CHAPTER 6: COMMUNICATION

INTRODUCTION
GENERAL OUTLINE
DETAILED OUTLINE
KEY TERMS
ANSWERS TO “QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION AND REVIEW”
MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS
ESSAY QUESTIONS
TEACHING SUGGESTIONS
ONLINE SELF-ASSESSMENT TOOL
SUGGESTED READING

Introduction
Communication is at the heart of leadership. One can create an ingenious plan for
reinvigorating a company, but if one is not able to communicate the plan, it is not worth
the paper (or disk) it is written on. Successful leaders understand the nuances of
communication and are able to alter their communication styles to meet the demands of
specific situations. This chapter will introduce you to some major communication
theories and demonstrate the form and levels of different types of communication. Aids
and barriers to communication will be discussed, as will the unique attributes of
charismatic leaders.

General Outline

Basic Communication Theory: Transactional Model of Encoding, Channels, and

Decoding
Filters and Sets
Interference
Types of Communication
Verbal versus Nonverbal Communication
Intentional versus Unintentional Communication
Formal versus Informal Communication
Upward versus Downward versus Lateral Communication
Strategies for Facilitating Communication: The Role of Listening
Factors Leading to Breakdowns in Communication
Improving Communications
Models of Charismatic Leadership
Leadership Profiles
Barbara Jordan: Her Words Wore Boots
Ronald Reagan: The “Great Communicator”
Howard Stern and Oprah Winfrey: Media Moguls
Summary

Detailed Outline

1
Basic Communication Theory: Transactional Model of Encoding, Channels,
and Decoding

Communication theory has evolved from a linear to an interactional to a

transactional model. In this model, communication is seen as involving a relationship
between sender and receiver, mediated by noise, with verbal and non-verbal components.
The communication process is outlined in Figure 6-1. Communication passes
through several points from sender to receiver. The message is first encoded, that is,
translated into a set of meaningful symbols (language) that express the sender’s purpose.
The message then passes through one of a variety of channels (e.g. email, memo, direct
conversation), after which the message is decoded (interpreted) by the receiver. Based on
this interpretation, the receiver then responds to the message.
The text provides an example of how cultural variables can affect this process.
Gungor, a Turkish friend of the author’s, was visiting the author in New York City. This
friend returned from a day trip in New York thinking that people did not like him. Why
did he think this? Well, while riding on a New York City bus, he sat next to another
person when there still were empty rows available and—gasp—attempted to engage this
person in conversation. Predictably, this type of behavior did not go over very well in
New York! Gungor had tried to be friendly, but his message was lost in the decoding of
city residents who were operating from different norms.

Filters and Sets

The original intent of the message may be hindered by a variety of factors.

Among the most common are filters , which are physical and psychological factors that
affect the message (e.g., anxiety during a presentation) and sets , which is a
predisposition to respond in a certain way (e.g., a grandparent’s tendency to be overly-
cautious with his/her grandchildren).

Interference

Interference or noise refers to anything that distorts the message or distracts the
receiver from accurately hearing the message. Generally, the more channels of
communication that are used, the greater the likelihood of interference. Interference is
also affected by anything that makes us different, be they individual or cultural
differences. While noise can never be fully eliminated, the savvy leader is adept at
understanding these differences and adapts in order to reduce the amount of interference
in a communication.

Types of Communication
There are numerous ways to subdivide the different mechanisms employed by
human beings to communicate. What follows are some of the major distinctions.

Verbal versus Nonverbal Communication

Verbal communication denotes communication put forth via audible speech

2
and sounds. Often, however, nonverbal communication—communication put forth
through non-auditory means such as facial expressions—can convey just as much
meaning if not more, such as when a person winks while saying that he or she is
“really angry.”

Intentional versus Unintentional Communication

As discussed previously, communication is an interactive process. Thus, what is

meant to be communicated and what is actually interpreted can be two very different
things. Intentional communication refers to the conscious intent behind a
communication, what the sender was hoping to communicate. Unintentional
communication refers to things actually understood by the receiver that are different
from what the sender intended to communicate. Sometimes what the receiver understands
(e.g., that the sender is angry) is more accurate than what the sender intended to
communicate (the sender perhaps was attempting to conceal his or her anger) and
sometimes the receiver has misinterpreted the intent behind the sender’s communication.
In both instances, there was intentional and unintentional communication.

Formal versus Informal Communication

Formal communication follows a stated procedure (e.g., communication

structure of a staff meeting), while informal communication channels are less organized
and consistent (e.g., chatting in the hallway). A common channel for informal
communication is the grapevine , from which rumors are circulated. The grapevine is
often the bane of managers who have not established strong communication ties with
their employees as the grapevine is often given more credence than formal
communications.

Upward versus Downward versus Lateral Communication

Another way to distinguish between communication channels is in terms of who

is speaking to whom. Upward communication involves feedback given by employees to
their supervisors (e.g., responses to a survey). Downward communication involves
feedback given by supervisors to their employees (e.g., performance evaluations).
Lateral communication involves feedback given to and by peers (e.g., team meetings).
No matter the method or direction of communication, communication is enhanced
when information is presented clearly and in a supportive climate where there exists a
partnership between employees at all levels.

Strategies for Facilitating Communication: The Role of Listening

The ability to listen is perhaps the single most important communication skill
one can possess. Modern leaders must be active listeners. Active listening involves
paying attention not only to verbal cues being presented by the sender, but also to non-
verbal cues. In this way, the sender is feeling heard and you are better able to understand
their message and thus to send a more meaningful and informed reply.

3
Factors Leading to Breakdowns in Communication
These factors were cited by Donnelly, Gibson & Ivanecevich (1995) as common
factors leading to communication breakdowns:
1
2a. differing frames of reference- different people come from different experiences and
thus two people may interpret the exact same situation differently based on their
individual experiences and perspectives
3b. selective perception- this occurs when the receiver attends to a certain portion of a
message and ignores the rest
4c. semantic problems - words often do not mean the same thing across cultures and
situations. Semantic problems are misunderstood word meanings.
5e. filtering- this occurs when someone manipulates information in order to make the
information more pleasing to the intended receiver
6f. time pressures- this may force someone to condense a message, thus potentially
leaving out important information and/or lessening understanding of the full scope of the
communication
7g. communication overload- occurs when a person simply has too much information to
decode or sift through in a reasonable way

Improving Communications
Gibb (1965) identified two primary steps toward enhancing communications. The
first is the creation of a supportive communicative climate. This involves the following
steps: 1) using descriptive, as opposed to evaluative speech, 2) taking a collaborative
approach to problem-solving, 3) communicating with spontaneity, rather than from
hidden strategies or agendas, 4) demonstrating empathy (attempting to view a situation
from another’s frame of reference), 5) promoting equality across and within levels of an
organization, and 6) trying to hear all sides of a debate rather than simply sticking to
one’s own agenda.
The second step is the proper utilization of feedback. This involves creating an
atmosphere that de-emphasizes hierarchy, has a high degree of personal interaction
between the different members of the organization, and where the leaders serve as
models for providing and receiving feedback in a supportive and productive manner.
Table 6-3 offers some suggestions for giving and receiving feedback.

Charismatic Leadership
Charismatic leaders are a subset of leaders who obtained influence based largely
on their ability to inspire others to follow their lead. There are multiple perspectives
within the leadership field as to the precise definition of charismatic leadership, but one
unifying theme is that charismatic leaders understand the dynamics of communication
and are able to effectively communicate their messages to others.
The word charisma derives from the Greek meaning “divinely inspired gift.” The
term was once used almost exclusively to refer to religious leaders, but theorists such as
Max Weber transformed the term to include secular leaders. Weber described three types
of authority structures. In traditional authority systems , authority is granted based on
laws and traditions unconnected to the individual personalities of the key players. An
example is a monarchy. In legal-rational authority systems , there is a bureaucratic

4
structure that governs the use and transition of power, such as in a constitutional
democracy. In a charismatic authority system, power is based not on laws or customs,
but on the individual personality of the charismatic leader.

Models of Charismatic Leadership

Among the leading models/definitions of charismatic leadership are those of
Halpert and Conger. Halpert determined that charismatic leadership is based on three
dimensions: referent power, expert power, and job involvement. Referent power is
obtained through interpersonal skills. Expert power is achieved through a person’s
superior knowledge and ability in particular areas of interest. Job involvement reflects the
ability that charismatic leaders possess to understand the organizational and social culture
in which they operate and to inspire others to be invested in their mission for this culture.
In sum, charismatic leaders can both “talk the talk” and “walk the walk.” They have a
strong ability to understand and connect with others, the personality which leads others to
follow them, and the technical expertise to achieve tangible results.
Conger argues that charismatic leaders lead both through inspiration and by
anecdote. He believes that charismatic leaders progress through four stages: 1) sensing
opportunity and forming a vision, 2) articulating this vision, 3) building trust in the
vision, and 4) achieving the vision.
Possessing charismatic leadership is neither necessarily a positive nor a negative
attribute. Adolf Hitler was a charismatic leader, as was Martin Luther King and H. Ross
Perot. Each of these men had vision, timing, knowledge, and an ability to tap into the
psyche of many followers; yet each man had decidedly different long-term objectives. A
typical challenge for charismatic leaders is creating a structure for carrying out and
improving upon their vision after their death or retirement from active leadership.

Leadership Profiles

Barbara Jordan: Her Words Wore Boots

Barbara Jordan was only 29 when she was first elected to the Texas senate in the
early 1960’s. Since this time, her words have inspired countless African-Americans,
women, and members of society at large. Never a mere token, until her final days persons
from all backgrounds, rich and poor, white, brown, and black, male and female, came to
seek her counsel knowing that they would receive an honest, articulate, educated, and
moral response. It is said that her words wore boots, as they invariably left a positive
imprint on all those who were wise enough to listen.

Ronald Reagan: The Great Communicator

Among his many accomplishments, former U.S. president Ronald Reagan’s

tenure in office is a testament to the fact that a charismatic leader’s vision does not have
to be complicated in order for it to resonate with many people. As former Reagan staffer
Peggy Noonan wrote for Time magazine’s “100 Most Influential Individuals of the
Twentieth Century” series, “Ronald Reagan knew, going in, the sentence he wanted, and
he got it. He guided the American victory in the Cold War.”

5
 Reagan first burst upon the national political scene in 1964 when he gave what
some Republicans refer to as “The Speech.” Throughout his political career, Reagan
used his charisma and simple speaking style to become a two-term president by
communicating his vision of the United States as a nation of destiny. Said Reagan in his
farewell address in 1989, “I wasn’t a great communicator, but I communicated great
things.”

Howard Stern and Oprah Winfrey: Media Moguls

Born less than three weeks apart in 1954, these two American icons have used a
combination of their charismatic personality and creative use of communication media to
be known to many simply by their first names. Radically different in personality and
objectives, both entertainers began on traditional career routes within their fields—Stern
as a deejay and Winfrey as a news anchor—but soon broke barriers by including their
own lives in their respective shows to the extent that fans often feel that they know them
personally. Said Stern in a 1997 interview, “I always resented the label of ‘shock jock’
that the press came up with for me because I never intentionally set out to shock anybody.
What I intentionally set out to do was to talk just as I talk off the air, to talk the way guys
talk sitting around a bar.” His highly successful movie “Private Parts” was
autobiographical. When he and his wife later separated, he provided listeners with his
thoughts and feelings as this progressed.
Similarly, Oprah, who first came upon the national daytime talk show scene at a
time when “factual” and “depersonalized” daytime talk shows were the norm, has also
shared her own secrets. Through the years, Oprah’s viewers have received updates on
her love life and struggles with weight, and she has divulged information ranging from
the mundane to the deeply personal, such as disclosing that she was raped as a child. By
sharing themselves with their audiences, these two charismatic (and widely divergent)
figures have allowed may people to form a connection with them than transcends their
endeavors in television, radio, the movies, and the print media.

Summary
If you can’t communicate, you can’t lead. This chapter explored many dynamics
of communication and leadership, including the transactional model of communication,
differing forms of communication, barriers to effective communication, strategies for
facilitating communication, and differing perspectives on charismatic leadership.

Key Terms

transactional model of communication: This is the most modern approach to

understanding the communication process. In the transactional model, communication is
seen as an interaction between sender and receiver affected by verbal and non-verbal
cues. Communication is first encoded by the sender, then sent through a communication
channel, and then decoded by the receiver, who uses this interpretation to formulate a
new communication. Factors influencing this interpretation include the receiver’s
individual filters and sets, as well as any interference or noise which impeded the
transmission of the message.

6
encoding: the first step of the communication process, encoding translates
communication into meaningful symbols (e.g., language)

communication channel: channels are the vehicles through which communication is

expressed. Examples include email, memos, direct conversation, non-verbal cues and
many others.

decoding: this is the process through which the receiver of a message understands and
interprets a message

filters: the physical and psychological factors that affect the message

sets: a more elaborate form of filters, sets are predispositions to communicate in a

particular way (e.g., persons from some cultures prefer to stand much closer to another
when talking than persons from other cultures)

interference or noise: this refers to anything that distorts the message or distracts the
receiver from accurately hearing the message

verbal communication: communication put forth via speech

nonverbal communication: communication put forth through non-auditory cues, such as

facial expressions and body language

intentional communication: communication that is consciously and purposefully

delivered

unintentional communication: occurs when messages are decoded in a manner different

than what was intended (e.g., a nervous laugh is misinterpreted as you making light of a
sad situation)

formal communication: communication that is built within the framework of an

organization or group and follows a stated procedure (e.g., a sermon given by a clergy
member during services)

informal communication: communication channels that are not purposefully created by

an organization or structure, but instead emerge within its everyday life

grapevine: A common manifestation of informal communication, the grapevine effect

occurs when rumors or beliefs are circulated rapidly through informal channels. This
information is often given more credence than information passed through downward
communication.

upward communication: this is communication given from an employee to his/her

supervisor

7
downward communication: this is communication given from a supervisor to his/her
employees

lateral communication: organized communication with peers

differing frame of reference: the dynamic under which what was intended in a
communication is not what was understood because the sender and receiver enter the
communication from a different perspective

selective perception: occurs when the receiver of a message attends to a certain portion
of a message and ignores the rest

semantic problems: misunderstood word meanings

communication overload: occurs when a person has too much information to decode in
a reasonable time frame

supportive communicative climate: According to Gibb, the creation of a supportive

communicative climate involves: 1) using descriptive, not evaluative, speech, 2) taking a
collaborative approach to problem-solving, 3) communicating with spontaneity, 4)
demonstrating empathy, 5) promoting equality across and within levels of an
organization, and 6) trying to hear all sides of a debate as opposed to sticking with one’s
own agenda.

charismatic leadership: a relationship between a leader and the persons being led in
which the leader is believed to possess inspirational charismatic qualities

traditional authority system: authority is granted based on traditions and unwritten laws
separate from the individual personalities of the power-wielders (e.g., a monarchy)

legal-rational authority system: characterized by the presence of a bureaucratic

structure that governs the use and transition of power (e.g., constitutional democracy)

charismatic authority system: power based on personal authority rather than laws or
traditions

referent power: power not derived from formal authority, but rather is obtained through
relationships in which others come to trust and respect the individual with the referent
power

expert power: power not derived from formal authority, but from a person’s specialized
knowledge or skills

job involvement: the ability charismatic leaders possess to understand organizational and

8
social cultures and inspire others to be invested in their work

management by inspiration: occurs when leaders distinguish themselves in such a way

that others feel inspired to follow them

management by anecdote: technique in which leaders use real or fictitious stories to

communicate a point