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Particle-Driven Subaqueous Gravity Processes
M Felix and W McCaffrey
, University of Leeds,Leeds, UK
ß
2005, Elsevier Ltd. All Rights Reserved.
Introduction
Particulate subaqueous gravity flows are sediment-water mixtures that move as a result of gravity actingon the sediment-induced density excess comparedwith the ambient water. The mixtures can rangefrom densely-packed sediment flows, that are essen-tially submarine landslides, tovery dilute flows carry-ing only a few kgm
3
of sediment. Gravity flow cantake place in lakes and oceans, but some dense flowsalso occur in rivers. Sediment volumes transported byindividual events can range up to thousands of cubickilometres, although most events are of much smallermagnitude. Due to their infrequent occurrence anddestructive nature, much information about subaque-ous gravity processes comes from the study of theirdeposits and from laboratory experiments. Flow ini-tiation mechanisms, sediment transport mechanisms,and flow types are described here separately, to em-phasise the sense of process continuum needed toappreciate the development of most natural subaque-ous gravity flows. This is followed by a description of internal and external influences on flow behaviour.Finally, the influence of flow regime on individualdeposits is outlined.
Flow Initiation Mechanisms
A variety of processes can generate subaqueousgravity currents, with varying initial concentrations.
Direct Formation From Rivers
Currentscanbeformedwhenturbidriverwaterflowsinto bodies of standing water such as lakes or oceans.If the bulk density of the turbid river water (sedimentplus interstitial fluid) is higher than that of the receiv-ing body of water, the river outflow will plunge, trav-elling along the bed as a hyperpycnal flow (or plume)beneath the ambient water. Such sediment-ladenunderflows may mix with the ambient water andtransport sediment oceanward as particulate gravitycurrents. Although sometimes these river-derivedflows are of high concentration (e.g., the YellowRiver hyperpycnal plume), mostly they are dilute.Direct formation of subaqueous gravity currents inthis way is, however, the exception rather than therule. More commonly, the bulk density of the turbidriver outflow is less than that of the ocean, and turbidsurface plumes are generated. Nevertheless, particu-lategravityflowscanalsoformfromsurfaceplumesif material settling out collects near the bed at highenough concentrations to begin moving. A similareffect results from flow generated by glacial plumeswhere the sediment is slowly released into the waterbody.Where the interstitial fluid in a hyperpycnal plumeis of lower density than that of the ambient fluid, as isthe case when freshwater rivers flow into brackish orfully saline bodies of water, ongoing sedimentationmay induce buoyancy reversal. Thus, the gravity cur-rent will loft, in a manner similar to some subaerialpyroclastic densityflows,and the flow willessentiallycease to travel forwards, resulting in the developmentof abrupt deposit margins.
Sediment Resuspension
Loose sediment on the seafloor can be resuspended if bed shear stress is high enough. This can occur duringstorms or during passage of flows caused by densitydifferences as a result of temperature or salinity. Theresulting suspended sediment concentrations can behigh enough to allow the mixtures to flow under theinfluence of gravity. As in the case of river-derivedflows, resuspension usually generates initially dilutecurrents.
Slope Failure
Flows of much higher concentration may form as aresult of slope failure. Sediment on submarine slopescan become unstable as a result of slope oversteepen-ing during ongoing sedimentation, and during sea-level falls, as a result of high inherited pore fluidpressures and gas hydrate exsolution. Slope failurecan alternatively be triggered by externally appliedstresses, due to earthquakes, or as a result of loadinginduced by internal waves in the water column above(which chiefly occur in oceans). Initially, the failingmass becomes unstable along a plane of instabilityand a whole segment of the slope starts moving.Retrogressive failure and/or breaching can continue,adding material following the initial loss of stability.The concentration of this mass is at packing densitybut can become more dilute as flow continues.
Terrestrial Input
Not all subaqueous gravity flows need originateunder water. Landslides, pyroclastic flows, and aeo-lian sediment transport originating on land can enter
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Particle-Driven Subaqueous Gravity Processes
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lakes or oceans and continue flowing underwater if the rates of mass flux are sufficiently high.
Grain Transport Mechanisms
Matrix Strength and Particle-Particle Interactions
Within dense flows, grains can be prevented fromsettling as a result of matrix strength (
Figure 1
).This strength may arise if some or all of the particlesare cohesive. The resulting cohesive matrix preventsboth cohesive and non-cohesive particles from set-tling out. In addition, particles can be supported bymatrix strength within flows of non-cohesive grains if the particles are in semi-permanent contact, as is thecase for flows whose densities are close to that of static, loose-packed sediment. For slightly lower con-centrations, inter-particle collisions will help keepparticles in suspension.
Hindered Settling and Buoyancy
Settling of particles can be slowed down bywater displaced upwards by other settling particles(
Figure 1
). Such hindered settling is especially effect-ive in dense mixtures with a range of grain sizes sothat the smaller particles are slowed down by settlingof the larger particles. The presence of smaller par-ticles also increases the effective density of the fluidthat the particles are settling in and thus enhancesthe buoyancy of the suspended particles and reducessettling rates.
Turbulence
The motion of sediment-laden flows can generateturbulence through shear at the bed, internally inthe flow or at the top of a dense layer. The turbulentbursts generated at the bed tend to have an asym-metrical vertical velocity structure, with slowerdownward sweeps and more rapid upward bursts.This turbulence pattern counteracts the downwardssettling of particles, moving them higher up in theflow (
Figure 1
). Turbulence generation is hinderedand dissipation increased, however, if the particleconcentration is high, or if the flow is very cohesiveor highly stratified.
Flow Types
Broadly speaking, flows can be divided into threemain types, depending on density:
Dense, Relatively Undeformed Flows, Creeps,Slides and Slumps
Flows of this type essentially have the same density asthe pre-failure material. In each case the sedimentmoves as one large coherent mass, but with varyingamounts of internal deformation. Grains remain incontact during flow and thus matrix strength is themain sediment transport mechanism. Such flows willstop moving or shear stress becomes too low to over-comefriction,atwhichpointtheentiremasscomestorest. Flow thickness and deposit thickness are essen-tially the same, although flows may thicken via in-ternal thrusting or ductile deformation as theydecelerate prior to arrest. Slope creep caused by grav-ity moves beds slowly downslope with gentle internaldeformation of the original depositional structure.Slides undergo little or no pervasive internal deform-ation, while slumps undergo partial deformation butthe original internal structure is still recognisable inseparate blocks. Thicknesses of slides and slumpsrange from several tens of metres to 1–2km andtravel distances can be up to about 100km, withdisplaced volumes of up to 10
12
m
3
, although mostflows are considerably smaller.
Dense, Deformed Flows: Rockfalls, Grain flows,Debris Flows and Mudflows
In flows of this type, sediment still moves as onecoherent mass, but concentrations can be lower andthe mass is generally well mixed, with little or nopreservation of remnant structure from the originalfailed material. Sediment support mechanisms arematrix strength, buoyancy, hindered settling, andgrain-grain collisions. Rheologically such flowsare plastic (i.e., they have a yield strength). Clasttypes generally range from purely cohesive in mud-flows,tocohesiveand/ornon-cohesiveindebrisflows(
Figure 2
) and purely non-cohesive for grain flowsand rockfalls (where movement is by freefall on verysteep slopes). These types of flow are formed as a
Figure 1
Schematic illustrationof theprincipalgraintransportmechanisms, shownin decreasingorderofconcentration fromlefttoright.
2
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Particle-Driven Subaqueous Gravity Processes
 
result of rapid internal deformation following slopefailure, from high concentration river input or fromreconcentration of dilute flows (described below).Flow and deposit thicknesses can be up to severaltens of metres with travel distances of several hun-dreds of kilometres. Erosion can add material to theflow and thus extend both travel distances and size of deposit
–
neither of which, therefore, necessarilyrelate to the initial flow mass. Motion will stop oncefriction is too high and flows will generally deposit
en masse
. Debris flows may develop a rigid plug of material at the top of the flow, where the appliedstress falls below the yield strength. Such flowsmove along a basal zone of deformation, and mayprogressively
‘
freeze
’
fromthetopdownwards,ultim-ately coming to rest when the freezing interfacereaches the substrate.
(Partly) Dilute Flows: Turbidity Currents
In flows of this type, the sediment does not move asone coherent mass (
Figure 3
). These flows are gener-allydilutealthoughpartsoftheseflowscanbeofhighconcentration, especially near the bed. In the diluteparts of these flows, sediment is transported in eitherlaminar or turbulent suspension. In higher concen-tration areas additional sediment transport mechan-isms, such as grain-grain interactions, hinderedsettling, and buoyancy effects may also play a role.Rheologically, the dense parts of such flows canbehave plastically, but the dilute parts are Newton-ian. Concentrations in turbidity currents range fromonlyafewkgm
3
toconcentrationsapproachingthoseof static, loose-packed sediment. The dilute parts of these flows are commonly strongly vertically density-stratified. Turbidity currents can be formed via dilu-tion of debris flows (see below), directly from riverinput or from resuspension of sediment.Turbidity current thicknesses can be up to severalhundreds of metres and can increase during flow dueto turbulent entrainment of ambient water. Velocitiescan be up to tens of ms, but more commonly arearound 1ms or less. Larger flows, such as the well-documented Grand Banks event of 1929, may traveldistances of a few thousand kilometres, even onnearly flat slopes, although distances of tens to hun-dreds of kilometres are more common. Sedimenteroded during flow can add to the driving force andwill increase flow duration and travel distance. Flowswillgraduallyslowdownassedimentsettlesout,withcoarse material being deposited proximally and finematerial distally. Deposit thicknesses generally aresignificantly smaller than flow thickness and are onthe order of cm to dm, but can be up to multi-metrescale for large flows. However, ongoing sedimenta-tionfromflowsoflongdurationcanresultindepositswhose thickness relates principally to flow longevityrather than flow thickness. Consequently, it is ge-nerally more difficult to interpret flow propertiesfromanalysisofturbiditycurrentdeposits(turbidites)than it is for the denser flow types.
Flow Transformations
Transformations of one flow type into another arecommon. Initially-dense slide masses may be dis-rupted due to internal shear, liquefaction, and disag-gregation on various scales. If this deformation issufficiently vigorous all the original structure of thefailed material will be lost and the slides transformedinto debris flows. In turn, these can transform intoturbidity currents by erosion of sediment from thefront and top of the dense mass due to ambient fluidshear (
Figure 2
), by disaggregation and dilution, andbydepositionofsediment,dilutingtheflow.Turbiditycurrents can be transformed into debris flows if theyreconcentrate, for example when mud-rich flowsslow down. Further transformation into slides isnot possible once the original internal structure isbroken up.The extent of transformation depends on flow size,velocity, and sediment content. Variable degrees of 
Figure 2
A laboratory debris flow from right to left. Note: adilute turbidity current has been generated on the upper surfaceof the debris flow due to erosion of material by fluid shear. (AfterMohrig
et al 
. (1998)
GSA Bulletin 
110: 387–394.)
Figure 3
A laboratory turbidity current flow from right to left.Fieldofviewis55cmwide.(AfterMcCaffrey
etal 
.(2003)
Marineand Petroleum Geology 
20: 851–860, with permission from Elsevier.)
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