Racecar Aerodynamics

MCG 4345 April 2010

Jeremy Rutledge 3443697

Table Of Contents
Table Of Contents ............................................................................................................................................... 2 Table of Figures .................................................................................................................................................. 4 Introduction ........................................................................................................................................................ 6 Background ......................................................................................................................................................... 7 Theoretical .................................................................................................................................................. 7 Spoilers ............................................................................................................................................................... 8 Application...................................................................................................................................................... 8 Additional Drag ............................................................................................................................................... 9 Yaw angle (angle of the car exhibited during cornering) ............................................................................... 9 Dams ................................................................................................................................................................... 9 Background ..................................................................................................................................................... 9 Splitters/flat plate devices............................................................................................................................ 10 Wings ................................................................................................................................................................ 10 Rear wing ...................................................................................................................................................... 11 Front wing..................................................................................................................................................... 13 Guiding Vanes ............................................................................................................................................... 14 High Lift Devices ............................................................................................................................................... 15 CFD simulation .................................................................................................................................................. 15 Ground Effects .................................................................................................................................................. 16 Theoretical Background................................................................................................................................ 17 Ground Effects without Sideskirts ................................................................................................................ 17 Applications to Racing .................................................................................................................................. 18 Drag .................................................................................................................................................................. 19 Types............................................................................................................................................................. 19 Drag Levels.................................................................................................................................................... 19 Drag Improvement ....................................................................................................................................... 19 Pitching moment .......................................................................................................................................... 20 Flow control Devices......................................................................................................................................... 21 Devices to Control the Flow ......................................................................................................................... 21 Devices for Creating Useful Vortices ............................................................................................................ 22 Devices for Creating Pressure Changes ........................................................................................................ 24 Surface roughness and protuberances......................................................................................................... 26

Exposed Wheels............................................................................................................................................ 27 Hood design ...................................................................................................................................................... 29 Testing .............................................................................................................................................................. 29 Buoyancy ...................................................................................................................................................... 29 Solid Blockage ............................................................................................................................................... 30 Ground effects/Interactions ......................................................................................................................... 30 Simulating Moving Ground........................................................................................................................... 31 Multivehicle Interactions.................................................................................................................................. 32 Conclusion ........................................................................................................................................................ 32 Bibliography ...................................................................................................................................................... 34

Table of Figures
Figure 1. Left: Aerodynamic Forces (Katz, 3), Middle: Influence of Downforce (Katz,4), Pressure distribution over a vehicle (Katz, 42) ....................................................................................................................................... 6 Figure 2: Left: Accleration limit before slip (Katz, 151), Middle: Influence of downforce of braking (Katz,159), Right: Influence of downforce on maximum corner speed (Katx,161) ....................................................... 7 Figure 3: Influence of skirt height on life (Katz, 193) ......................................................................................... 8 Figure 4:Left: Pressure distribution over a spoiler (Milliken, 493), Right: Influence of spoiler height on lift (Milliken, 495) .............................................................................................................................................. 8 Figure 5: Seperated flow and wake creation (Katz, 55 and 44).......................................................................... 9 Figure 6: Variation of spoiler lift with Yaw angle (Milliken, 494) ....................................................................... 9 Figure 7. Influence of vertical dam position on lift and drag (Katz,210) .......................................................... 10 Figure 8: Implementation of flat plate devices (Katz,213) ............................................................................... 10 Figure 9:Left: Various planform wing areas (Katz 118), Middle/Right: Various rear wing configurations (Katz, 134) ............................................................................................................................................................ 11 Figure 10: Top: Chapparell Design configuration Bottom: Test Results (Milliken, 499-507) ........................... 12 Figure 11: Front wing designs (formula1.com)................................................................................................. 13 Figure 12: Effects of Front wing design on aerodynamic properties (Katz, 212) (Milliken, 518/544) ............. 14 Figure 13: Direction of frontal airflow (formula1.com) .................................................................................... 14 Figure 14: Placement of front deflector plates (Katz, 198) .............................................................................. 15 Figure 15: Configuration and aerodynamic properties of high lift devices (Katz, 127-129) ............................ 15 Figure 16: Left: Improvements in Models Middle: Advanced panel method simulation Right: Navier Stokes simulation (Katz, 94-95) ............................................................................................................................. 16 Figure 17: Left: Illustration of racecar ground effect Right: Aerodynamic properties resulting from racecar ground effect(Milliken, 525) ...................................................................................................................... 16 Figure 18: Aerodynamic properties of an underswept channel and the resulting Lee vortices (Milliken, 529)17 Figure 19.Generation of underskirt vortices and their pressure characteristics (Milliken 532-533) ............... 18 Figure 20: Underchannel diffuser vortices and lift characteristics (Katz, 204-206) ......................................... 18

Figure 21: Factors that influence drag coefficient (Katz 31/32/46) ................................................................. 19 Figure 22: Illustration of center of pressure with respect to center of mass(Katz,164) .................................. 20 Figure 23: Illustration of guiding vanes and fences (Milliken, 548).................................................................. 21 Figure 24: Location and purpose of vortex generator (Katz,131) (Milliken, 551) ............................................ 22 Figure 25: Illustration of racecar winglets (formula1.com) .............................................................................. 23 Figure 26: Delta wing configuration of noseplate and its vortices and pressure coefficients (Katz, 123-124) 23 Figure 27: Influence of Endplates on aerodynamic performance (Milliken, 514) ............................................ 24 Figure 28: Location of racecar pressure vents (formula1.com) ....................................................................... 24 Figure 29: Left: Illustration and reduced pressure of NACA submerged duct (Katz,219), Middle: schematic of the NACA design (Milliken,561), Right:Pressure drag of other outlets(Katz, 221) .......................................... 25 Figure 30: illustration of riblets and microgrooves (Katz,131-133).................................................................. 26 Figure 31: Illustration of Guerny flap and fuselage fillet (Milliken 553-554) ................................................... 26 Figure 32: Left: Maximum grain size Right: Drag due to fasteners and gaps (Milliken, 566-567) ................... 27 Figure 33: Flow around an exposed wheel and the vortices generated (Middleton, 568) .............................. 27 Figure 34: Left: Effect of Reynolds number on drag Right: Pressure distribution of the ground onto the wheel (Katz, 196) (Milliken, 569).......................................................................................................................... 28 Figure 35: Example lift coefficients for stationary and rotating wheels (Katz, 83) (Milliken, 570) .................. 28 Figure 36: Illustration of wheel flip-up (formula1.com) ................................................................................... 28 Figure 37: Laminar bubble on the hood of vehicles (Katz,34) .......................................................................... 29 Figure 38: Development of boundary layer on test walls (Katz,74) ................................................................. 30 Figure 39: Effect of interference on testing walls (Katz, 121,137-138) ............................................................ 31 Figure 40: Effects of Moving ground on the boundary layer and proposed testing solutions (Katz, 73-75) ... 31 Figure 41: Technique of Drafting and Passing (Katz,175-176) ......................................................................... 32

Introduction
The economic focus on fuel consumption has risen substantially throughout the last decade as fuel prices have significantly risen and continue as reserves run out. Aerodynamics, especially the drag experienced by the car, is also a prevalent concern to electric cars that wish to maximize the travelled distance on a given amount of power. For racing, the maximum obtainable speed is desired which occurs when there is less force acting against the cars forward motion. Stability is directly affected by the moments and yawing affects that these forces have over the axial span of the vehicle which influences the drivers comfort. Therefore, the research and applications of certain key principles within this course can be directly applied to consumer and racing vehicles. The requirements are (Milliken, 490) 1. Aerodynamic lift at the front and rear tracks has a prominent effect in increasing the g-g diagram and on the directional balance of the car 2. Aerodynamic drag is a major determinant of forward acceleration and braking deceleration at the higher speeds; also of maximum speed. 3. Aerodynamic side force is important for cornering in certain classes of racing and along with yawing, rolling, and pitching moments that affect the directional stability and control. The following figure shows the aerodynamic forces acting on the car body, the influence of downforce and its evolution over a typical sedan. The right-hand figure illustrates wake generation at the rear end due to the adverse pressure gradient that causes separation of the boundary layer.

Figure 1. Left: Aerodynamic Forces (Katz, 3), Middle: Influence of Downforce (Katz,4), Pressure distribution over a vehicle (Katz, 42)

Background
Theoretical
Need for aerodynamic Force g-g diagrams basically are the operating envelope of the vehicle and the end points represent the range of accelerations that can be achieved while the tires are in proper contact with the road. Although these limits can be exceeded for short periods of time, it is not recommended as the vehicle will be in an unstable and dynamic state. For this reason, downforce is a primary objective to allow for better turn and handling on the track. Daimler Benz also noticed during record-breaking speed runs in 1936-39 that an upward aerodynamic force was being place on the front of the vehicle. The front end of the vehicle was deemed to lose contact with the ground with the driver sensitivity being greatly reduced; despite a streamlined body. In short, this observation led to the introduction of wings by 1968 to be placed on grand-prix vehicles to counteract this front end lift. The following figure illustrates the racecars ability to handle and break better at higher speeds.

Figure 2: Left: Accleration limit before slip (Katz, 151), Middle: Influence of downforce of braking (Katz,159), Right: Influence of downforce on maximum corner speed (Katx,161)

Introduction of Methods to increase downforce Alternate methods introduced by Chevrolet by 1970 utilized powered suction fans and sealing skirts on the bottom of the chassis to reduce the air pressure underneath to provide a downforce. These methods were banned quickly after a few short races by the F1 commission. Lotus in 1977 introduced a full groundeffects car that properly shaped the bottom of the car and employed side pods to increase the surface area of the side skirts (2d wings have better lift than that small span finite wings). This manipulation of the airflow around the vehicle to improve the lift co-efficient, in tandem with the increased planform area on which the lift was to act, resulted in very large aerodynamic forces generated. The following figure illustrates the improved downforce as a result of small clearances between the ground and the skirt.

Figure 3: Influence of skirt height on life (Katz, 193)

In the following sections, several devices and techniques utilized by aerodynamicists to improve race car performance are examined. It is key to note that all techniques and devices are specific to the overall design of the flow around the vehicle. In other words, devices or techniques that performed well on one vehicle may not perform well on another.

Spoilers
Application
The typical application and flow of a spoiler over a Grand Tourer (GT or gran turismo in Italian) vehicle is shown below. The fundamental advantage of the spoiler can be seen be examining the flow over the rear of the vehicle. The shape of the airflow over the rear deck of the car is generally smooth and produces a negative pressure over the rear of the vehicle. The addition of the spoiler is to induce earlier flow separation which increases the pressure; alleviating some of the negative pressure that is being applied to the rear of the vehicle. The centroid of the pressure increase is also located approximately at the rear axle of the vehicle and will produce no contribution to reducing the front end lift of the vehicle. However, full wind tunnel tests should be conducted to determine the forces and moments generated, especially if a rear wing is present.

Figure 4:Left: Pressure distribution over a spoiler (Milliken, 493), Right: Influence of spoiler height on lift (Milliken, 495)

Additional Drag
Similar to the flow separation of a golf ball, the induced separation creates larger wake at the rear of the vehicle which results in higher drag effects on the vehicle as shown below. Therefore the generated downforce has inherently more drag associated with its flow.

Figure 5: Seperated flow and wake creation (Katz, 55 and 44)

Yaw angle (angle of the car exhibited during cornering)

For the GT model car, the improvements are found to be prevalent at all yaw angles. Thus, spoilers aid in generating downforce through corners as shown below.

Figure 6: Variation of spoiler lift with Yaw angle (Milliken, 494)

Dams
Background
A dam commonly refers to a front end spoiler intended to reduce front end lift and overall drag; as well as increase the flow to the radiator to improve cooling characteristics. Detailed investigations by Volkswagen, Porsche, Chrysler, GM, etc have indicated that the effectiveness of the dams is dependent on the overall design of the vehicles front nose. The dam blocks the flow underneath the car and diverts it around or over

the nose of the vehicle. Engineers Marcell and Romberg of Chrysler explored the effects of front spoiler design and its location on a 200mph Grand National Stock Car. The results of the front under-nose spoiler are shown.

Figure 7. Influence of vertical dam position on lift and drag (Katz,210)

Notes: Important breakthroughs were made to NASCAR vehicles as a result of this testing. It should also be noted that due to the effects to the cooling system that wing tunnel testing shown be undertaken.

Splitters/flat plate devices

Splitters are flat plates that are utilized to increase the planform area on which the high pressure generated by the dam can act. It also obstructs the flow that is directed below the dam as the flow will not follow the sharp radius of the splitter. These devices are illustrated below.

Figure 8: Implementation of flat plate devices (Katz,213)

Wings
Wings are essential tools to generate downforce on all open-cart racing vehicles. External wings are placed at the front and rear location of the car to maximize the downforce generated. Suspension rods, side-pod skirts and other bluff bodies exposed to the flow can be shaped like an airfoil as well. However, these pieces

have to remain their structural integrity and this redesign may actually result in a heavier part that negates the advantage of any downforce provided in its design. The large amount of lift generated by the wings on the body is shown below.

(Katz,52)

Rear wing
For illustrative purposes, the Chaparral G.S. 2G (tested at Midland) with the rear wing in the spoiled position will be examined. The wing used was very close to the NACA 0008 or 0009 airfoil with the spoiled position relating to an angle of attack of 12 degrees which preceded slightly the stall angle. The angle of attack was used as a symmetrical airfoil cannot accomplish productive lift in the horizontal position. The effects of planform shape, camber and multi-stage wings are illustrated below. The effect of a multi-stage wing is to act like a diffuser to manipulate the pressure distribution as shown.

Figure 9:Left: Various planform wing areas (Katz 118), Middle/Right: Various rear wing configurations (Katz, 134)

Before this investigation proceeds, the following assumptions of the flow are presumed. Steady-state flow of 100mph is applied which generates a Reynolds number of approximately 2 million. The pressure and lift distributions of a NACA 0008 or 0009 at the given angle of attack can be obtained from the XFOIL program and will not be plotted in this report. However, a correction to this data due to finite wing theory will be introduced as follows, with an assumed aspect ratio of the wing as 2.77.

(Milliken, 500) The effectiveness of the wing on certain race parameters are shown below. It is important to note the change in force distribution on the wheel and the moment generated by the drag force at the wing.

Figure 10: Top: Chapparell Design configuration Bottom: Test Results (Milliken, 499-507)

Note: The rear wing and the chassis of the car act as a secondary diffuser which creates additional downforce. Multiple level wings have also been experimented with in the open cart racing to increase this effect, as previously mentioned, with the cost of additional weight and skin drag.

Front wing
Front wings can be extremely effectively as they are exposed to the undisturbed airflow. However, its effect on airflow is critical to the flow characteristics received by other devices that are placed on the bodies. The front wing is made of carbon fiber, similar to wings, to increase the strength and weight ratio and displayed in the figure below (model shown was implemented for the 2009 season)

Figure 11: Front wing designs (formula1.com)

The amount of downforce produced by the front wing can be very large and is dependent on the following factors (the same factors can be applied to rear wings as well). Aspect Ratio The amount of downforce is directly related to the amount of the wing that is exposed to the pressure exerted. As with aircraft wings, a higher aspect ratio will result in a more efficient wing due to greater resistance to wingtip vortices. The FIA has implemented strict regulation with regards to the configuration of the wing for aerodynamic and safety reasons. Angle of attack/Ground clearance As previously mentioned with the rear wing, the angle of attack has a significant effect on the amount of lift produced. However, increasing the angle of attack alters the effectiveness of the diffuser (same effect on rear wing) and exposes a large planform area to pressure drag; thus necessitating testing to find optimal designs.

Shown below are some of the data available with respect to the geometry, design and presence of the front wing on design characteristics.

Figure 12: Effects of Front wing design on aerodynamic properties (Katz, 212) (Milliken, 518/544)

Guiding Vanes
Using the above front wing configuration as reference, one can notice several other devices that are present on the front wing. Most notable of these features are the vertical plates placed in the center of the wing. They are used for two purposes; to control the adjustable flaps and to strategically deflect the air around the body (to the cooling system, away to minimize drag). The diversion of the airflow is shown in the schematic below. The other features shown on the wing will be discussed throughout the rest of the report.

Figure 13: Direction of frontal airflow (formula1.com)

The flaps are used at the trailing edge of the vehicle to increase the effective camber of the airfoil to increase the downforce and inherently the drag. Drivers as of 2009 are allowed to adjust them twice per lap to improve the overall vehicle dynamics. Deflector plates can also be added to the wing at the sides, or as shown in the figure below; at the trailing edge of the wing.

Figure 14: Placement of front deflector plates (Katz, 198)

High Lift Devices

Leading edge slats and slots can be used to increase the effective angle of attack and surface area; both of which generate increases in lift. Trailing edge flaps are used to delay the separation point by increasing the effective camber of the overall airfoil; resulting in an increase in circulation and lift (CL vs is shifted up on the vertical axis). Slats on the leading edge are used to direct air over the top of the leading edge at high angles of attack which delays stalling. Converging the distance between the slat and the wing induces turbulence in the flow which also will delay separation (similar to the dimples on the golf ball). The increased lift of flaps and slots are shown in the figure below.

Figure 15: Configuration and aerodynamic properties of high lift devices (Katz, 127-129)

CFD simulation
Advancements in non-linear computational models have allowed aerodynamicists to alter the shape of the racecar without the need for expensive modifications or wind tunnel testing. Below, the advancements in

computational methods are shown; as well as results from a panel method simulation in comparison to a Navier-Stokes numerical model.

Figure 16: Left: Improvements in Models Middle: Advanced panel method simulation Right: Navier Stokes simulation (Katz, 94-95)

Ground Effects
Previously in this report, the negative lift of the front wing was shown to change when its position relative to the ground changed as well. This phenomenon is known as ground effect in aerodynamics. From this point on, however, it will be imperative to distinguish aerodynamic ground effect and racing ground effect. The later refers to the interaction of the flow between the underbody of the vehicle and the ground to create a low pressure region as depicted on the left hand side of the figure below. The right-hand side shows the overall interaction of the aerodynamic and ground effect lift on the Lotus racecar. It is shows that each design has an optimal location to maximize the lift coefficient (although the racecar effects increase closer to the ground, the aerodynamic increases quicker).

Figure 17: Left: Illustration of racecar ground effect Right: Aerodynamic properties resulting from racecar ground effect(Milliken, 525)

Theoretical Background
Ground effects to increase downforce can be best explained by applying the Bernoulli equation, even with its applied assumptions. Creating a narrow gap between the vehicle and the ground will result in a velocity increase due to mass conservation which through Bernoulli can show that the pressure will greatly decrease. Air coming from both sides of the car however would negate the pressure reduction that was aforementioned; thus side skirts were used to seal the undercarriage of the vehicle from these flows. These were originally made of rubber and subsequently banned in the early 1980s.

Ground Effects without Sideskirts

A.R George investigated the effect of a large 20 degree upsweep at the rear of a bluff body, similar to that of an ideal race vehicle. The results of this study indicated that natural flow control devices such as bound vortices, vortex generators, etc. are present within the flow. It was discovered these vortices were generated around the sides of the vehicle and kept the flow attached to the vehicle. These vorticies bent the flow upward to produce a cambered body which added the effect of inducing a negative angle of attack on the top of the body; resulting in an increase in downforce. The results and generated vortices (Less vortices) are shown below.

Figure 18: Aerodynamic properties of an underswept channel and the resulting Lee vortices (Milliken, 529)

Note: The increase in pressure at the rear of the diffuser will actually cause a moment around the center of pressure of the vehicle to create downforce; as well as minimal thrust. Further investigation yielded the important revelation that a creation of longitudinal vortices occurred along the inside of the skirt when clearances were present. These vortices acted as a flow control device that enabled the flow to stay attached even at large diffuser angles. These are shown below, with their significant contributions to reducing downforce.

Figure 19.Generation of underskirt vortices and their pressure characteristics (Milliken 532-533)

Applications to Racing
These flow control devices were applied to shaping the underbody of vehicles which utilizes a venturi type diffuser with undercut channels as shown below. Notes: (1) The treatment of the diffuser geometry is greatly debated as it is unsure which features cause high vorticity strengths (2) The addition of the wing only enhances the suction as it constrains the flow to speed it up (3) The outlet of the diffuser fills in the wake which reduce drag (4) The underside of the wing resembles closely to a flipped wing and thus sometimes is referred to as such.

Figure 20: Underchannel diffuser vortices and lift characteristics (Katz, 204-206)

Drag
Types
For the purpose of this report, three types of drag will be labeled. There is skin friction due to the shear forces along the bodys surface as a result of viscosity. Pressure drag is induced similar to that of the golf ball as a result of flow separation at the rear of the vehicle. The third type of drag is induced drag which is a result of three dimensional flow about the object. It also should be noted at this point that the downwash is prohibited by the ground plane; whereas upwash is still possibly. Therefore the term vortex drag will be used to define the three dimensional drag caused by the expense of kinetic energy and power through changes in pressure and skin friction drag. Some of these three dimensional vortices were introduced in preceding sections to describe the flow underneath the vehicle. Relevant data relationships for these drags are shown below.

Figure 21: Factors that influence drag coefficient (Katz 31/32/46)

Drag Levels
Relative to consumer vehicles that are available on the market during present day, the coefficient of drag for open wheeled race cars are relatively high. VW researchers have shown the idealized minimum drag body shape has a Cd=.06 in free stream. However, it should be noted that a co-efficient this low has not been obtained in practice as 0.24 is the lowest of production cars (Mercedes-Benz E-Class Coup). Indy cars are speculated by researcher Metz that Indy cars possess co-efficient in the range of 0.8-1 for the 19851987 period. Examining these results indicates a strong relation between the amount of drag to that of aerodynamic force produced. Manipulating the flow to produce large aerodynamic downforce increases the amount of pressure and form drag, as well as vortex drag, on the vehicle.

Drag Improvement
Initial effort in reducing drag is to reduce pressure drag by ensuring that flow separation does not occur. Flow separation occurs due to:

1. Body contours having excessive diffuser angles 2. Too small radii in areas where flow direction is not known or can change in operation (nose, radiator air entry, etc) 3. Sharp edges create vortices, usually associated with surface roughness from mirrors and other attachments 4. Surface roughness 5. Improper treatment of entry, exit, and control of internal airflow for the engine, and for cooling of engine, brakes, transmission, driver, etc 6. Wheel well and underbody treatment 7. Interface between local flows The magnitude of pressure drag, relative to other forms is shown below.

(Katz,51)

Pitching moment
The aerodynamic drag force can be conveyed as a single resultant force with an effective center or pressure above the ground. A pitching moment, which is reacted by vertical forces at the front and rear wheels, is generated when this force is adjusted to coincide with the axis origin at ground level. Thus as the car experiences different drag forces at different points, as each component does not obey the same physics, the forces on the wheels can vary drastically and can alter the driving characteristics of the vehicle such as traction, yaw, etc. The figure below shows the resultant force in the plane parallel to the ground.

Figure 22: Illustration of center of pressure with respect to center of mass(Katz,164)

Flow control Devices

Note: Due to the proprietary nature of the design and relative introduction to racing (within the last decade), statistics on the effectiveness of these tools has not yet been published in commonplace literature. Flow control devices may be utilized to manipulate the aerodynamic forces and moments experienced by the vehicle. Two types of fluid flow manipulation can be used. 1.Outside Boundary layer Adjusting this flow can result in simultaneous changes in pressure, velocity (magnitude and direction), and vorticity and rotation 2.Inside Boundary layer Characteristics of the flow such as separation points and wake will be affected which can result in drastic alterations to force distributions (magnitude and location)

Devices to Control the Flow

In addition to the devices previously mentioned (skirts, dams, spoilers), fences and vanes can be utilized to locally direct the flow. Angled side plates located near the front wheels on the March F1 car and other cars to manipulate the flow. Common practice is to use curved guide vanes in front of the rear wheel wells to direct the flow overtop as a major source of pressure drag is located here. Vanes are also used to direct air flow in the intake, cooling system, brakes, transmission, etc. Fences located on the side of the nose on the CanAm McLaren, shown below, were utilized to increase the amount of downforce that could be produced. Fences have also been successively added to the front wing, among other parts of the car.

Figure 23: Illustration of guiding vanes and fences (Milliken, 548)

Notes: (1) These devices do not add significantly to the drag of the vehicle due to their near alignment parallel to the flow. (2) These flows primarily affect the freestream characteristics of the flow and are not intended to create any useful vorticity.

Devices for Creating Useful Vortices

Cusps It has been proposed that a cusp located on the rear of the vehicle will delay boundary layer separation and reduce the inherent trailing wake. This has yet to be effectively implemented on racing cars up to present day. Vortex Generator This technique is more widely used and effective for energizing the air in the boundary layer for the purpose of delaying separation. Dimples on a golf ball can be viewed as a simple vortex generator that capitalizes as well on the fact that turbulent flows possess smaller adverse pressure gradients than those of laminar flow. Simplified these devices mix the sluggish boundary layer with the more invigorated properties of the freestream. These can be utilized easily at any point in the flow where separation occurs prematurely and can be as simple as a triangular plate or as complex as a small airfoil. Another common application within open wheeled cart racing is to place vortex generators at the front of the underbody where their long vortex trails can induce low pressure under the vehicle.

Figure 24: Location and purpose of vortex generator (Katz,131) (Milliken, 551)

Note: These are now favoured in modern designs over older style barge boards which were implemented to shield the radiator ducts from the turbulent wake created by the front wheels. Winglets (Not in the traditional aerodynamic sense) Winglets have been placed at strategic points on the chassis to manipulate the flow characteristics; to the extent where the Federation of International Automobiles (governing body of F1) is considering ban/restrictions of their use in the upcoming season. Several teams have experimented with different

overall designs such as winglets on the front wings, shark fins at the rear side of the chassis and winglets located near the cockpit. To illustrate their effects, the cockpit wing design will be illustrated and discussed.

Figure 25: Illustration of racecar winglets (formula1.com)

These horizontal winglets, similar to that utilized in the 08 season by Honda, (as indicated by the red arrow show on the left) work in conjunction with BMWs distinctive delta winglets that are visible further down the nosecone (red arrows on the right). The airflow normally previously went over the front wing at an angle of 30 degrees but these new elements in tandem redirect the flow to become more horizontal. The air redirection improves the sharpness of the cars front end and the stability of the aerodynamic balance from front to rear; as well as laterally across the cockpit. In essence, the center of pressure is shifted on the body to decrease the pitching moment produced by drag and the positions of the other devices required to create downforce. Nosecones or dive plates The premise of these devices is simple: to encapsulate the body of the car in the downwash of the trailing vortices that it creates. This induced force helps to create downforce along the span of the car. Their creation and effect on pressure are shown.

Figure 26: Delta wing configuration of noseplate and its vortices and pressure coefficients (Katz, 123-124)

Devices for Creating Pressure Changes

Endplates The loss of pressure created by wingtip vortices is minimized by the application of end plates to the wings; effectively increasing the aspect ratio of the wing to create higher lift. The main design criterion for the endplate is its height, as its length should span the entire chord of the wing. The impact of these parameters is demonstrated in the figure below.

Figure 27: Influence of Endplates on aerodynamic performance (Milliken, 514)

Vents Vents are used in areas where a low-pressure area exists on top relative to the pressure on the outer side of the vehicle. Locations such as this exist at wheel wells, hoods and other locations throughout the chassis. Different types of aerodynamic vent are shown.

Figure 28: Location of racecar pressure vents (formula1.com)

Other Techniques Applications of seals and bleeds have been utilized to control the pressure distribution. Contractors and diffusers have also been used to manipulate the flow into radiators; mirroring the effect of scoops on the hood whose primary function is to allow for a large volume of air to enter into the intake where it is subsequently has its velocity converted to pressure through a divergent nozzle. Despite the necessity of these items, they need to be designed to minimize the disturbances they impose on the flow as exemplified by the NACA submerged inlet duct. This duct reduces the aerodynamic drag, when located in a shallow boundary later that is parallel to local flow (reason why they are no longer used in modern open cart racing such as F-1), by utilizing longitudinal vortices to force the flow in the intake. It is shown when utilized effectively, there is very little additional drag added. Its dimensions and application are shown below.

Figure 29: Left: Illustration and reduced pressure of NACA submerged duct (Katz,219), Middle: schematic of the NACA design (Milliken,561), Right:Pressure drag of other outlets(Katz, 221)

Wavy Edges/Riblets Wavy edges, as seen on multiple parts in prior pictures (front wing, end plates, etc), reduce trailing edge separation by mixing the high pressure and low pressure streams which increases lift values. Riblets or microgrooves are intended to modify the friction found within the boundary layer and can reduce the drag by up to 8%. The basic concept of the grooves is to induce a no slip condition upon the groove walls that can manipulate the vortex filaments within the flow as shown below. It is important that these devices must be installed parallel to the flow and usually on surfaces where the flow characteristics are known.

Figure 30: illustration of riblets and microgrooves (Katz,131-133)

Guerny Lip/Fillets This device is attached to the trailing edge of the rear wing to alter the pressure behind the trailing edge to delay boundary layer separation. It is used to make very fine adjustments to the downforce. Fillets are also applied to reduce the form drag at the interaction of the wing and the fuselage.

Figure 31: Illustration of Guerny flap and fuselage fillet (Milliken 553-554)

Surface roughness and protuberances

Significant surface roughness can increase the level of skin friction that a vehicle experiences. It should be noted that for performance race vehicles that no amount of surface improvement will reduce automobile drag due to the stringent requirements for exceptional sanding and polishing. Other protuberances such as fasteners, strips or grooves, and gaps that are minimized in race cars as they can increase drag as shown below.

Figure 32: Left: Maximum grain size Right: Drag due to fasteners and gaps (Milliken, 566-567)

Exposed Wheels
For open wheeled racing such as Indy-Cart and F1, the effects of exposed wheels on the flow have been examined. Flow separation of a rotating body comes detached from the surface more rapid that a stationary wheel which increases pressure drag. From lift line theory (first two plots) and experimental testing that an induced drag is generated due to the distribution of trailing vortices from the rear of the wheel.

Figure 33: Flow around an exposed wheel and the vortices generated (Middleton, 568)

The flow is also shown to be dependent on the Reynolds number of the flow as turbulent flow has a better ability to stay attached to the wheel. It is interesting to note from the displayed data that the coefficient of pressure for a wheel above the ground is negative but becomes positive (ie wheel lift) when the wheel

becomes in touch with the ground. The better the sealing, the higher the amount of wheel lift that is generated.

Figure 34: Left: Effect of Reynolds number on drag Right: Pressure distribution of the ground onto the wheel (Katz, 196) (Milliken, 569)

Below are determined coefficients for some tested wheels to provide overall perspective to the effects that the wheels have on the entire flow.

Figure 35: Example lift coefficients for stationary and rotating wheels (Katz, 83) (Milliken, 570)

Thus to minimize the wheel lift experienced, the amount of air should be limited over the wheel. For the front wheel, the end plates of the front wing are designed to divert the flow over the wheel. A device known as a flip-up is used to better align the airflow with the wheel to reduce drag characteristics. Winglets are located close-by or integrated into the flip-up to generate vortices in the flow to promote downforce.

Figure 36: Illustration of wheel flip-up (formula1.com)

Hood design
(for Nascar and Rally cars) Although this paper has primarily discussed applications to open-wheel racers, there is a point of interest on vehicles which possess a hood and that is the behavior of the flow at lower speeds as experienced during turning. The flow is laminar over the beginning of the hood which reduces skin friction drag but may separate if the curvature of the hood is too high. The flow may however reattach at a further location due to the boundary layer becoming turbulent due to disturbances in the flow which possess higher momentum to keep the flow attached. Therefore, as shown in the following figure, the flow will undergo localized flow separation that tends to circulate in the reverse direction which is commonly referred to as the laminar bubble. These localized disturbances can be modeled as a vortex line if the hood is symmetrical in design. These vortices as previously mentioned will induce velocity changes on the vehicle, similar to the downwash/upwash in regards to planes. These areas are sensitive and may not reattach which can cause significant increases in drag. To avoid this, engineers have generated a compromise by creating force transitions from laminar to turbulent flow ; resulting in delayed separation at the cost of higher skin friction.

Figure 37: Laminar bubble on the hood of vehicles (Katz,34)

Testing
Aerodynamicists want to gain the competitive edge on their opponents and continually modify and monitor changes in their design through the use of wind tunnel testing.

Buoyancy
The boundary layer on the walls tend to increase over the length of the tunnel which effectively produces a contraction in the working area of the fluid. This accelerates the flow to produce a reduction in static pressure readings and artificially increases drag. This longitudinal pressure drop can be represented by:

The drag correction factor is determined as:

The development of the boundary layer is displayed below.

Figure 38: Development of boundary layer on test walls (Katz,74)

Solid Blockage
The presence of the vehicle in the flow reduces the fluid area which causes increased air velocity at locations such as the hood to the wall for example. This change in velocity lowers the static pressure, similar to buoyancy and can be corrected for by altering the tunnel speed.

Ground effects/Interactions
Lifting characteristics of the flow are altered by two methods in the researched literature: alteration of the streamlines and reduction in wing tip vortices. The walls of the duct tend to straighten the streamlines of the flow which artificially enhances the lift by inflating the camber of the tested objected. Similarly the wing tip vortices are artificially decreased which results in lower induced drag. Several different techniques, both practical and numerical, exist to correct for these factors. Lifting devices are also rarely isolated from one another, especially on the surface of the car and their interactions can have drastic effects on other devices. A simple example of a tandem airfoil will be introduced to exemplify this point in the data below.

Figure 39: Effect of interference on testing walls (Katz, 121,137-138)

Simulating Moving Ground

The boundary layer of a moving vehicle and that in the test facility is very different as shown in the figure below. Several methods are also illustrated to combat this problem.

Figure 40: Effects of Moving ground on the boundary layer and proposed testing solutions (Katz, 73-75)

Multivehicle Interactions
Aerodynamic effects can have a huge impact on vehicles that are in close proximity of a moving vehicle. This discussion will be limited to only two basic race strategies, passing and drafting, as other configurations are more complicated due to geometry and number of cars. The phenomenon experienced are similar to the effects imposed by downwash and upwash on planes. Their effects on lift and drag are illustrated below.

Figure 41: Technique of Drafting and Passing (Katz,175-176)

These techniques are utilized in racing strategy quite often to conserve fuel. For instance, one teammate may sacrifice their fuel consumption to ensure their following partner will conserve fuel to eliminate the need for an additional trip to the pits.

Conclusion
Aerodynamic tehcniques and devices are readily employed on racecars in modern times to reduce drag and to increase downforce that allows the car to handle better throughout the curves. Often devices come at a compromise such as an increase in downforce at the cost of additional drag. Aerodynamicists are forced to

view the interactions as a whole and the implications that their decisions will have on the overall design of the vehicle.

Bibliography
Milliken, W. (1995). Race Car Vehicle Dynamics. USA: Tenth Printing. J. Katz, Race-Car Aerodynamics, 2d ed., Robert Bentley Inc., Cambridge, Massachusetts, 2006

Appendix