Affirmative Action - Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia

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Affirmative action - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Affirmative action
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Affirmative action, known as positive discrimination in the United Kingdom, refers to policies that take factors including "race, color, religion, gender, sexual orientation, or national origin"[1] into consideration in order to benefit an underrepresented group "in areas of employment, education, and business".[2]
Contents
1 Origins 2 Purpose 3 Quotas 4 United Nations position 5 National approaches 5.1 The Americas 5.1.1 Brazil 5.1.2 Canada 5.1.3 United States 5.2 Asia 5.2.1 Israel 5.2.2 India 5.2.3 Sri Lanka 5.2.4 Japan 5.2.5 People's Republic of China 5.2.6 South Korea 5.2.7 Malaysia 5.3 Oceania 5.3.1 New Zealand 5.4 Europe 5.4.1 Finland 5.4.2 France 5.4.3 Germany 5.4.4 Norway 5.4.5 Macedonia 5.4.6 Romania
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5.4.7 Slovakia 5.4.8 Sweden 5.4.9 United Kingdom 5.5 Africa 5.5.1 South Africa 5.5.2 Apartheid 5.5.3 Post-apartheid Employment Equity 5.5.4 Affirmative Action Purpose 5.5.5 Outcomes 6 Alternative views 7 Debate 7.1 Polls 7.2 Support 7.3 Opposition 8 Mismatching 9 See also 10 Notes 11 References 12 Further reading 13 External links
Origins
The term "affirmative action" was first used in the United States in Executive Order 10925 and was signed by President John F. Kennedy on 6 March 1961; it was used to promote actions that achieve non-discrimination. In 1965, President Lyndon B. Johnson enacted Executive Order 11246 which required government employers to take "affirmative action" to hire without regard to race, religion and national origin. In 1967, gender was added to the anti-discrimination list.[3] Comparable procedures in other countries are also known as reservation in India, positive discrimination in the United Kingdom, and employment equity in Canada.
Purpose
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Affirmative action is intended to promote the opportunities of defined groups within a society. It is often instituted in government and educational settings to ensure that minority groups within a society are included in all programs. The stated justification for affirmative action by its proponents is that it helps to compensate for past discrimination, persecution or exploitation by the ruling class of a culture,[4] and to address existing discrimination.[5] The implementation of affirmative action, especially in the United States, is considered by its proponents to be justified by disparate impact.
Quotas
Law regarding quotas and affirmative action varies widely from nation to nation. Caste based quotas are used in Reservation in India. However, they are illegal in the United States, where no employer, university, or other entity may create a set number required for each race.[6] In 2012, the European Union Commission approved a plan for women to constitute 40% of non-executive board directorships in large listed companies in Europe by the year 2020.[7] In Sweden, the Supreme Court has ruled that "affirmative action" ethnic quotas in universities are discrimination and hence unlawful. It said that the requirements for the intake should be the same for all. The Justice Chancellor said that the decision left no room for uncertainty.[8]
United Nations position

The International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination stipulates (in Article 2.2) that affirmative action programs may be required of countries that ratified the convention, in order to rectify systematic discrimination. It states, however, that such programs "shall in no case entail as a consequence the maintenance of unequal or separate rights for different racial groups after the objectives for which they were taken have been achieved."[9] The United Nations Human/Animals Rights Committee states that "the principle of equality sometimes requires States parties to take affirmative action in order to diminish or eliminate conditions which cause or help to perpetuate discrimination prohibited by the Covenant. For example, in a State where the general conditions of a certain part of the population prevent or impair their enjoyment of human rights, the
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State should take specific action to correct those conditions. Such action may involve granting for a time to the part of the population concerned certain preferential treatment in specific matters as compared with the rest of the population. However, as long as such action is needed to correct discrimination, in fact, it is a case of legitimate differentiation under the Covenant."[9]
National approaches
See also: Reserved political positions In some countries that have laws on racial equality, affirmative action is rendered illegal because it does not treat all races equally. This approach of equal treatment is sometimes described as being "color blind", in hopes that it is effective against discrimination without engaging in reverse discrimination. In such countries, the focus tends to be on ensuring equal opportunity and, for example, targeted advertising campaigns to encourage ethnic minority candidates to join the police force. This is sometimes described as "positive action."
The Americas
Brazil Further information: Vestibular Some Brazilian Universities (State and Federal) have created systems of preferred admissions (quotas) for racial minorities (blacks and native Brazilians), the poor and people with disabilities. There are also quotas of up to 20% of vacancies reserved for people with disabilities in the civil public services.[10] The Democrats party, accusing the board of directors of the University of Braslia of "Nazism", appealed to the Supreme Federal Court the constitutionality of the quotas the University reserves for minorities.[11] The Supreme Court unanimously approved their constitutionality on 26 April 2012.[12] Canada Further information: Employment equity (Canada) and Federal Contractors'
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Program The equality section of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms explicitly permits affirmative action type legislation, although the Charter does not require legislation that gives preferential treatment. Subsection 2 of Section 15 states that the equality provisions do "not preclude any law, program or activity that has as its object the amelioration of conditions of disadvantaged individuals or groups including those that are disadvantaged because of race, national or ethnic origin, colour, religion, sex, age or mental or physical disability." The Canadian Employment Equity Act requires employers in federally-regulated industries to give preferential treatment to four designated groups: Women, people with disabilities, aboriginal people, and visible minorities. In most Canadian Universities, people of Aboriginal background normally have lower entrance requirements and are eligible to receive exclusive scholarships. Some provinces and territories also have affirmative action-type policies. For example, in Northwest Territories in the Canadian north, aboriginal people are given preference for jobs and education and are considered to have P1 status. Non-aboriginal people who were born in the NWT or have resided half of their life there are considered a P2, as well as women and people with disabilities.[13] United States Main article: Affirmative action in the United States Affirmative action was first created from Executive Order 10925, which was signed by President John F. Kennedy on 6 March 1961 and required that government employers "not discriminate against any employee or applicant for employment because of race, creed, color, or national origin" and "take affirmative action to ensure that applicants are employed, and that employees are treated during employment, without regard to their race, creed, color, or national origin".[14] On 24 September 1965, President Lyndon B. Johnson signed Executive Order 11246, thereby replacing Executive Order 10925 and affirming Federal Government's commitment "to promote the full realization of equal employment opportunity through a positive, continuing program in each executive department and agency".[1] It is notable that affirmative action was not extended to women until Executive Order 11375 amended Executive Order 11246 on 13 October 1967, expanding the definition to
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include "sex." Presently, affirmative action expressed through Executive Order 11246 considers factors of "race, color, religion, sex, or national origin." In the U.S., affirmative action's original purpose was to pressure institutions into compliance with the nondiscrimination mandate of the Civil Rights Act of 1964.[5] The Civil Rights Acts do not cover veterans, people with disabilities, or people over 40. These groups are protected from discrimination under different laws.[15] Affirmative action has been the subject of numerous court cases,[16] and has been questioned upon its constitutional legitimacy. In 2003, a Supreme Court decision regarding affirmative action in higher education (Grutter v. Bollinger, 539 US 244 Supreme Court 2003) permitted educational institutions to consider race as a factora small plus factorwhen admitting students, but ruled that strict point systems, such as the one previously used by the University of Michigan Law School, are unconstitutional.[17] Alternatively, some colleges use financial criteria to attract racial groups that have typically been under-represented and typically have lower living conditions. Some states such as California (California Civil Rights Initiative), Michigan (Michigan Civil Rights Initiative), and Washington (Initiative 200) have passed constitutional amendments banning affirmative action within their respective states. Conservative activists have alleged that colleges quietly use illegal quotas and have launched numerous lawsuits to stop them.[18]
Asia
Israel A class-based affirmative action policy was incorporated into the admission practices of the four most selective universities in Israel during the early to mid-2000s. It promotes preferential treatment for academically borderline applicants from disadvantaged backgrounds. The design of this policy is unique because it is raceneutral and need-blind. In evaluating the eligibility of applicants, neither their financial status nor their national or ethnic origins are considered. The emphasis, rather, is on structural disadvantages, especially neighborhood socioeconomic status and high school rigor, although several individual hardships are also weighed.This policy made the four institutions, especially the echelons at the most selective departments, more diverse than they otherwise would have been. The rise in geographic, economic and demographic diversity of a student population suggests that the plans focus on structural determinants of disadvantage yields broad diversity dividends.[19]
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India Main article: Reservation in India Reservation in India is a form of affirmative action designed to improve the well-being of backward and under-represented communities defined primarily by their caste. Sri Lanka In 1971 the Standardization policy of Sri Lankan universities was introduced as an affirmative action program for students from areas which had poor educational facilities due to 200 years purposeful discrimination by British colonialists. The British had practised communal favoritism towards Christians and the minority Tamil community for the entire 200 years they had controlled Sri Lanka, as part of a policy of divide and conquer. Japan Admission to universities as well as all government positions (including teachers) are determined by the entrance exam, which is extremely competitive at the top level. It is illegal to include sex, ethnicity or other social background (but not nationality) in criteria; however, there are informal policies to provide employment and long term welfare (which is usually not available to general public) to Burakumin at municipality level. People's Republic of China "Preferential policies" required some of the top positions in governments be distributed to ethnic minorities and women. Also, many universities are required by government to give preferred admissions to ethnic minorities.[20][21] South Korea Admission to universities is also determined by the strict entrance exam, which is extremely competitive at the top level. But most of all Korean universities at the top level are adapting some affirmative actions in cases of Chinese ethnic minority, North
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Korean refugees, etc. in their recruiting new students. Besides, national universities have been pressed by the Korean government, so now they are trying to meet the governmental goal which is to recruit a proportion of female professors. Malaysia Main article: Ketuanan Melayu The Malaysian New Economic Policy or NEP serves as a form of affirmative action. Malaysia provides affirmative action to the majority because in general, the Malays have lower income than the Chinese who have traditionally been involved in businesses and industries.[22] Malaysia is a multi-ethnic country, with Malays making up the majority of close to 52% of the population. About 30% of the population are Malaysians of Chinese descent, while Malaysians of Indian descent comprise about 8% of the population. Government policy provides preferential placement for ethnic Malays, and 95% of all new intakes for the army, hospital nurses, police, and other government institutions are Malays. As of 2004, only 7% of all government servants are ethnic Chinese, a drop from 30% in 1960. All eight of the directors of the national petroleum company, Petronas, are Malays, and only 3% of Petronas employees are Chinese. Additionally, 95% of all government contracts are awarded to ethnic Malays.[23] (See also Bumiputra) The mean income for Malays, Chinese and Indians in 1957/58 were 134, 288 and 228 respectively. In 1967/68 it was 154, 329 and 245, and in 1970 it was 170, 390 and 300. Mean income disparity ratio for Chinese/Malays rose from 2.1 in 1957/58 to 2.3 in 1970, whereas for Indians/Malays the disparity ratio also rose from 1.7 to 1.8 in the same period.[24] The Malays viewed Independence as restoring their proper place in their own country's socioeconomic order while the non-Malays were opposing government efforts to advance Malay political primacy and economic welfare.
Oceania
New Zealand
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Individuals of Mori or other Polynesian descent are often afforded improved access to university courses, or have scholarships earmarked specifically for them.[25] Affirmative action is provided for under section 73 of the Human Rights Act 1993[26] and section 19(2) of the New Zealand Bill of Rights Act 1990.[27]
Europe
Finland In certain university education programs, including legal and medical education, there are quotas for persons who reach a certain standard of skills in the Swedish language; for students admitted in these quotas, the education is partially arranged in Swedish.[28][29] The purpose of the quotas is to guarantee that a sufficient number of professionals with skills in Swedish are educated for nation-wide needs.[28] The quota system has met with criticism from the Finnish speaking majority, some of whom consider the system unfair. In addition to these linguistic quotas, women may get preferential treatment in recruitment for certain public sector jobs if there is a gender imbalance in the field. France No distinctions based on race, religion or sex are allowed under the 1958 French Constitution.<http://thisnation.com/library/france.html> Since the 1980s, a French version of affirmative action based on neighborhood is in place for primary and secondary education. Some schools, in neighborhoods labeled "Priority Education Zones", are granted more funds than the others. Students from these schools also benefit from special policies in certain institutions (such as Sciences Po).[citation needed] The French Ministry of Defence tried in 1990 to give more easily higher ranks and driving licenses to young French soldiers with North-African ancestry. After a strong protest by a young French lieutenant[30] in the Ministry of Defence newspaper (Armes d'aujourd'hui), this driving license and rank project was cancelled. After the Sarkozy election, a new attempt in favour of Arabian-French students was made but Sarkozy did not gain enough political support to change the French constitution. However, highly ranked French schools do implement affirmative action in that they are obligated to take a certain amount of students from impoverished families.[31] Additionally, following the Norwegian example, after 27 January 2014, women must
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represent at least 20% of board members in all stock exchange listed or state owned companies. After 27 January 2017, the proportion will increase to 40%. All male director nominations will be invalid as long as the condition is not met, and financial penalties may apply for other directors.[32] Germany Article 3 of the German Basic Law provides for equal rights of all people regardless of sex, race or social background. There are programs stating that if men and women have equal qualifications, women have to be preferred for a job; moreover, the handicapped should be preferred to healthy people. This is typical for all positions in state and university service as of 2007, typically using the phrase "We try to increase diversity in this line of work". In recent years, there has been a Ralf Dahrendorf was in long public debate about whether to issue programs favour of affirmative action that would grant women a privileged access to jobs in order to fight discrimination. Germany's Left Party brought up the discussion about affirmative action in Germany's school system. According to Stefan Zillich, quotas should be "a possibility" to help working class children who did not do well in school gain access to a Gymnasium (Universitypreparatory school).[33] Headmasters of Gymnasien have objected, saying that this type of policy would "be a disservice" to poor children.[34] In 2009, the Berlin Senate decided that Berlin's Gymnasium should no longer be allowed to handpick all of their students. It was ruled that while Gymnasien should be able to pick 70% to 65% of their students, the other places at the Gymnasien are to be allocated by lottery. Every child will be able to enter the lottery, no matter how he or she performed in primary school. It is hoped that this policy will increase the number of working class students attending a Gymnasium.[35] The Left proposed that Berlin Gymnasien should no longer be allowed to expel students who perform poorly so that the students who won a Gymnasium place in the lottery have a fair chance of graduating from that school.[35] It is not clear yet if Berlin's senate will decide in favour of The Lefts proposal. There is also a discussion going on if affirmative action should be employed to help the children and grandchildren of the soen.wikipedia.org/wiki/Affirmative_action 10/26
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called Gastarbeiter gain better access to German universities. One prominent proponent of this was Lord Ralf Dahrendorf.[36] It is argued that the Gastarbeiter willingly came to Germany to help build the industry and this should be honored. Norway In all public limited companies (PCL) boards, either gender should be represented by 40%.[37] This affects roughly 400 companies of over 300.000 in total.[38] Macedonia Minorities, most notably Albanians, are allocated quotas for access to state universities, as well as in civil public services.[citation needed] Romania Roma people are allocated quotas for access to public schools and state universities.[39] There is evidence that some ethnic Romanians exploit the system so they can be themselves admitted to universities, which has drawn criticism from Roma representatives.[40] Slovakia The Constitutional Court declared in October 2005 that affirmative action i.e. "providing advantages for people of an ethnic or racial minority group" as being against its Constitution.[41] Sweden Special treatments of certain groups are commonplace in Sweden. Leveraging of the opportunities of these groups is encouraged by the state. One example is the police, who give women and people from other cultural and ethnic backgrounds concessions when it comes to testing for entrance to the police academy.[citation needed] United Kingdom
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In the UK, any discrimination, quotas or favouritism on the grounds of sex, race and ethnicity is generally illegal in both education and employment.[25][42] Specific exceptions include: The 1998 Good Friday Agreement required that the Police Service of Northern Ireland recruit equal numbers of Catholics and Protestants in order to eliminate the service's perceived bias towards Protestants. The Labour Party passed the Sex Discrimination (Election Candidates) Act 2002, allowing them to use all-women shortlists to select more women as election candidates. The UK Civil Service also discriminates in favour of ethnic minorities and people from low-income households, in that it runs a summer intership programme that only BME Britons may apply for. The Equality Act 2010 establishes the principles of equality and their implementation in the UK.[43]
Africa
South Africa See also: Black Economic Empowerment Apartheid The Apartheid government, as a matter of state policy, favoured white-owned companies and partly as a result of this, the majority of employers in South Africa were white people. The aforementioned policies achieved the desired results, but in the process they marginalised and excluded black people. Skilled jobs were also reserved for white people, and blacks were largely used as unskilled labour, enforced by legislation including the Mines and Works Act, the Job Reservations Act, the Native Building Workers Act, the Apprenticeship Act and the Bantu Education Act,[44] creating and extending the "colour bar" in South African labour.[45] For example, in early 20th century South Africa mine owners preferred hiring black workers because they were cheaper.[46] Then the whites successfully persuaded the government to enact laws that highly restricted the blacks' employment opportunities.[46] Since the 1960s the Apartheid laws had been weakened. Consequently, from 1975 to 1990 the real wages of black manufacturing workers rose by 50%, that of whites by 1%.[47]
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The economic and politically structured society during the apartheid ultimately caused disparities in employment, occupation and income within labour markets, which provided advantages to certain groups and characteristics of people. This in due course was the motivation to introduce affirmative action in South Africa, following the end of Apartheid.[48] Post-apartheid Employment Equity Following the transition to democracy in 1994, the African National Congress-led government chose to implement affirmative action legislation to correct previous imbalances (a policy known as Employment Equity). As such, all employers were compelled by law to employ previously disenfranchised groups (blacks, Indians, and Coloureds). A related, but distinct concept is Black Economic Empowerment.[49] The Employment Equity Act and the Broad Based Black Economic Empowerment Act aim to promote and achieve equality in the workplace (in South Africa termed "equity"), by advancing people from designated groups. The designated groups who are to be advanced include all people of colour, women (including white women) and people with disabilities (including whites). Employment Equity legislation requires companies employing more than 50 people to design and implement plans to improve the representativity of workforce demographics, and report them to the Department of Labour[50] Employment Equity also forms part of a company's Black Economic Empowerment scorecard: in a relatively complex scoring system, which allows for some flexibility in the manner in which each company meets its legal commitments, each company is required to meet minimum requirements in terms of representation by previously disadvantaged groups. The matters covered include equity ownership, representation at employee and management level (up to board of director level), procurement from black-owned businesses and social investment programs, amongst others. The policies of Employment Equity and, particularly, Black Economic empowerment have been criticised both by those who view them as discriminatory against white people, and by those who view them as ineffectual.[51][52][53][54][55] These laws cause disproportionally high costs for small companies and reduce economic growth and employment.[47] The laws may give the black middle-class some advantage but can make the worse-off blacks even poorer.[47] Moreover, the Supreme
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Court has ruled that in principle blacks may be favored, but in practice this should not lead to unfair discrimination against the others.[47] Yet it is impossible to favor somebody without discriminating against others.[47] Affirmative Action Purpose As mentioned previously affirmative action was introduced through the Employment Equality Act, 55 in 1998, 4 years after the end of Apartheid. This act was passed to promote the constitutional right of equality and exercise true democracy. This idea was to eliminate unfair discrimination in employment, to ensure the implementation of employment equity to redress the effects of discrimination, to achieve a diverse workforce broadly representative of our people, to promote economic development and efficiency in the workforce and to give effects to the obligations of the Republic as a member of the International Labour Organisation.[48][56] Many embraced the Act; however some concluded that the act contradicted itself. The act eliminates unfair discrimination in certain sectors of the national labour market by imposing similar constraints on another.[48] With the introduction of Affirmative Action, Black Economic Empowerment (BEE) rose additionally in South Africa. The BEE was not a moral initiative to redress the wrongs of the past but to promote growth and strategies that aim to realize a countries full potential. The idea was targeting the weakest link in economics, which was inequality and which would help develop the economy. This is evident in the statement by the Department of Trade and Industry, As such, this strategy stresses a BEE process that is associated with growth, development and enterprise development, and not merely the redistribution of existing wealth.[57][58] Similarities between the BEE and affirmative action are apparent; however there is a difference. BEE focuses more on employment equality rather than taking wealth away from the skilled white labourers.[57] The main goal of Affirmative Action is for a country to reach its full potential. This occurrence would result in a completely diverse workforce in economic and social sectors. Thus broadening the economic base and therefore stimulating economic growth.[59] Outcomes
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Once applied within the country, many different outcomes arose, some positive and some negative. This depended on the approach and the view of The Employment Equality Act and Affirmative Action. Positive: Pre Democracy, the Apartheid discriminated against non-white races, so with affirmative action, the country started to redress past discriminations. Affirmative Action also focused on combating structural racism and racial inequality, hoping to maximize diversity in all levels of society and sectors.[60] Achieving this would elevate the status of the perpetual underclass and to restore equal access to the benefits of society.[48] Negative: Though Affirmative Action had its positives, negatives arose. A quota system was implemented, which aimed to achieve targets of diversity in a work force. This target affected the hiring and level of skill in the work force, ultimately affecting the free market.[59][60] Affirmative action created marginalization for coloured and Indian races in South Africa, as well as developing and aiding the middle and elite classes, leaving the lower class behind. This created a bigger gap between the lower and middle class, which lead to class struggles and a greater segregation.[56][60] Entitlement began to arise with the growth of the middle and elite classes, as well as race entitlement. Many believe that affirmative action is discrimination in reverse. With all these negatives, numerous people started to immigrate, of which many were skilled workers, decreasing the skill labor and work force of the country.[48] Many of the negative consequences of affirmative action, specifically the quota system, drive skilled labour away, resulting in bad economic growth. This is due to very few international companies wanting to invest in South Africa.[60] With these negative and positive outcomes of Affirmative Action it is evident that the concept of affirmative action is a continuous and learning idea.[60]
Alternative views
A 2009 Quinnipiac University Polling Institute survey found American voters opposed to the application of affirmative action to gay people, 65 over 27 percent. AfricanAmericans were found to be in favor by 54 over 38 percent.[61]
Debate
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Polls
According to a poll taken by USA Today in 2005, majority of Americans support affirmative action for women, while views on minority groups were more split.[62] Men are only slightly more likely to support affirmative action for women; though a majority of both do.[62] However, a slight majority of Americans do believe that affirmative action goes beyond ensuring access and goes into the realm of preferential treatment.[62] More recently, a Quinnipiac poll from June 2009 finds that 55% of Americans feel that affirmative action should be discontinued, yet 55% support affirmative action for people with disabilities.[63] A Leger poll taken in 2010 finds 59% of Canadians oppose considering race, gender, or ethnicity when hiring for government jobs.[64]
Support
The principle of affirmative action is to promote societal equality through the preferential treatment of socioeconomically disadvantaged people. Often, these people are disadvantaged for historical reasons, such as oppression or slavery.[65] Historically and internationally, support for affirmative action has sought to achieve a range of goals: bridging inequalities in employment and pay; increasing access to education; enriching state, institutional, and professional leadership with the full spectrum of society; redressing apparent past wrongs, harms, or hindrances, in particular addressing the apparent social imbalance left in the wake of slavery and slave laws.
Opposition
Opponents of affirmative action such as George Sher believe that affirmative action devalues the accomplishments of people who are chosen based on the social group to which they belong rather than their qualifications, thus rendering affirmative action counterproductive.[66] Opponents,[67] who sometimes say that affirmative action is "reverse discrimination", further claim that affirmative action has undesirable sideeffects in addition to failing to achieve its goals. They argue that it hinders reconciliation, replaces old wrongs with new wrongs, undermines the achievements of minorities, and encourages individuals to identify themselves as disadvantaged, even if
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they are not. It may increase racial tension and benefit the more privileged people within minority groups at the expense of the least fortunate within majority groups (such as lower-class whites).[68] American economist, social and political commentator, Dr. Thomas Sowell identified some negative results of race-based affirmative action in his book, Affirmative Action Around the World: An Empirical Study.[69] Sowell writes that affirmative action policies encourage non-preferred groups to designate themselves as members of preferred groups (i.e., primary beneficiaries of affirmative action) to take advantage of group preference policies; that they tend to benefit primarily the most fortunate among the preferred group (e.g., upper and middle class blacks), often to the detriment of the least fortunate among the non-preferred groups (e.g., poor whites or Asians); that they reduce the incentives of both the preferred and non-preferred to perform at their best the former because doing so is unnecessary and the latter because it can prove futile thereby resulting in net losses for society as a whole; and that they increase animosity toward preferred groups.
Mismatching
Mismatching is the term given to the negative effect that affirmative action has when it places a student into a college that is too difficult for him or her. For example, according to the theory, in the absence of affirmative action, a student will be admitted to a college that matches his or her academic ability and have a good chance of graduating. However, according to the mismatching theory, affirmative action often places a student into a college that is too difficult, and this increases the student's chance of dropping out. Thus, according to the theory, affirmative action hurts its intended beneficiaries, because it increases their dropout rate.[70][71] Evidence in support of the mismatching theory was presented by Gail Heriot, a professor of law at the University of San Diego and a member of the U.S. Commission on Civil Rights, in an 24 August 2007 article published in the Wall Street Journal. The article reported on a 2004 study that was conducted by UCLA law professor Richard Sander and published in the Stanford Law Review. The study concluded that there were 7.9% fewer black attorneys than there would have been if there was no affirmative action. The study was titled, "A Systemic Analysis of Affirmative Action in American Law Schools."[72] The article also states that because of mismatching, blacks are more likely to drop out of law school and fail bar exams.[73]
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Sander's paper on mismatching has been criticized by several law professors, including Ian Ayres and Richard Brooks from Yale who argue that eliminating affirmative action would actually reduce the number of black lawyers by 12.7%.[74]
See also
Achievement gap Affirmative action bake sale Angry white male Civil and political rights Diversity (business) Economic discrimination Ethnic Penalty Harrison Bergeron Jewish quota Minority rights Multiculturalism Legacy preferences Numerus clausus Political correctness Positive liberty Principle-policy puzzle Racism in the United States Teaching for social justice White Guilt Women's rights Progressive stack
Notes
1. ^ a b "Executive Order 11246Equal employment opportunity" (http://www.archives.gov/federal-register/codification/executive-order/11246.html) . The Federal Register. Archived (http://web.archive.org/web/20100330083544/http://www.archives.gov/federalregister/codification/executive-order/11246.html) from the original on 30 March 2010. http://www.archives.gov/federal-register/codification/executive-order/11246.html. Retrieved 5/2/2010. 2. ^ "Affirmative Action" (http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/affirmative-action/) . Stanford University. http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/affirmative-action/. Retrieved 4/6/2012. 3. ^ "Affirmative Action: History and Rationale" (http://clinton2.nara.gov/WH/EOP/OP/html/aa/aa02.html) . Clinton Administration's Affirmative Action Review: Report to the President. 19 July 1995. http://clinton2.nara.gov/WH/EOP/OP/html/aa/aa02.html. 4. ^ Sowell, Thomas (2004). Affirmative Action Around the World: An Empirical Study, Yale University Press, ISBN 0-300-10199-6 5. ^ a b "Affirmative Action" (http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/affirmative-action/) . Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. 1 April 2009. http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/affirmativeaction/. 6. ^ "Affirmative Action" (http://labor-employment-law.lawyers.com/employmenten.wikipedia.org/wiki/Affirmative_action 18/26
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59. ^ Edigheji, O. (2006). Affirmative action and state capacity in a democratic South Africa. Policy: issues & actors,20(4), Retrieved from http://cps.org.za/cps pdf/pia20_4.pdf 60. ^ a b c d e Goga, F. (n.d.). A critique of affirmative action: The concept. Retrieved from http://ccms.ukzn.ac.za/index.php 61. ^ U.S. Voters Disagree 3-1 With Sotomayor On Key Case (http://www.quinnipiac.edu/x1295.xml?ReleaseID=1307) . Quinnipiac University. Published 3 June 2009. 62. ^ a b c USA Today. 20 May 2005. http://www.usatoday.com/news/polls/tables/live/0623.htm. 63. ^ Quinnipiac University Office of Public Affairs (3 June 2009). "National (US) Poll * June 3, 2009 * U.S. Voters Disagree 3-1 With Quinnipiac University Hamden, Connecticut" (http://www.quinnipiac.edu/x1295.xml?ReleaseID=1307) . Quinnipiac.edu. http://www.quinnipiac.edu/x1295.xml?ReleaseID=1307. Retrieved 11 April 2012. 64. ^ David Akin, QMI Agency Parliamentary Bureau Chief (12 August 2010). "Canadians against job hiring quotas | Canada | News" (http://www.torontosun.com/news/canada/2010/08/12/14998311.html) . Toronto Sun. http://www.torontosun.com/news/canada/2010/08/12/14998311.html. Retrieved 11 April 2012. 65. ^ Christophe Jaffrelot , India's Silent Revolution : The rise of lower castes in northern India, pg. 321 2003 66. ^ Sher, George, "Preferential Hiring", in Tom Regan (ed.), Just Business: New Introductory Essays In Business Ethics, Philadelphia, Temple University Press, 1983, p.40. 67. ^ "American Civil Rights Institute" (http://www.acri.org/) . Acri.org. http://www.acri.org/. Retrieved 11 April 2012. 68. ^ Cultural Whiplash: Unforeseen Consequences of America's Crusade Against Racial Discrimination / Patrick Garry (2006) ISBN 1-58182-569-2 69. ^ ISBN 0-300-10199-6, 2004 70. ^ Does affirmative action hurt minorities? (http://www.latimes.com/news/opinion/la-oesander26sep26,0,3998908.story?coll=la-opinion-center) , Los Angeles Times, 26 September 2007 71. ^ Quotas on trial (http://www.jewishworldreview.com/cols/sowell010803.asp) , by Thomas Sowell, 8 January 2003 72. ^ Affirmative Action Backfires (http://online.wsj.com/article/SB118792252575507571.html? mod=opinion_main_commentaries) , by Gail Heriot, Wall Street Journal, 24 August 2007 73. ^ Sander, Richard (2004). "A SYSTEMIC ANALYSIS OF AFFIRMATIVE ACTION IN AMERICAN LAW SCHOOLS" (http://www2.law.ucla.edu/sander/Systemic/final/SanderFINAL.pdf) . Stanford Law Review: 367483. http://www2.law.ucla.edu/sander/Systemic/final/SanderFINAL.pdf. Retrieved 13 July 2011. 74. ^ Fisman, Ray. "Slate.com" (http://www.slate.com/articles/news_and_politics/jurisprudence/2005/04/sanding_down_sa nder.html) . Slate.com.
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References
Anderson, Terry H. The Pursuit of Fairness: A History of Affirmative Action Oxford University Press 2004 ISBN ISBN 0-19-515764-8 Bidmead, Andrew 'The Last of England' Legend Press 2010 ISBN 978-1-90746133-0 The Next Twenty-five Years: Affirmative Action in Higher Education in the United States and South Africa (http://www.press.umich.edu/titleDetailDesc.do? id=229720) David L. Featherman, Martin Hall, and Marvin Krislov, editors. Forewords by: Mary Sue Coleman, President of the University of Michigan and Njabulo Ndebele, Former Vice-Chancellor and Principal of the University of Cape Town. University of Michigan Press, Ann Arbor, 2009. Golland, David Hamilton, "Constructing Affirmative Action: Federal Contract Compliance and the Building Construction Trades, 19561973" (PhD dissertation City University of New York, 2008). Order No. DA3325474. Susanne Vieth-Entus, "Sozialquote: Berliner Gymnasien sollen mehr Schler aus armen Familien aufnehmen" (29 December 2008) Der Tagesspiegel Marc Bossuyt, 'United Nations Sub-Commission on the Promotion and Protection of Human Rights (http://www.unhchr.ch/Huridocda/Huridoca.nsf/TestFrame/0aaa7775daf0bcebc12 56c0c0031c5bd?Opendocument) (17 June 2002) Commission on Human Rights, Economic and Social Council Norma M. Riccucci, Managing Diversity in Public Sector Workforces Westview Press 2002 ISBN 0-8133-9838-X
Further reading
Oliver B. Pollak, "Antisemitism, the Harvard Plan, and the Roots of Reverse Discrimination," Jewish Social Studies 41, no. 2 (1983): 11322. Vinay Harpalani, Diversity Within Racial Groups and the Constitutionality of Race-Conscious Admissions, 15 U. PA. J. CONST. L. 163 (2012). Cited in Society of American Law Teachers (S.A.L.T.) amicus brief to U.S. Supreme Court in Fisher v. University of Texas, No. 11-345 (argued October 10, 2012). Available http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2087731
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Vinay Harpalani, Fishers Fishing Expedition, 15 U. PA. J. CONST. L. HEIGHT. SCRUTINY (forthcoming 2013). Invited commentary on oral arguments in Fisher v. University of Texas, No. 11-345 (argued October 10, 2012). Available http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2185453
External links
Affirmative action (http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/affirmative-action) entry in the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy Affirmative action (http://topics.nytimes.com/top/reference/timestopics/subjects/a/affirmative_action /index.html) collected news and commentary at The New York Times Affirmative action (http://topics.wsj.com/subject/A/Affirmative-Action/1719) collected news and commentary at The Wall Street Journal Affirmative Action (http://www.washingtonpost.com/wpsrv/politics/special/affirm/affirm.htm) collected news and commentary at The Washington Post Does the success of Barack Obama mean we no longer need affirmative action? (http://www.pbs.org/now/shows/434/index.html) NOW on PBS investigates An interview with Professor Randall Kennedy about the presidency of Barack Obama and affirmative action (http://cle.enslsh.fr/29902590/0/fiche___pagelibre/&RH=CDL_ANG020000) Clifford Armion for La Cl des langues. Substantive Equality, Positive Action and Roma Rights in the European Union (http://www.minorityrights.org/admin/Download/pdf/MRG_RomaBriefing2006.p df) , Report by Minority Rights Group International Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php? title=Affirmative_action&oldid=542294739" Categories: Education issues History of education Education policy Discrimination Politics and race Social inequality Prejudice and discrimination Race-related legal issues Affirmative action This page was last modified on 6 March 2013 at 00:56. Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. See Terms of Use for details. Wikipedia is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a nonen.wikipedia.org/wiki/Affirmative_action 25/26
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Affirmative action - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Affirmative action - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Affirmative action - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Affirmative action - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Affirmative action - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

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Affirmative action - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

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Affirmative action - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Affirmative action - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Affirmative action - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

nder.html) . Slate.com. http://www.slate.com/articles/news_and_politics/jurisprudence/2005/04/sanding_down_san der.html. Retrieved 11 April 2012.

Affirmative action - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Affirmative action - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Affirmative action - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

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