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ECEEE 2007 SUMMER STUDY • SAVING ENERGY – JUST DO IT!
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1,074 Microgrids: An emerging paradigm or meeting building electricity and heat requirements ef ciently and with appro-priate energy quality 1,074 Marnay, Firestone
Microgrids: An emerging paradigm formeeting building electricity and heatrequirements efficiently and with appropriateenergy quality
Chris Marnay
Berkeley Lab MS 90R4000U.S.A.C_Marnay@lbl.gov
Ryan Firestone
Berkeley Lab MS 90R4000U.S.A.RMFirestone@lbl.gov
Keywords
combined cooling, heating and power, commercial buildings,
community energy systems, microgrids, engine generators,gensets, on-site generation, photovoltaic, power quality and
reliability
Abstract
Te rst major paradigm shi in electricity generation, deliv-
ery, and control is emerging in the developed world, notably
Europe, North America, and Japan. Tis shi will move elec-tricity supply away rom the highly centralised universal serv-ice quality model with which we are amiliar today towards amore dispersed system with heterogeneous qualities o service.
One element o dispersed control is the clustering o sourcesand sinks into semi-autonomous
μgrid
s (microgrids). Re-search, development, demonstration, and deployment (RD3)o μgrids are advancing rapidly on at least three continents,
and signicant demonstrations are currently in progress. Tisparadigm shi will result in more electricity generation closeto end-uses, oen involving combined heat and power applica-tion or building heating and cooling, increased local integra-tion o renewables, and the possible provision o heterogene-ous qualities o electrical service to match the requirements o
various end-uses. In Europe,
μgrid
RD3 is entering its third
major round under the 7
th
European Commission Framework Programme; in the U.S., one specic
μgrid
concept is undergo-ing rigorous laboratory testing, and in Japan, where the mostactivity exists, our major publicly sponsored and two privately
sponsored demonstrations are in progress. Tis evolution poses
new challenges to the way buildings are designed, built, and
operated. raditional building energy supply systems will be-come much more complex in at least three ways: 1. one can-not simply assume gas arrives at the gas meter, electricity at its
meter, and the two systems are virtually independent o one
another; rather, energy conversion, heat recovery and use, and
renewable energy harvesting may all be taking place simultane-
ously within the building energy system; . the structure o en-ergy ows in the building must accommodate multiple energy processes in a manner that permits high overall ef ciency; and
3. multiple qualities o electricity may be supplied to various
building unctions.
Introduction
Tis paper examines the role o the
μGrid
(microgrid) para-
digm in revolutionising the current universal centralised model
o electricity generation and delivery. Ten it provides a survey o several international research projects that pioneer research,development, demonstration, and deployment (RD3) o μgridconcepts as an alternative approach to integrating small-scale
(< 1 MW) distributed energy resources (DER) into commercial
buildings with peak electrical loads o less than about 2 MW
or into multi-amily buildings or housing estates. A μgrid is agrouping o generating sources and loads operating semi-inde-pendently o the legacy power system, or
macrogrid
, typically interconnected at a single point o common coupling (PCC).
Te μgrid may include traditional reciprocating engine gen-
erators (gensets), microturbines, uel cells, photovoltaic mod-ules (PV) or other small-scale renewables, heat recovery romthermal generation and use, electrical and heat storage devices,and controllable end-use loads. Tree likely μgrid eatures are:1. ef ciently meeting total system energy requirements, oen
by including combined heat and power (CHP) technology,especially or building heating and/or cooling, 2. providing
Marnay, ChrisFirestone, Ryan
32
ECEEE 2007 SUMMER STUDY • SAVING ENERGY – JUST DO IT!PANEL 1. THE FOUNDATIONS OF A FUTURE ENERGY POLICY
heterogeneous levels o electricity security, quality, reliability
and availability (SQRA) that match the requirements o vari-
ous end-uses, thereby potentially lowering expectations or
improvements in the macrogrid to meet the needs o a digital
society, and 3. appearing to the macrogrid as a controlled entity,
akin to a current local utility customer, or conversely akin toa small embedded generation source, i the μgrid exports. Te
materials presented are based on presentations at a series o
international symposiums held in the U.S. in 005, in Canadain 006, and a third in Nagoya, Japan, in April 007. Materialsrom these events can be ound at http://der.lbl.gov
Dispersed Generation Paradigm Shift
rends emerging in the power system suggest that the highly
centralized paradigm that has dominated power systems or the
last century may eventually be replaced, or at least diluted, by an alternative. In the new paradigm, control is more dispersed,and universal SQRA is replaced by heterogeneous service tai-lored to the requirements o highly diverse classes o end-uses.Tis shi may be thought o as comparable to the replacemento centralised computing by desk and laptop computers, or theswitch rom land based telecommunications to mobile devices.Our current power delivery paradigm has been in place world-wide or a long time, i.e. since the emergence o polyphase ACsystems around the turn o the last century. SQRA targets are
consistent virtually all across vast regions, e.g. all o North
America, and where standards cannot be met, it is usually the
result o a local technical dif culty and not the outcome o a
deliberate attempt to deviate rom the norm. Emerging changeson the demand-side include our seemingly unquenchable thirstor electricity, in large part driven by the increasingly dominant
role o commercial building use in post-industrial economies,by an emerging digital age that is signicantly tightening our
SQRA requirements, by the emergence o viable small-scaleossil generation oen with power electronics and CHP, andby an urgent need to incorporate small-scale renewable gen-
eration to abate carbon emissions. Meanwhile, on the supply-side, concerns about terrorism, restrictions on system expan-sion, and the uncertainties o volatile markets in energy-short
times bring our ability to maintain current SQRA standards
into doubt.
Two Visions of the Future Grid
wo alternative visions in current currency o how the power
system might be retooled to provide high SQRA are a
super-
grids
view and a
dispersed
paradigm. Tese are obviously only
two o many possible paths and ull justice cannot be given here
to the technical intricacies o any specic vision. Te intent is
only to contrast in a comprehensible way the central theme
o two divergent alternatives. For more detail on a supergrids view, see Gellings
et al
(004), Amin (005), or Amin and Wol-lenberg (005). A comprehensible vision or a dispersed grid is
presented by the European Commission (2006), or, or other
voices rom the dispersed camp, see Lasseter
(006) or Marnay
and Venkataramanan (2006), but these are by no means the
only contributors to this ongoing debate.
SUPERGRIDS VISION
A supergrids vision is shown in Figure 1. Te x-axis o Figure 1shows the history o the current centralised paradigm, and they-axis reliability expresses as nines, e.g. 3 nines implies 99.9 %
availability. Te equivalent annual expected outage times are
shown or reerence. Te SQRA o delivered electricity has mul-
tiple dimensions, e.g. voltage swells and sags, harmonic distor-tion, etc. Reliability is used here as a representative dimension
because it is much more easily comprehended than others,
and we have some intuitive sense o its historical trajectory, asshown. In the early days o centralized power systems, electric-ity was supplied by small local stations with only very ew gen-erators to a limited number o customers, in the very early daysusing DC. Tese highly unreliable systems were consolidatedby ones covering large areas based on Nikola esla’s conceptsor large-scale AC systems. Tis interconnection naturally im-proved reliability because many more generators were simul-taneously available. Te green arrow shows how this process,
together with signicant and steady technological progress,resulted in steadily improving reliability, reaching the levels
experienced in North America today; however, note that reli-
1,074 MARNAY, FIRESTONE
Figure 1. Schematic of a Supergrids Vision
PANEL 1. THE FOUNDATIONS OF A FUTURE ENERGY POLICY
ECEEE 2007 SUMMER STUDY • SAVING ENERGY – JUST DO IT!
33
ability is considerably better in western Europe, and better stillin some Asian countries, notably Japan. Te red arc reects thegreat concern in North America ollowing the huge New York blackouts o the 1970s that backup gensets or other emergency
sources be provided to critical loads, and such requirements
became embedded in building codes. Tus, over the last quar-ter century or so, a separate higher reliability service has beenintroduced by installing generation close to sensitive loads.Te supergrids camp holds that deployment o diverse suiteso new technologies can signicantly improve the perormance
o all elements o power systems built around the traditional
paradigm; i.e., delivered SQRA can be dramatically improvedwithin the existing ramework. In the schematic, this is shown
by the arcing curves into the uture. While much o the im-provement inevitably must come in the distribution system
because most outages and power quality problems occur there,
over 90 % o interruptions in the case o North America. Distri-bution represents the most vulnerable link in the delivery chain
because o its sheer size and dispersion, as well as its exposureto the myriad hazards o extreme weather, accidents, and mis-chie. Even in the supergrids view, inevitably there will be end-
uses that require SQRA beyond even the perormance o the
much enhanced delivery chain, but these can be kept to a mini-
mum; i.e., the gap between dashed curves can be kept small.
Tis vision imagines massive investments in new technologiesor electricity delivery, such as superconducting lines, etc.
DISPERSED GRID VISION
In this view, traditional universal service upstream o the sub-
station is not improved signicantly but rather holds steady
at current levels, as seen in Figure as
universal homogeneousSQRA
. In other words, operation o the high voltage transmis-sion system and everything upstream o it are operated as now,
with similar rules and conventions,
and similar SQRA stan-dards
. Sensitive loads are then increasingly served locally intwo ways: rst, improvements in the distribution system are
deployed to improve on the existing system’s weakest link; andsecond, widespread use o supply and other resources close to
sensitive loads protect them at the levels they demand. Tisis shown in the gure as
local heterogeneous SQRA
. In otherwords, end-uses are serviced with SQRA tailored to their re-quirements. In a sense, this vision is one o increasingly het-
erogeneous SQRA downstream in the power system. Te tra-ditional universal SQRA is retained in the high voltage meshedgrid, but the distribution network has diering levels o invest-ment in equipment to enhance SQRA, and nally within cus-tomer sites, SQRA is ultimately matched to end-uses by meanso segregated circuits or by provision o high quality service atthe point o end-use, either by microgrids or power condition-ing equipment. In this dispersed paradigm, μgrids enter in two
ways, as coordinated groupings within the distribution net-
work that can operate semi-autonomously o the high voltagemeshed grid upstream o substations, and downstream o themeter where sources and sinks are organized to jointly provideheat and electrical energy, as well as heterogeneous SQRA.
Europe
Early μgrid RD3 in Europe occurred within the 5
th
Framework
Programme (1998-2002). A Consortium led by the Nationalechnical University o Athens (NUA) included 14 part-ners rom 7 EU countries, including utilities, e.g. Électricitéde France, equipment manuacturers, e.g the German power
electronics company SMA, and research institutions and uni-
versities, e.g. Labein. Te main objectives were to study highrenewable and other microsource penetration into the grid,μgrid islanding operation, and μgrid controls. Several levels
o centralized and decentralized control were explored at sev-
eral laboratories, notably the Institut ür Solare Energiever-
sorgungs-technik at the University o Kassel, the University o Manchester, and the National echnical University o Athens.
A ollow up project was completed within the 6
th
Framework Programme (00-006), again led by NUA but with a some-
1,074 MARNAY, FIRESTONE
Figure 2. Schematic of a Dispersed Vision
of 00
1.074_Marnay
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