Journal of Constructional Steel Research 62 (2006) 12571263

www.elsevier.com/locate/jcsr
A new steel structural system of a suspension pedestrian bridge
A. Juozapaitis
a,
, P. Vainiunas
b
, G. Kaklauskas
a
a
Department of Bridges and Special Structures, Vilnius Gediminas Technical University, Sauletekio aleja 11, LT-10223, Vilnius-40, Lithuania
b
Department of Reinforced Concrete and Masonry Structures, Vilnius Gediminas Technical University, Sauletekio aleja 11, LT-10223, Vilnius-40, Lithuania
Received 7 April 2006; accepted 28 April 2006
Abstract
The paper deals with a new structural system of pedestrian steel bridge consisting of carrying suspension members made of stiff (in bending)
rolled or welded sections and a exible cylindrical deck. Structural behaviour of such a suspension member subjected to unsymmetrical live
loading has been discussed on a basis of kinematic conditions. Ways of stabilization of kinematic displacements have been under consideration.
Effects of bending stiffness and geometrical non-linearity of the suspension structure are taken into account. Analytical expressions for the analysis
of the exible cylindrical deck have been proposed. In an alternative concrete deck, a layered model has been applied for the stress and strain
analysis.
c 2006 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Suspension pedestrian bridge; Steel cable; Kinematic displacement; Stiff suspension steel member; Deck; Stressstrain analysis
1. Introduction
Due to material efciency, lightness and aesthetics reasons,
suspension structures are widely used not only in roofs of
buildings, but also in pedestrian bridges [19]. For many
years, the so-called catenary structures have been successfully
employed in suspension pedestrian bridges. High strength
cables or steel sheets serve as the main carrying members
in such bridges [913]. One of the most serious drawbacks
of suspension structures is their excessive deformations when
subjected to asymmetric and local loads. It is a common
practice to use heavy concrete decks in order to reduce
displacements of a kinematic nature [9,12,13]. A sag f
0
of the
main carrying cable is relatively small ( f
0

= l/70 l/80), thus
resulting in excessive tensile forces in the cable and stronger
anchoring foundations [1217].
A completely exible suspension cable is a pure theoretical
concept, as in real structures it has a certain bending stiffness [3,
11,18,19]. It is obvious that such structures carry loads not
only due to tension, but also due to bending response. Some
structural solutions of suspension roofs are known [3,20,
21] where stiff (in bending) suspension members are used
in order to reduce displacements caused by asymmetric

Corresponding author. Tel.: +370 5 274 52 41; fax: +370 5 274 50 16.
E-mail address: alg@st.vtu.lt (A. Juozapaitis).
and local loads. Use of such carrying members made of
rolled or welded sections permits effective stabilization of
the primary shape of the whole structure avoiding heavy and
often rather expensive concrete decks. Although two-hinge
members is a common practice in the design of the suspension
structures [3,5], alternative three-hinge structures [20,21] have
some advantages: internal forces are reduced due to inevitable
displacements of the supports.
As an alternative to concrete decks, various new structural
solutions [22], including exible cylindrical steel decks [23,
24] known from the design of roofs and oors in buildings
and decks in transport bridges, can be used in suspension
pedestrian bridges. The weight of such decks is several times
lower compared to the traditional proled steel sheeting or
orthogonal steel plates [23,24].
This paper proposes a new structural system of pedestrian
steel bridge consisting of carrying suspension members
made of stiff (in bending) rolled or welded sections and a
exible cylindrical deck. Structural behaviour and ways of
stabilization of kinematic displacements of a cable subjected
to unsymmetrical live loading has been discussed. Analytical
expressions for the analysis of a stiff (in bending) suspension
structure and the exible cylindrical deck have been proposed.
In an alternative concrete deck, a layered model has been
applied for the stress and strain analysis. The effectiveness of
0143-974X/$ - see front matter c 2006 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.jcsr.2006.04.023
1258 A. Juozapaitis et al. / Journal of Constructional Steel Research 62 (2006) 12571263
Nomenclature
H
1
Thrusting (tensile) force of stiff suspension
members
H
p
Thrusting (tensile) force of the steel sheet
M
1
(x
1
) Bending moment due to external load
P Initial pre-stressing force
d
n
Distance from the initial pre-stressing force to the
top edge
f
k1
Kinematic sag of the cable in the middle span
f
0
Initial sag of the cable in the middle span
f
p0
Initial sag of the steel sheet
f
l0
Initial sag of the left part of the structure
kl Flexibility parameter of stiff suspension members
m
1
(x
1
) Bending moment of stiff suspension members
t
p
Thickness of the steel sheet
w
max
Maximal kinematic displacement
w
1
(x
1
) Displacement of stiff suspension members
w
c
(x
1
) Fictitious displacement of stiff suspension
members
z
1
(x
1
) Primary shape of the stiff inclined member
f
k
Kinematic displacement in the middle span
f
c,l
Fictitious displacement of the left part of the
structure
f
p
Displacement of the steel sheet
(kl
1
) Function assessing the bending stiffness of the
member
Poissons ratio
Ratio of asymmetric and symmetric load intensi-
ties
the proposed structural systems of the suspension bridge has
been discussed from the technical and economic point of view.
2. Kinematic displacements and their stabilization in
asymmetrically loaded cable
2.1. Kinematic displacements
Cable is the main carrying structural member in suspension
pedestrian bridges. Consider a suspension cable shown in Fig. 1
subjected to uniformly distributed per cable span load q. Such
loading induces elastic, but not kinematic, displacements of the
cable shown by a solid line. The primary shape of the cable is
described by the equation of a quadratic parabola.
An additional asymmetrical load (say a uniformly dis-
tributed load p applied on the left half of the span as shown in
Fig. 1) causes signicant displacements inducing the change of
the primary shape. Under the assumption of innite axial stiff-
ness of the cable, change of the shape is caused by kinematic
displacements only [25]. Under consideration of both symmet-
rical and asymmetrical load, the deformed cable axis has to be
dened separately for the left and right sides:
z
lk
(x) =
f
k1
(1 +0.5 )

__
4x
l

4x
2
l
2
_
+
_
3x
l

4x
2
l
2
__
,
when x 0.5l (1)
Fig. 1. Deformed scheme of asymmetrically loaded cable.
z
rk
(x) =
f
k1
(1 +0.5 )
__
4x
l

4x
2
l
2
_
+
_
x
l
1
_
_
,
when 0.5l x l. (2)
Here = p/q.
Analysis has shown that the kinematic sag of the cable in the
middle span f
k1
takes smaller values in respect to the initial sag
f
0
meaning that the middle section due to asymmetrical loading
moves upward. The kinematic displacement is calculated by the
formula:
f
k
= f
0
_
1
1 +0.5

_
. (3)
Here =
_
1 + +5
2
/16.
The maximal kinematic displacement can be dened as:
w
lk,max
(x) =
3
4
f
0
_
(1 +2/3)

1
_
. (4)
Analysis has shown that the above formula produces
insignicant errors not exceeding 1.6% even for the cases
when reaches 10 [25]. Vertical kinematic displacements w
rk
on the right side of the cable are directed upward. Similarly,
displacements of the right side of the cable are to be calculated
by the formula:
w
rk,max
(x) =
3
4
f
0
__
1

1
_
+

3
_
. (5)
Analysis of Eqs. (4) and (5) has shown that the kinematic
displacements on the right side of the cable in absolute value
are larger than the ones on the left side (w
rk,max
> w
lk,max
).
It can be explained by the fact that the midpoint displacement
is negative [2527]. The difference between the maximal
displacements of the left and the right side of the cable ranges
from 28% to 86% for different load ratio values.
2.2. Stabilization of kinematic displacements
The stiffness condition w
max
w
lim
is of particular
importance in the design of suspension pedestrian bridges.
Asymmetrical load induces signicant vertical displacements
of a kinematic nature. According to Eqs. (4) and (5), maximal
kinematic displacements are dependent on the load ratio and
the initial cable sag f
0
. Various techniques are available for
stabilization (or reduction) of kinematic cable displacements.
A. Juozapaitis et al. / Journal of Constructional Steel Research 62 (2006) 12571263 1259
Fig. 2. Dependence of the maximal kinematic displacement, w
max
, and
thrusting force, H
k1
, on parameter m.
Fig. 3. Dependence of parameter on exibility parameter kl.
Under the assumed intensity of asymmetrical live load p, a
common practice is either reduction of the initial cable sag
f
0
or increase of the symmetrical dead load q. Neither of the
techniques is effective in terms of economic use of materials,
as in both cases, the thrusting (tensile) force increases, leading
to a larger cross-section of the suspension member and stronger
foundation. In order to investigate the inuence of the dead
load on kinematic displacements, factor m = q/(q + p) as
the intensity ratio of the symmetrical dead load and the total
load has been introduced. Fig. 2 shows relative reduction of
kinematic displacements depending on factor m. The kinematic
displacement corresponding to the load ratio = 5 (m =
0.167) is taken as the reference point. When the dead load has
risen 1.25, 2.5 and 5 times, a factor m took the corresponding
values of 0.2, 0.33 and 0.5, resulting in an increase in the
kinematic displacement by 4%, 21% and 42%. For the latter
loading case, the thrusting force has increased by almost 60%.
An alternative way of reducing kinematic displacements
is the use of stiff (in bending) suspension members [3,21].
Such members are made of rolled or welded steel proles.
Effectiveness of stiff suspension members compared to exible
cables increases with the rise of the initial sag f
0
, and the load
ratio, . A relative difference between the maximal kinematic
displacements of the exible and the stiff cables is noted by
Fig. 4. New suspension pedestrian bridge: (1) stiff suspension member;
(2) concrete layer; (3) hinge.
Fig. 5. Flexible steel deck across the carrying members: (1) stiff suspension
member; (2) concrete layer; (3) exible steel deck.
parameter . Dependence of parameter on the exibility
parameter kl = l

H/E J is shown in Fig. 3.

When bending stiffness is taken into account, kinematic
displacements can be signicantly reduced without increase in
tensile force.
3. Description of the structural system of the bridge
Application of stiff (in bending) suspension members is
a distinctive feature of the proposed structural system. As
shown in Fig. 4, such parabola shaped suspension structures
are designed from I- or box-section rolled or welded proles.
An additional (third) hinge in the middle of a span eliminates
stresses due to movements of the supports and simplies the
assembly of the structure. A cylindrically shaped deck made
of slender steel sheets is placed on the carrying suspension
members. The sheets can be arranged either in transverse (see
Fig. 5) or longitudinal direction in respect to the suspension
members. Thickness of the steel sheet is decided upon the span,
the initial sag f
p0
and the acting loads and may vary from
0.4 to 1 mm. Such a tensile deck compared to the traditional
exural deck made of proled steel sheeting requires less steel
to cover larger than standard (3 m) spans. Also, the span of this
exible deck is practically unlimited and can be over 69 m. A
concrete deck is a standard solution. The main disadvantage of
the concrete deck is its high dead load making up 2.54.0 kPa
on average.
It is important to note that using stiff three-hinge suspension
members, it is possible to stabilize effectively the primary shape
of pedestrian bridges, to use relatively light deck structures
and thus to reduce tensile forces affecting bridge structures
and the weight of the foundation. Besides, with the increase of
the initial sag, the tensile forces can be reduced considerably.
In order to simplify the manufacturing and the maintenance
conditions, the suspension structures may be designed from two
straight members.
1260 A. Juozapaitis et al. / Journal of Constructional Steel Research 62 (2006) 12571263
Fig. 6. Stiff three-hinge suspension structure subjected to symmetric loading.
Fig. 7. One part of the stiff three-hinge suspension structure.
4. Analysis of stiff (in bending) suspension members
The main carrying member of the pedestrian bridge under
discussion is a stiff suspension member of two or three hinges.
Numerous investigations have been devoted to the analysis
of two-hinge stiff suspension members [35]. Three-hinge
structures have been discussed as a special case in order to
reduce initial stresses due to bending in two-hinge structures,
mainly at the stage of assemblage. Based on the criteria of stress
distribution, three-hinge stiff structures are more effective than
two-hinge structures, particularly when displacements of the
supports are taken into account.
Analysis of a three-hinge stiff structure subjected to a
uniformly distributed symmetric load, as shown in Fig. 6, is to
be discussed. For the analysis purposes, the structure is divided
into two parts, i.e. two inclined stiff members. The following
equilibrium equation of a deformed state of an inclined member
shown in Fig. 7 can be written in the local coordinates:
E Jw

1
(x
1
) H
1
[z
1
(x
1
) +w
1
(x
1
)] + M
1
(x
1
) = 0. (6)
Using the concept of a ctitious displacement w
c
(x
1
) [3],
the thrusting force can be expressed as
H
1
=
M
1
(x
1
)
z
1
(x
1
) +w
c
(x
1
)
=
(q
1
+ p
1
)l
2
1
8
_
f
l0
+f
c,l
_ (7)
Taking into account Eq. (7) and the boundary conditions, Eq.
(6) can be solved by the formula:
w
1
(x
1
) = f
c,l
_
4x
1
l
1

4x
2
1
l
2
1
+
8
k
2
l
2
1
_
chkx
1
+
1 chkl
1
shkl
1
shkx
1
1
_
_
. (8)
When displacements of the inclined member are known,
its bending moment is expressed as m(x
1
) = E Jw

1
(x
1
).
As seen from expressions (7) to (8), extra physical and
geometrical equations are to be employed in order to determine
displacements and internal forces of the member. The following
equation, used as the convergence condition in iterative
calculation, relates to the ctitious displacement f
c,l
and the
vertical displacement of the whole system v:
f
c,l
= 0.25( f
0
+v) cos
1
. (9)
In the case of asymmetrical loading, both parts of the
structure are to be analysed. The central hinge of the structure
will move both vertically and horizontally. The convergence
condition (9) of the iterative calculation has been modied
accordingly:
f
c,m
= 0.25( f
0
+v) cos
m
(1 + )/(1 +/2). (10)
The relation between the ctitious sag on the left f
c,l
and
the right f
c,r
parts of the structure is expressed by the equation:
f
c,l

= f
c,r
(1 + ). (11)
The derived expressions can be used to calculate a
suspension system consisting of two straight elements
z
1
(x
1
= l
1
/2) = 0. Such a structural system, including
the deck structure, is attractive for its simple erection and
maintenance. In this case, the thrusting force is calculated as:
H
1
=
M
1
(x
1
)
w
c
(x
1
)
=
(q
1
+ p
1
)l
2
1
8f
c,l
. (12)
From Eq. (6), using a geometrical compatibility condition,
the following expression for the ctitious displacement of a
separate part of the suspension member has been derived:
f
c,l
=
3
_
3
64
(q
1
+ p
1
)l
4
1
E A(kl
1
) cos
3

1
. (13)
The expression is similar to the displacement formula of a
exible chord [3].
Effectiveness of the three-hinge stiff suspension structure
has been assessed numerically. Taking the span from 50 to
100 m and the initial sag, f
0
from l/80 to l/40, the estimated
steel savings were within 25% to 45% with respect to the
exible cables. Effectiveness of stiff (in bending) suspension
members rises with increase in load ratio and the initial sag
f
0
.
A. Juozapaitis et al. / Journal of Constructional Steel Research 62 (2006) 12571263 1261
Fig. 8. Analysis of pre-stressed concrete slab in layered approach: (a) section; (b) layered section; (c) stress and strain relationships for compressive and tensile
concrete.
5. Deck structures of the suspension pedestrian bridge
5.1. Analysis of exible steel deck
Various proled or straight steel sheets are used for steel
decks in suspension pedestrian bridges [1216]. Efciency of
suspension pedestrian bridges might be increased by employing
exible cylindrical suspension sheets instead of the proled or
straight steel sheets. Such a slender deck, having the initial sag
f
p0
, is made of a thin sheet. This type of structure is more
often encountered in roofs or ceilings of buildings rather than
in bridge decks [23,24]. A exible steel deck structure is shown
in Fig. 5. Deformations of the deck under external load result in
additional sag, i.e. displacement f
p
. The thrusting force H
p
affecting one linear metre of the sheet width is calculated from
the equilibrium equation of statics:
H
p
=
(q
p
+ p
p
)b
2
8( f
p0
+f
p
)
. (14)
Based on the geometrical and the physical equations,
the following simplied formula was proposed for the
displacement f
p
:
f
p

=
3
128
(q
p
+p
p
)b
4
(1
2
)
Et
p
f
2
p0
[1 +3(q
p
+p
p
)b
4
(1
2
)/128Et
p
f
3
p0
]
.
(15)
As seen from Eq. (15), the displacement f
p
depends on
the load p and the span b. In order to satisfy the stiffness
condition (f
p
f
p,lim
), either thickness of the sheet t
p
or
the initial sag f
p0
are to be increased. Most often the condition
of the limiting deection rather than the strength requirement
is the governing design criterion. For the given values of the
initial sag f
p0
and the limit displacement f
p,lim
, the required
thickness of a sheet is calculated by the formula:
t
p

3
64
(q
p
+ p
p
)b
4
(1
2
)
E( f
p0
+f
p,lim
)(2 f
p0
+f
p,lim
)f
p,lim
. (16)
5.2. Analysis of reinforced concrete deck
The present analysis is based on the techniques of strength
of materials extended to application of the layered approach and
the use of material diagrams. Consider a pre-stressed concrete
slab. As shown in Fig. 8(a) and (b), the beams cross-section is
divided into a number of horizontal layers corresponding either
to concrete or reinforcement. Each layer may have different
material properties assumed to be constant over the layer
thickness. Thickness of the reinforcement layer is assumed
from the condition of the equivalent area. For reinforcement
material idealisation, a bilinear, trilinear or more complicated
stressstrain relationship can be adopted. The stressstrain
relationships for concrete [28,29] are shown Fig. 8(c). The
tension stiffening effect is included in the relationship of tensile
concrete [29]. The relationship derived from the exural tests of
reinforced concrete members is characterised by parameter
related to the cracking stress
cr
, and strain
cr
, respectively,
where
cr
=
cr
/E
c
and E
c
is the concrete modulus of
elasticity.
A computer program has been developed for the stress
and strain analysis of concrete members [30,31]. For a given
bending moment M, the computation is performed in iterations
by the following steps:
1. In the rst iteration, elastic material properties are assumed
for all layers.
2. Geometrical characteristics, i.e. the area (A
tr
), the rst
moment of area (S
tr
) and the moment of inertia (I
tr
) of the
transformed section are calculated with respect to the top
edge of the section.
3. Longitudinal strain
i
(t
0
) at every layer i (see Fig. 8(b)) is
taken as:

i
(t
0
) =
c
(t
0
) + y
i
(t
0
). (17)
The top bre strain
c
(t
0
) and curvature (t
0
) are obtained
from the following expressions:

c
(t
0
) =
S
tr
(M Pd
n
) + I
tr
P
E
c
(t
0
)(A
tr
I
tr
(S
tr
)
2
)
(18)
(t
0
) =
A
tr
(M Pd
n
) + S
tr
P
E
c
(t
0
)(A
tr
I
tr
(S
tr
)
2
)
. (19)
4. For the assumed material diagrams (see Fig. 8(c)), stress

i
corresponding to strain
i
is obtained and a secant
deformation modulus E
i
=
i
/
i
is determined.
5. Values of the obtained secant deformation modulus E
i
for every layer are compared with previously assumed or
1262 A. Juozapaitis et al. / Journal of Constructional Steel Research 62 (2006) 12571263
computed ones. If the agreement is not within the assumed
error limits, a new iteration is started from step 2.
6. After the deformation modulus E
i
converges for all the
layers, nal values of strains, stresses and curvature are
assessed. For deection calculation performed by Mohrs
integral technique, analogous computations are to be carried
out for other sections of the member.
In a similar way, a long-term analysis [32] is to be
performed.
5.3. Comparison of material consumption for the decks
Comparative analysis of the effectiveness of the decks
in terms of material use has been carried out. Two types
of decks were included in the analysis: cylindrically shaped
steel deck and concrete slabs. Amounts of steel and concrete
were assessed for three different spans (3.0, 4.5 and 6.0 m).
Weight of the secondary beams was included for the steel
deck. The amount of concrete in two types of decks was
approximately similar, but the amount of steel was quite
different. Employment of the steel deck has led to 30%50%
reduction in comparison to the concrete deck.
6. Conclusions
The paper discusses a new structural system of pedestrian
bridge consisting of stiff (in bending) steel suspension
members. Analysis by the given expressions has shown that
in the case of asymmetrical loading maximal kinematical
displacements appear in the part free of a live load. It
has been also shown that the kinematical displacements can
be effectively reduced by using suspension members having
a certain bending stiffness. Such members are designed
from rolled or welded I- or box-sections. This approach
of stabilization of suspension members secures reduction of
tensile forces in the members, eliminates the necessity for pre-
stressing and permits use of light decks. The given analytical
expressions take into account possible loading cases and the
initial shape of the suspension member. When stiff suspension
members are employed, up to 45% of steel is saved in
comparison to usual exible cable elements. The effectiveness
rises with the increase of the ratio of asymmetric and symmetric
load intensities and the initial sag of the member.
Application of two types of decks, i.e. exible cylindrical
steel and concrete decks, has been discussed. Analytical
expressions assessing the deformation state of the steel deck
were given. A layered model for the stressstrain analysis of
concrete slabs was also presented. Present analysis has shown
that the cylindrical steel deck in terms of material effectiveness
is superior to that of the traditional concrete deck.
Acknowledgement
The third author wishes to express his sincere gratitude to
the Lithuanian National Science Foundation for the nancial
support (project No. 104/05).
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