on Lambert Glacier is a major glacier in East Antarctica.

At about 60 miles (100 km) wide, over 250 miles (400 km) long, and about 2,500 meters deep, it holds the Guinness world record for the world's largest glacier. It drains 8 % of the Antarctic ice sheet to the east and south of the Prince Charles Mountains and flows northward to the Amery Ice Shelf. Ice thickness, topography and ice velocity data suggest that Lambert Glacier-Amery Ice Shelf system is one of the most important routes for discharge from the East Antarctic Sheet and has dominant influence on sedimentation in Prydz Bay. General Structure Lambert Glacier-Amery Ice Shelf system is a composite feature, made up of several major confluent ice streams. The Lambert, Mellor and Fisher Glaciers originate farthest in land and collectively form a main trunk known as the Lambert Glacier. The entire system can be considered ain three parts: the interior basin, the Lambert glacier system and the Amery ice sheet and its tributaries. Allison (1979) estimated the total mass flux of the interior basin to be 60 Gt per annum, and outflow from the interior basin

to the Lambert glacier Gt per annum. Flow the boundary between Lamber glacier and sheet was estimated at annum, suggesting build up, which can surges. Ice velocity of of 231 annum has been in places where of the ice is 1950m in Lambert Graben. At location, the bedrock below sea level. To this main stream, only 25 m per annum recorded in places of of 800m. In ice subglacial ridge to a 430m, the velocity per annum. Generally, increase downstream. velocities indicate longitudinal strain rate thinning of the ice According to oxygen isotope studies on a core that penetrated through the outer Amery Ice Shelf, it has been estimated that some 40% of the ice mass is lost by basal melting close to the grounding line. One-third of this is replaced by basal freezeon of saline ice (Robin, 1983). This freeze-on process begins close to the grounding zone, with the result that a maximum thickness of 200 m from this source is acquired (Budd et al., 1982). Strain thinning seaward reduces this to about 110 m at the seaward limit. The implications of basal melting and freezeon for debris transport and sedimentation are highly significant: strong basal melting in the narrow zone between the grounding zone and the freeze-on position will release most basal debris, while the remaining debris will be transported out to the edge of the ice shelf and deposited in the marine environment from icebergs. The shape of the drainage basin is quite well defined on the basis of ice surface contours . Flowlines, determined from surface slope data that were obtained by radioecho sounding (Drewry, 1983), show a funneling effect into the Lambert Graben. The graben was defined on the basis of seismic (Stagg, 1985; Federov et al., 1982) and magnetic (Federov et al., 1982) data and continues out into the continental shelf. The thickness of the ice cover is variable and tends to smooth out the underlying topography (Fig. 3). The ice is thinnest at the coast, with bare rock exposed in the

to be 30 through the Amery ice 12 Gt per steady ice result in m per recorded thickness the this is 840 m the side of velocity of has been thickness covering a depth of was 7 m velocities Increasing increasing and sheet.

Vestfold Hills and other localities between Davis Station and the Amery Ice Shelf; otherwise in coastal areas it is less than 500 m thick. Ice is also thin in elevated areas like the Prince Charles Mountains and Grove Mountains, where rock is exposed as nunataks. In the Lambert Graben ice reaches a thickness of 2500 m below Mawson Escarpment, but this decreases northward to about 900 m at the grounding line and about 270 m at the ice shelf edge. Surface Information Much of the Lambert glacier is an area of significant ablation, so that meltstreams and lakes form on the glacier surface during summer. These surface waters will be carrying little debris and thus have little influence on eventual sedimentation. most of the debris reaching Prydz Bay will have been transported subglacially, a view supported by the roundness character of clasts found at studied sites. Large areas of blue ice become exposed and are visible on satellite images. According to Allison (1979), the Lambert glacier is sliding on its bed. Increasing velocities indicate increasing longitudinal strain rate and thinning of the ice sheet. State of the art Landsat images have resulted in mapping of ice foliation, moraines and crevasses. Geometry of these structures is incompatible with the pulsating ice flow, and so it has been proposed that surging has not occurred during the time of residence of Lambert glacier, which is estimated as lasting up to several thousands of years. 8 major flow units have been defined within the entire system. Proportion of ice reaching the Prydz Bay from Lamber glacier is about 40%. This figure is reduced even further if ice gain from basal free on and snowfall are taken into consideration. The rate of supply of angular material onto the surface of the Lambert Glacier-Amery Ice Shelf system is minor at the present day. The bulk of the debris transport must be at the base of the ice mass. Bedrock Structure

The subglacial topography is known in broad terms mainly from radio-echo sounding (Drewry, 1983). The deep trench of the Lambert Graben is bordered by high ground to the west, east, and south. From the seaward edge of the Amery Ice Shelf, the Amery Basin continues to deepen progressively southward under the ice shelf and the Lambert Glacier, finally reaching a depth of at least 2500 mbsl. The graben is bordered to the west by a partially exposed mountain complex, the Prince Charles Mountains, which in Mount Menzies attains a maximum height of 3355 m above sea level. Several tributary trenches cut through these mountains and enter the main Lambert Graben. The eastern margin is defined by a pronounced, largely continuous, straight escarpment, rising to over 1000 m above sea level and cropping out as the Mawson Escarpment in the south. With over 2500 m of ice in the graben, the true relief of this eastern margin is of the order of 3000 m. East of the escarpment, geomagnetic data (Federov et al., 1982) indicate the existence of a branch of the main graben. This is largely sediment-filled, but it acts as a major drainage route for ice from the Grove Mountains that rise to more than 1500 m farther to the east and that project through the ice as small nunataks. The Grove Mountains are just a small surface expression of a large elevated subglacial land mass, 1000-1500 m high, that forms much of Princess Elizabeth Land. At the head of the Lambert Graben is a north-northwesttrending subglacial mountain mass, mainly above 1500 m, which serves as a ridge, on either side of which ice flow is directed (Fig. 5). The southern extremity of this mass culminates in the Gamburtsev Subglacial Mountains, which rise to more than 3000 m above sea level and are overlain by Dome Argus. Lower, but nevertheless elevated, areas connect this area with the southwestern Prince Charles Mountains and Grove Mountains. Penetrating these masses are subsea-level feeder branches of the Lambert Graben, one of which penetrates nearly 1000 km southward from the edge of the Amery Ice Shelf. Various other low-altitude basins complete this rather complex topographic picture. Over much of the region ice smoothes out the underlying topography, but apart from the general movement of ice into the Lambert Graben, ice surface flow is not strongly controlled by the irregularities of the bedrock
Geology

Most outcrops of exposed rocks ( which extend 600 km poleward from the coast) consist of igneous and metamorphic rocks of Precambrian age. Soviet and Australian geologists have interpreted these rocks in quite different ways. The sequence of older rocks according to Tingey (1982) is: 1. Archean granitic basement with mainly massive or poorly foliated gneisses exposed in the southern Prince Charles Mountains and Vestfold Hills (Oliver et al., 1982); 2. Archean metasediments with fuchsite-bearing quartzite, conglomerate, psammite, calc-silicate rocks, iron-rich strata, and para-amphibolite; and 3. Proterozoic pegmatite, granite, migmatite, retrogressed amphibolite, slate, shale, minor quartzite, and banded iron-formations. Younger sedimentary strata are exposed in the Beaver Lake area of the northern Prince Charles Mountains (Mond, 1972; Tingey, 1982; Ravich and Federov, 1982). Here a Permian sequence, the Amery Group, which is analogous to the Beacon Supergroup of the Transantarctic Mountains, comprises three units from bottom to top (Ravich and Federov, 1982; Ravich et al., 1984): 1. 250 m of conglomerate, gritstone, coal-siltstone, and shale; 2. 900 m of rhythmically bedded sandstone, siltstone, claystone, and 2 m-thick coal seams; and 3. 200 m of arkose, coarse sandstone, fine sandstone, and claystone.

The total outcrop area of Permian sediments is 450 km2. No other sedimentary strata, apart from Cenozoic tills, are exposed in the region. Despite the relatively small outcrop area of Permian and younger strata, much of the region is believed to be underlain by such sediments, principally in the complex graben structure occupied by the Lambert Glacier-Amery Ice Shelf system. The Lambert Graben is a structure that extends south for almost 700 km and shows present-day bedrock relief, mainly subice, of as much as 3500 m (Federov et al., 1982). Magnetic data have revealed depressions 5 km or more in depth in the basement, filled with nonmagnetic rocks. Deep seismic soundings indicate deep faults bounding the graben, with marked crustal thinning beneath. The sedimentary packages of the continental shelf are predominantly continental in the inner part (Turner et al., this volume) and terrestrial-marine glacigenic in the outer part (Hambrey et al., this volume), and these sediments would have largely been derived from the hinterland of Prydz Bay. Glacier development The timing of development of the graben complex is uncertain. Federov et al. (1982) suggested that the main rifting began in late Mesozoic time, with migration of tectonic activity westward with time. Stagg (1985) considered two possibilities based on the interpretation of seismic sequences in Prydz Bay: Permian to Late Jurassic, or Early Cretaceous, with the break-away of India from Antarctica taking place in TriassicEarly Jurassic time. Discussion In steady state glaciers it is normally possible to trace the trajectories of debris to the depositional site, because the particle paths in the ice are normally parallel or diverge or converge in a predictable manner according to the shape of the confining channel. Thus, debris will remain on one side of the glacier as it is transported downstream. This aspect of glacier flow has frequently been applied to formerly glacierized areas in order to reconstruct ice sheet dynamics. An exception to this rule is the effect on debris distribution induced by surging glaciers. Although there is no documented example of unequivocal surging in Antarctica, it has been argued that as the net accumulation rate of ice in Antarctica seems to be greater than the loss of mass, the ice sheet may become unstable and large parts of it may surge (Hollin, 1969; Budd and Mclnnes, 1978). If, as has been suggested, the Lambert Glacier-Amery Ice Shelf system is prone to surging, then prediction of paleo-transport paths of debris would be almost impossible. The initiation of glaciation, and the source of debris when ice first reached the sea, remain open questions. Alpine glaciation would have begun first on the Gamburtsev Subglacial Mountains, the Prince Charles Mountains, and the Grove Mountains. However, ice is unlikely to have extended as far as present-day Prydz Bay until the alpine glaciers had coalesced to form a near-continuous ice sheet. In terms of glacial erosion, and thus sediment transport, there must have been a time when the Lambert

Graben glaciers, the Fisher, Mellor, and Lambert, were the most efficacious parts of the system. However, in terms of ice entering Prydz Bay today, their influence is less than that of ice generated in the region nearer the coast.