
1mm fracture 100 m
Crack size
2 Strain Amplitude
0.1
0.01 10-3 10-4 10-5 100
101
102
103
104
105
106
107
Reversals, 2Nf Most of the life is spent in microcrack growth in the plastic strain dominated region
Stage II Crack Growth
Locally, the crack grows in shear Macroscopically it grows in tension

Long Crack Growth
Plastic zone size is much larger than the material microstructure so that the microstructure does not play such an important role.
Crack Growth Rates of Metals
Material strength does not play a major role in fatigue crack growth
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Stresses Around a Crack

Maximum Load
monotonic plastic zone
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Stresses Around a Crack (continued)

Minimum Load
cyclic plastic zone
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Crack Closure
a b c
S=0
S = 175
S = 250
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Crack Opening Load

Damaging portion of loading history
Opening load Nondamaging portion of loading history
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Mode I, Mode II, and Mode III

Mode I opening Mode II in-plane shear Mode III out-of-plane shear
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Mode I Growth
crack growth direction
5 m
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Mode II Growth
shear stress
slip bands
10 m crack growth direction
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1045 Steel - Tension

1.0
Damage Fraction N/Nf
0.8 0.6 0.4 Shear 0.2 0 1 10 10

2
Tension
Nucleation 100 m crack 10

3
10
10
10
10
Fatigue Life, 2Nf
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1045 Steel - Torsion

1.0 Tension
Damage Fraction N/Nf
0.8
f
0.6 0.4
0.2 0 1 10 10
2
Shear Nucleation 10
3
10
10
10
10
Fatigue Life, 2Nf
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Things Worth Remembering

Fatigue is a localized process involving the nucleation and growth of cracks to failure. Fatigue is caused by localized plastic deformation. Most of the fatigue life is consumed growing microcracks in the finite life region Crack nucleation is dominate at long lives.
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Characterization
Stress Life Curve
Fatigue Limit
Strain Life Curve

Cyclic Stress Strain Curve
Crack Growth Curve

Threshold Stress Intensity
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Bending Fatigue
stress amplitude stress
time stress range
F Bending stress:
Mc = I
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SN Curve
500
Monel Alloy
Stress Amplitude, MPa
400 300 200 500 400 300 200 105 0 1x108 2x108 3x108 4x108 5x108
Cycles to Failure
106
107
108
109
Cycles to Failure Testing time @ 30 Hz

1 hour
1 day
1 month
1 year
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Fatigue Strength
Fatigue Life
Alloy 2014-T4 2024-T4 6061-T6 7075-T6 105 290 297 186 276 106 235 214 152 200 107 186 166 117 166 108 152 145 104 152 109 138 138 90 145
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6061-T6 Aluminum Test Data
Sharpe et. al. Fatigue Design of Aluminum Components and Structures , 1996
SN Curve for Steel

104
S b = S'f (Nf ) 2
1000
fatigue limit
100 102
103
104
105
106
107
108
109
Cycles The fatigue limit is usually only found in steel laboratory specimens
Very High Cycle Fatigue of Steel

104
surface failures large inclusions

1000
conventional fatigue limit
internal inclusions
100 103
104
105
106
107
108
109
1010
Cycles
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Fatigue Damage
Stress Amplitude, MPa 10000
S b = S'f (Nf ) 2
1 10
1000
100 100
101
102
103 104 Cycles
105
106
107
S Nf = ' 2S f
1 b
Damage S10
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Fatigue Limit Strength Correlation

1250 0.6 0.5
Fatigue Strength, MPa
1000 750 500 250
0.35
500
1000
1500
2000
Tensile Strength, MPa

From Forrest, Fatigue of Metals, Pergamon Press, London, 1962
Fatigue Limit Strength Correlation
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SN Materials Data
10000 93 steels 17 aluminums Stress Amplitude, MPa
1000
100
10 1 10 102 103 104 105 Fatigue Life, Reversals 106 107
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Strain Controlled Testing
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Cyclic Hardening / Softening
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Stable Hysteresis Loop

Hysteresis loop
p
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Strain-Life Data
600
Stress Amplitude 2
500 400 300 200 100 0
= + 2 K' 2 2E
1/ n'
2 During cyclic deformation, the material deforms on a path described by the cyclic stress strain curve Strain Amplitude
0.004
0.008
0.012
Cyclic Stress Strain Curve
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Strain-Life Data
2
1 0.1 0.01 0.001 10-4 10-5 100
- 2Nf
Strain Amplitude
101
102
103
104
105
106
107
2 Reversals, 2Nf = 1 Cycle, Nf

Reversals, 2Nf
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Elastic and Plastic Strain-Life Data

2
1
Plastic
0.1 0.01
Strain Amplitude
0.001 10-4 10-5 100
Elastic
101
102
103
104
105
106
107
Reversals, 2Nf
Strain-Life Curve
2
1 0.1 0.01 0.001 10-4 10-5 100 101 102 103
'f
c
'f = (2Nf )b + 'f (2Nf )c 2 E
Strain Amplitude
'f E
2Nt
104 105 106 107
Reversals, 2Nf
Transition Fatigue Life
From Dowling, Mechanical Behavior of Materials, 1999

N Materials Data
10 93 steels Strain Amplitude 1 17 aluminums
0.1 10-2 10-3 10-4 1 10 102 103 104 105 106 107
Fatigue Life, Reversals

Crack Growth Testing
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Stress Concentration of a Crack

2a
K T = 1+ 2
for a crack a ~ 10-3 ~ 10-9
KT ~ 2000
local = 2000 applied
Traditional material properties like tensile strength are not very useful for cracked structures
Stress Intensity Factor
K = a
K characterizes the magnitude of the stresses, strains, and displacements in the neighborhood of a crack tip Two cracks with the same K will have the same behavior
2a
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Crack Growth Measurements

2 Crack size 1
a2 a1
da dN
2a
Cycles
Crack Growth Data

10-6
Crack Growth Rate, m/cycle
10-7 10-8 10-9 10-10 10-11 10-12
Kc
da = C K m dN
m~3
10
100
KTH
K,MPa m
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Threshold Region
a K TH > a f w
threshold stress intensity flaw shape flaw size
operating stresses
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Threshold Stress Intensity
From Dowling, Mechanical Behavior of Materials, 1999

Non-propagating Crack Sizes

Small cracks are frequently semielliptical surface cracks
2 K TH > 1.12 a
K TH ac = 0.63
u Smooth specimen fatigue limit 2
K TH ac = 2.52 u
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Non-propagating Crack Sizes

1
Crack Size, mm
K TH = 5 MPa m
0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0 0 500 1000 1500 2000
Ultimate Strength, MPa
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Stable Crack Growth

10-6
Crack Growth Rate, m/cycle
10-7 10-8 10-9 10-10 10-11 10-12
Kc
da = C K m dN
Stable growth region
10
100
KTH
K,MPa m
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Crack Growth Data

yield
10-6 Crack Growth Rate, m/cycle
252 273 392 415
Ferritic-Pearlitic Steel: da = 6.9 10 12 K MPa m dN Martensitic Steel: da = 1.4 10 10 K MPa m dN Austenitic Stainless Steel:
3.0
10-7
2.25
10-8 5 10 K, MPam 100
da = 5.6 10 12 K MPa m dN
3.25
Barsom, Fatigue Crack Propagation in Steels of Various Yield Strengths Journal of Engineering for Industry, Trans. ASME, Series B, Vol. 93, No. 4, 1971, 1190-1196
Aluminum Crack Growth Rate Data
Sharp, Nordmark and Menzemer, Fatigue Design of Aluminum Components and Structures, 1996
Crack Growth Data

50
Crack Length, mm
40 30 20 10 0 0 50 100 200 Cycles x103 150 250 300 350
Virkler, Hillberry and Goel, The Statistical Nature of Fatigue Crack Propagation, Journal of Engineering Materials and Technology, Vol. 101, 1979, 148-153
Method Stress-Life Strain-Life Crack Growth
Physics Crack Nucleation Microcrack Growth Macrocrack Growth
Size 0.01 mm 0.1 - 1 mm > 1mm
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Fatigue Analysis
Material Data
Component Geometry Service Loading
Analysis
Fatigue Life Estimate
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The Similitude Concept
Why Fatigue Modeling Works !
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What is the Similitude Concept

The Similitude Concept allows engineers to relate the behavior of small-scale cyclic material test specimens, defined under carefully controlled conditions, to the likely performance of real structures subjected to variable amplitude fatigue loads under either simulated or actual service conditions.
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Fatigue Analysis Techniques

Stress - Life BS 7608, Eurocode 3 Strain - Life Crack Growth
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Life Estimation
Method Stress-Life BS 7608 Strain-Life Crack Growth
Physics Crack Nucleation Crack Growth Microcrack Growth Macrocrack Growth
Size 0.01 mm 1 - 10 mm 0.1 - 1 mm > 1mm
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Stress-Life Fatigue Modeling

Fixed End
P
Stress Amplitude, MPa 10000
1000
100 100
101
102
103 104 Cycles
105
106
107
The Similitude Concept states that if the instantaneous loads applied to the test structure (wing spar, say) and the test specimen are the same, then the response in each case will also be the same and can be described by the materials S-N curve.
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Fatigue Analysis: Stress-Life
Material Data
SN curve Ka, Ks, Fatigue Life Estimate
Kf
Analysis
S , Sm
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Stress-Life
Major Assumptions:
Most of the life is consumed nucleating cracks Elastic deformation Nominal stresses and material strength control fatigue life Accurate determination of Kf for each geometry and material
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Stress-Life
Advantages:
Changes in material and geometry can easily be evaluated Large empirical database for steel with standard notch shapes
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Stress-Life
Limitations:
Does not account for notch root plasticity Mean stress effects are often in error Requires empirical Kf for good results
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BS 7608 Fatigue Modeling
1000 Stress Range, MPa
100
10 105 106 Cycles 107 108
The Similitude Concept states that if the instantaneous loads applied to the test structure (welded beam on a bulldozer, say) and the test specimen (standard fillet weld) are the same, then the response in each case will also be the same and can be described by one of the standard BS 7608 Weld Classification S-N curves.
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Weld Classifications
D E
F2
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Fatigue Analysis: BS 7608
Material Data
Weld SN curve
Class
Analysis
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BS 7608
Major Assumptions:
Crack growth dominates fatigue life Complex weld geometries can be described by a standard classification Results independent of material and mean stress for structural steels
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BS 7608
Advantages:
Manufacturing effects are directly included Large empirical database exists
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BS 7608
Limitations:
Difficult to determine weld class for complex shapes No benefit for improving manufacturing process
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Strain-Life Fatigue Modeling
1 0.1 Strain Amplitude 0.01 0.001 10-4 10-5 100
101
102
103 104 Reversals, 2Nf
105
106
107
The Similitude Concept states that if the instantaneous strains applied to the test structure (vehicle suspension, say) and the test specimen are the same, then the response in each case will also be the same and can be described by the materials e-N curve. Due account can also be made for stress concentrations, variable amplitude loading etc.
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Fatigue Analysis: Strain-Life

N curve curve
Material Data
Kf
Analysis
S , Sm
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Strain-Life
Major Assumptions:
Local stresses and strains control fatigue behavior Plasticity around stress concentrations Accurate determination of Kf
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Strain-Life
Advantages:
Plasticity effects Mean stress effects
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Strain-Life
Limitations:
Requires empirical Kf Long life situations where surface finish and processing variables are important
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Crack Growth Fatigue Modeling

The Similitude Concept states that if the stress intensity (K) at the tip of a crack in the test structure (welded connection on an oil platform leg, say) and the test specimen are the same, then the crack growth response in each case will also be the same and can be described by the Paris relationship. Account can also be made for local chemical environment, if necessary.
10 K,MPa m 100
10-6 Crack Growth Rate, m/cycle 10-7 10-8 10-9 10-10 10-11 10-12 1
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Fatigue Analysis: Crack Growth
Material Data
da/dN curve
Analysis
S , Sm
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Crack Growth
Major Assumptions:
Nominal stress and crack size control fatigue life Accurate determination of initial crack size
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Crack Growth
Advantage:
Only method to directly deal with cracks
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Crack Growth
Limitations:
Complex sequence effects Accurate determination of initial crack size
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Choose the Right Model

Similitude
Failure mechanism Size scale
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Design Philosophy
Safe Life Damage Tolerant
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Safe Life
500
400
300
200 100 0 104 105
99 90
50
10
Percent Survival
106
107
108
109
Fatigue Life
Choose an appropriate risk and replace critical parts after some specified interval
Damage Tolerant
Inspection
Crack size a2 a1
Safe Operating Life

Cycles
Inspect for cracks larger than a1 and repair

Inspection
A Boeing 777 costs $250,000,000 A new car costs $25,000 For every $1 spent inspecting and maintaining a B 777 you can spend only 0.01 on a car
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Questions to ask
Will a crack nucleate ? Will a crack grow ? How fast will it grow ?
Similitude
Failure mechanism Size Scale
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www.FatigueCalculator.com
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Constant Amplitude Calculators
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Finders
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Deterministic Analysis
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Deterministic Analysis (continued)
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Deterministic Analysis (continued)
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Deterministic Analysis Results
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Probabilistic Analysis
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Probabilistic Analysis (continued)
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Probabilistic Analysis (continued)
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Probabilistic Analysis Results
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Fatigue and Fracture ( Basic Course )

Fatigue How and Why

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Fatigue and Fracture ( Basic Course )

Fatigue, How and Why Physics of Fatigue

Professor Darrell F. Socie

Fatigue, How and Why

Fatigue, How and Why

2009 Darrell Socie, All Rights Reserved

Size Scale for Studying Fatigue

The Fatigue Process

Fatigue, How and Why

2009 Darrell Socie, All Rights Reserved

Mechanisms Crack Nucleation

Fatigue, How and Why

2009 Darrell Socie, All Rights Reserved

1903 - Ewing and Humfrey

Fatigue, How and Why

2009 Darrell Socie, All Rights Reserved

Slip Band in Copper

Slip Band Formation

Extrusion Undeformed material Intrusion

2124-T4 Cracking in Slip Bands

2219-T851 Cracked Particle

Fatigue, How and Why

2009 Darrell Socie, All Rights Reserved

Crack at Bonded Particle

7075-T6 Cracking at Inclusion

Fatigue, How and Why

2009 Darrell Socie, All Rights Reserved

Crack Initiation at Inclusions

Fatigue, How and Why

2009 Darrell Socie, All Rights Reserved

Subsurface Crack Initiation

Fatigue, How and Why

2009 Darrell Socie, All Rights Reserved

Fatigue Limit and Strength Correlation

Fatigue Strength, MPa

1000 750 500 250

Tensile Strength, MPa

Crack Nucleation Summary

Fatigue, How and Why

2009 Darrell Socie, All Rights Reserved

Stage I and Stage II

2009 Darrell Socie, All Rights Reserved

Stage I Crack Growth

Single primary slip system

S individual grain near - tip plastic zone

Fatigue, How and Why

2009 Darrell Socie, All Rights Reserved

Small Cracks at Notches

crack tip plastic zone

Crack growth controlled by the notch plastic strains

Small Crack Growth

Inconel 718 = 0.02 Nf = 936

Crack Length Observations

0 0 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000 12000 14000

Crack - Microstructure Interactions

da/dN, mm/cycle 10-6

1mm fracture 100 m

0.01 10-3 10-4 10-5 100

Stage II Crack Growth

Locally, the crack grows in shear Macroscopically it grows in tension

Long Crack Growth

Crack Growth Rates of Metals

Fatigue, How and Why

2009 Darrell Socie, All Rights Reserved