1 Lf Discrete-Time Signals and Systems In Chapter 1 we introduced the reader to a number of important types of signals and described the sampling process by which an analog signal is converted 10 a discrete-time signal, In addition, we presented in some detail the characteristics of discrete-time sinusoidal signals. The sinusoid is an important elementary signal that serves as a basic building block in more complex signals. However. there are other elementary signals that are important in our treatment of signal processing, These discrete-time signals are introduced in this chapter and are used as basis functions or building blocks to describe more complex signals. The major emphasis in this chapter is the characterization of discrete-time systems in general and the class of linear time-invariant (LTI) systems in particular A number of important time-domain properties of LTI systems are defined and developed. and an important formula, called the convolution formula, is derived which allows us to determine the output of an LTI system to any given arbitrary input signal. In addition to the convolution formula. difference equations are in- troduced as an alternative method for describing the input-output relationship of an LT] system, and in addition. recursive and nonrecursive realizations of LT! systems are treated. Our motivation for the emphasis on the study of LT] systems is twofold. First. there is a large collection of mathematical techniques that can be applied to the analysis of LTI systems. Second. many practical systems are either LTI systems or can be approximated by LTI systems. Because of its importance in digital signal processing applications and its close resemblance to the convolution formula. we also introduce the correlation between two signals. The autocorrelation and crosscorrelation of signals are defined and their properties are presented. 2.1 DISCRETE-TIME SIGNALS As we discussed in Chapter 1, a discrete-time signal x(n) is a function of an inde- pendent variable that is an integer. It is graphically represented as in Fig. 2.1. It is important to note that a discrete-time signal is not defined at instants between 4344 Discrete-Time Signals and Systems Chap. 2 jx Figure 21 Graphical representation of a discrete-time signal. two successive samples. Also, it is incorrect to think that x(n) is equal to zero if n is not an integer. Simply. the signal x(n) is not defined for noninteger values of n. In the seque! we will assume that a discrete-time signal is defined for every integer vaiue x for —oo < n < oc. By tradition, we refer to x(n) as the “nth sample” of the signal even if the signal x(n) is inherently discrete time (i.e., not obtained by sampling an analog signal). If, indeed, x(n) was obtained from sampling an analog signal x,(r), then x(n) = xo(nT), where T is the sampling period (i.¢., the time between successive samples). Besides the graphical representation of a discrete-time signal or sequence as illustrated in Fig. 2.1. there are some alternative represcntations that are often more convenient to use. These are: 1. Functional representation, such as 1, for m= [4 for 0, elsewhere (2.1.4) 2. Tabular representation, such as So Otago 9 0 00714100 n x(n) 3. Sequence representation An infinite-duration signal or sequence with the time origin (n = 0) indicated by the symbol t is represented as x(n) ={...0,0.1.4,1,0,0,...} (2.1.2) t A sequence x(n), which is zero for n < 0, can be represented as x(n) = {0,1.4,1.0.0....) (2.1.3) t The time origin for a sequence x(n), which is zero for n < 0, is understood to be the first (leftmost) point in the sequence.Sec. 2.1 Discrete-Time Signals 45 A finite-duration sequence can be represented as 5.0.4,-1} (2.1.4) vin) = {3-1 whereas a finite-duration sequence that satisfies the condition x(n) = 0 for n <0 can be represented as x(n) = (0.1.4.1) t The signal in (2.1.4) consists of seven samples or points (in time). so it is called or identified as a seven-point sequence. Similarly. the sequence given by (2.1.5) is a four-point sequence. 2.1.1 Some Elementary Discrete-Time Signals In our study of discrete-time signals and systems there are a number of basic signals that appear often and play an important role. These signals are defined belaw. 1. The unit sample sequence is denoted as 4() and is defined as 1. forn=6 0. forn #0 bu) = (2.1.6) In words, the unit sample sequence is a signal that is zero everywhere. except at n = 0 where its value is unity. This signal is sometimes referred to as a unit impulse. In contrast to the analog signal 5(r), which is also called a unit impulse and is defined to be zero everywhere except 1 = 0, and has unit area. the unit sample sequence is much less mathematically complicated. The graphical representation of 5(n) is shown in Fig. 2.2. 2. The unit step signal is denoted as win} and is defined as (ny = 1. forn>0 0. forn <0 Figure 2.3 illustrates the unit step signal. 3. The unit ramp signal is denoted as u,{n) and is defined as n. forn=0 5 u(r) Ki fone Ol oe This signal is illustrated in Fig. 2.4. Sin 1 Figure 2.2. Graphical representation of “2-10 1234 ‘nthe unit sample signal