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Introduction:
Linear measurement applies to measurement of lengths, heights, diameters and thickness including external and internal measurement. The instruments used for linear measurements can be classified as: (i) Direct measuring instruments (ii) Indirect measuring instruments
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The direct measuring instruments are of two types: (a) Graduated instruments: - The graduated instruments include rules, vernier callipers, vernier height gauges, vernier depth gauges, micrometers, dial indicators etc. (b) Non graduated instruments: - The non- graduated instruments include callipers, surface gauges, wire gauges, slip gauges etc.
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They can also be classified as: (a) Non-precision instruments such as steel rule, callipers etc. (b) Precision instruments such as venier instruments, micrometers, dial gauges etc.
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Material: It is stainless steel. made from steel or
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ACCURACY: Reading accuracy of steel rule is 0.5mm in metric system. SIZE OF STEEL RULE: Steel rule are available
in different length .The common size being 150mm,300mm,600mm. The steel rule graduated in 10mm,5mm,1mm,0.5mm.
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MEASURING WITH A STEEL RULE: The figure given below shows the method of using a try square and steel rule for accurate measurement. For accurate readings, it is necessary to read vertically and avoid errors arising out of parallax.
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IMPORTANT SAFETY: - For maintaining the accuracy of a steel rule ,it is important to see to it that its edges and surfaces are protected from damage and rust. - Do not place a steel rule with any cutting tools. Apply a thin layer of oil when not in use.
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CALIPERS
Caliper are simple measuring instruments used to transfer measurement from a steel rule to objects, and vice versa. Calipers are of different types depending on the type of the joint and the shape of the leg .
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TYPES OF CAPILERS
(1) FIRM JOINT CALIPER:
In the case of firm joint calipers ,both legs are pivoted at one end. To take measurement of a workpiece ,the caliper is opened roughly to the required size. Fine setting is done by tapping the caliper lightly on a wooden surface.
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(2) SPRING JOINT CALIPER:
For this type of calipers, the legs are assembled by means of a pivot loaded with a spring. For opening and closing the caliper legs, a screw and nut are provided. Spring joint calipers have the advantage of quick setting. The setting made will not change un less the nut is turned. The size of a caliper is specified by its length ,which is the distance between the pivot centre and the tip of the leg.
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VERNIER CALIPER
A vernier caliper is a precision measuring instrument. It is used to measure up to an accuracy of 0.02 mm. MATIRIAL: It is made from nickel chromium steel. USE: Vernier caliper is use to measure outside, inside, depth of the size.
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Important Note:
Never use a vernier caliper for any purpose other than measuring. Vernier calipers should be used only to measure machined or filed surfaces. They should never be mixed with any other tools. Clean the instrument after use, and store it in a box.
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In the vernier caliper shown in fig the main scale division (9mm) are divided in to 10 equal parts in the vernier scale.
i.e. one main scale division = 1mm (MSD) one vernier scale division = 9/10 mm (VSD) Least count = 1 - 9/10 = 1 / 10 mm = 0.1mm The difference between one MSD and one VSD = 0.1mm
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= 0.01 cm
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EXAMPLE OF READING
Main scale reading = 35mm The vernier division coinciding with the main scale is the 20th division. Value = 20 0.02=0.20mm. Total reading = main scale reading + L.C. number of division exactly coincides with a division of main scale Total reading = 35mm + 0.02 20 = 35.20mm
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EXAMPLE OF READING
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EXAMPLE OF READING
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Vernier Height Gauge is used for accurate measurements and marking of vertical heights above a surface plate datum. It can also be used to measure differences in heights by taking the vernier scale readings at each height and determining the difference HDV by substraction.
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Example Of Reading
Inch Reading
Refer to the left side bar graduations and the inch vernier plate. Inches are numbered in sequence over the full range of the bar. Every second graduation between the inch lines is numbered and equals .100". Each bar graduation is .050". The vernier plate is divided into 50 parts, each representing .001". Every fifth line is numbered - 5, 10, 15 . . . 45, 50 - for easy counting.
To read the gage, first count how many inches and how many .050" lines lie between the zero line on the bar and the zero line on the vernier plate and add them.
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Then count the number of graduations on the vernier plate from its zero line that coincides with a line on the bar. Multiply the number of vernier plate graduations you counted by .001" and add this figure to the number of inches and .050" lines you counted on the bar. This is your total reading. Example: In the photo, the vernier plate zero line is five inches (5.000") plus .750" beyond the zero line on the bar, or 5.750". The 25th graduation on the vernier plate coincides with a line on the bar (as indicated by stars). 25 x .001 (.025") is therefore added to the 5.750" bar reading, and the total reading is 5.775".
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Millimeter Reading
Refer to the right side bar graduations and millimeter vernier plate. Each bar graduation is 1.00 mm. Every tenth graduation is numbered in sequence - 10 mm, 20 mm, 30 mm, etc. - over the full range of the bar. This provides for direct reading in millimeters. The vernier plate is divided into 50 parts, each representing 0.02 mm. Every fifth line is numbered in sequence - 0.10 mm, 0.20 mm, 0.30 . . . 0.80 mm, 0.90 mm providing for direct reading in hundredths of a millimeter. To read the gage, first count how many millimeters lie between the zero line on the bar and the zero line on the vernier HDV plate.
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Then find the graduation on the vernier plate that coincides with a line on the bar and note its value in hundredths of a millimeter. Add the vernier plate reading in hundredths of a millimeter to the number of millimeters you counted on the bar. This is your total reading. Example In the photo, the vernier plate zero line is 146 millimeters beyond the zero line on the bar, and the 0.68 mm graduation on the vernier plate coincides with a line on the bar (as indicated by stars). 0.68 millimeters is therefore added to the 146 millimeter bar reading, and the total reading is 146.68 millimeters.
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Its construction and method of reading are similar to those of a vernier caliper.
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IMPORTANT NOTE
REMOVE BURRS, IF ANY, BEFORE TAKING MEASUREMENTS. EXCESSIVE PRESSURE ON THE BEAM, WHILE TAKING MEASUREMENTS WILL LIFT THE BASE FROM THE REFERENCE SURFACE AND WILL SHOW WRONG MEASUREMENTS.
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MICROMETER
A micro meter is a precision instrument used to measure a job, generally within an accuracy of 0.01mm.
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Lock Nut
Spindle
Flame
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(4) Lock Nut: A Lock nut is provided on the micrometer spindle to lock it when the micrometer is at its correct reading. (5) Sleeve or Barrel: The sleeve is accurately divided and clearly marked in 0.5 mm division along its length which serves as a main scale. It is chrome plated.
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WOKING PRINCIPLE:
The micrometer works on the principle of screw and nut .The longitudinal movement of the spindle during one rotation is equal to the pitch of the screw. The movement of the spindle to the distance of the pitch or its fractions can be accurately measured on the barrel and thimble.
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If the zero mark on the sleeve does not coincide with zero on the thimble there is an zero error. Then use the adjusting spanner to correct the error with slight rotation of the barrel. A small hole in the barrel is provided for this purpose.
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READING OF MICROMETER
Reading = Linear scale reading + (number of division on thimble exactly coincides with a liner scale x Least count) Read the value of the visible line on the left of the thimble edge. See below fig. i.e. main div.= 13.00 sub div.=0.5 mm so, total =13.50mm. Next read the thimble graduations in line with the barrel datum line, 13th div. So, Reading = 13.50 + (13 * 0.01) = 13.63 mm
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Example:
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Solution:
Reading = Linear scale reading + (number of division on thimble exactly coincides with a liner scale x Least count) = 2.5 mm + (46 x 0.01) = 2.96 mm
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4. Hold the part whose dimension is to be measured and micrometer properly. Then turn the thimble with forefinger and thumb till the measuring tip just touches the part and find adjustment should be made by ratchet so that uniform measuring pressure is applied. 5. While measuring dimensions of circular parts, the micrometer must be moved carefully over representative arc so as to note max. dimension only.
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Applying to much pressure on the thimble or not using ratchet. Wear of the anvil surfaces threads on spindle, due to constant or incorrect use. Wear of ratchet stop mechanism, locking arrangement etc.
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DEPTH MICROMETER
Depth micrometer as the name indicates is used for measuring the depth of holes, slots and recessed areas.
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CONSTRUCTION
The depth micrometer consists of a stock on which a graduated sleeve is fitted. The other end of the sleeve is threaded with a 0.5 mm pitch v thread.
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A thimble which is internally threaded to the same pitch and from, mates with the threaded sleeve and slides over it. The other end of the thimble cap is fitted.
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A set of extension rod is generally supplied. On each of them the range of sizes that can be measured with that rod, is engraved as 0-25,2550,50-75,75-100,100125,125-150. This extension rod can be inserted in side the spindle and the sleeve. The extension rods have a collar-head which HDVhelps the road to be held firmly.
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The measuring faces of the stock and the rods are hardened, tempered and ground. The measuring face of the stock is perfectly machined flat. The extension rods may be removed and replaced according to the size depth to be HDVof measured.
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GRADUATION
On the sleeve a datum line is marked for a length of 25 mm.this is divided into 25 equal part and graduated,each line representing one millimeter.
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Each Fifth line is drawn a little longer and numbered. Each line representing 1mm is further subdivided into two equal part. Hence each sub-division represents 0.5 mm. The graduation are numbered in the reverse direction to that marked on an outside micrometer.
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The zero graduation of the sleeve is on the top and the 25mm graduation near the stock. The bevel edge of the thimble is also graduated. The circumference is equally divided into 50 equal parts and every 5th division line is drawn a little longer and numbered. The numbering is in the reverse direction and increases from 0, 5, 10, HDV15, 25, 30, 35, 40, 45 and 50 (0).
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GRADUATION
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Digital Micrometer
More accurate and precise micrometer which can take measurement with 0.001 mm accuracy without any calculation.
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VERNIER MICROMETER
The Vernier principle may also be applied to an outside micrometer, increasing its accuracy. It gives reading with an accuracy of 0.001mm. The vernier scale is engraved on the micrometer barrel.
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There are 10 divisions on vernier scale, and these are equal to 9 divisions on the thimble. Hence one division on the vernier scale is equal to 1/10 * 9 = 9/10 that of the thimble. But one division on the thimble is equal to 0.01 mm. Therefore one division on vernier scale = 9/10 * 0.01 = 0.009 mm.
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The least count according to principle of vernier will be, value of smallest division on thimble value of smallest division on vernier scale = 0.01 0.009 = 0.001 mm.
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INSIDE MICROMETER
The inside micrometer is used for measuring inside dimensions, such as pump casing wearing rings, cylinders, bearings, and bushings. Inside micrometers usually come in a set that includes a micrometer head, various length spindles (or extension rods) that are interchangeable, and a spacing collar that is 0.500 inch in length.
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The spindles (or extension rods) usually graduate in1inch increments of range; for example, 1 to 2 inches, 2 to 3 inches.
When the 1 to 2 inch spindle is used, and the sleeve and thimble scales are set to 0.00 inch, the distance between the face of the anvil and the face of the spindle is exactly 1.00 inch.
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Depth Micrometer
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TELESCOPIC GAUGE
The Telescopic gauge is used for measuring internal diameter, slots and grooves etc. It consists of a handle with two rods in a tube at one end and a Locking screw at the other end. The rods having Spherical contacts can slide within a tube and are forced apart by an internal spring.
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The locking screw can lock the rods at any desired position through a spring. While taking measurements, the rods are pressed closer and inserted into the hole to be measured. The rods then open out to touch the metal surface of the hole on both sides.
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They are then locked in position by means of a locking screw. The telescopic gauge is then taken out from the hole. The dimensions across the tips is measured by micrometer or vernier callipers.
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With the movement spring steel arms are expanded and contracted. The outer faces of the end of the arms are of sphere shapes.
This instrument is inserted inside the hole and screw is rotated to expand the arms till the same touch the side faces of the hole. Now the instrument is taken out and distance between hemispherical ends are measured with micrometer or vernier caliper to know bore of the hole. 87
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Bore gauge
This indirect measuring is used to measure bore of deep hole. Upper end of the instrument is having dial and lower end is having measuring head. It contains an anvil on one side which works with spring action and anvil or spindle of required size on the side.
Measuring head is inserted inside the hole at required depth and position in such a manner that axis of the anvil remains perpendicular to axis of the hole.
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This instrument is generally used to measure bore diameter in range of 50-150mm. Least count 0.01 mm It is also known as Kelipart gauge.
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Error in Measurement
We cannot get product with 100% accuracy with any process. There always remain some difference with nominal value and measured value of any dimension. Errors are classified as : -
Gross Errors
The class of error mainly covers human mistake in reading instruments recording and calculating result.
Systematic Errors
There are divided as : Instrument Environmental Observational
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Such error are occurring due to some specific reasons and the can be know and controlled. Respected with each measurement.
Random Error
Such error occurs suddenly and their reasons well as amount can not ne know and hence very difficult to control. Such error are continuously. not occurring systematically and
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Dial Indicator
It is clock shape measuring instrument having circular or semi circular scale on dial and plunger. When plunger comes in contact with job movement is reflected by pointer on the dial. It is used to check minor difference in leaner measurement to set tool, Job, fixtures in alignment of machine, for sizes of finished product
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Contact Point: Contact point is provided to have contact with surface of the job to be measured. It is made out of hardness steel and it is replaced when its shape is distorted of worm out
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Tolerance Pointers Tolerance pointer are provided to have faster checking of the component. It is mainly used in statistical quality control. Tolerance pointers are adjusted as per maximum and minimum acceptable limits of the size so that defective parts cam be sorted out easily and speedily.
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Stem: It is a tube like part used to facilitate straight movement of plunger.
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Plunger: Plunger is having contact pointer at its end. It is used to transmit the movement of contact point up to the dial indicator through mechanism.
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Back Lug: It is used to set indicator on stand.
dial
Body: Circular shape body contains the mechanism and other parts.
and
lever
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Bezel is rotated to set pointer on zero. Over all magnification
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Type I Dial Gauge Type II Dial Gauge
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Advantages
Take Reading is easy. Semiskilled operator can also use it.
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Comparators
The general principle of comparator is to indicate the differences in size between the standard and the work being measured by means of some pointer on a scale with sufficient magnification. All comparators consist of three basic features 1)A sensing device which faithfully senses the input signal 2) A magnifying or amplifying system to increase the signal to suitable magnitude. Mechanical, Optical, Pneumatic, hydraulic and electronic methods are used for this purpose. 3) A display system (usually a scale and pointer) which utilizes the amplified signal to provide a suitable readout.
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Types of Comparators
Comparators can be classified as 1. Mechanical 2. Optical 3. Electrical &Electronic 4. Pneumatic 5. Fluid displacement comparators 6. Mechanical optical comparator 7. Electro-mechanical comparator 8. Multi-check comparator.
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Principal
Comparator work on principal of relative measurement. Master standard slip gauge is prepared equivalent to the basic size of the product. Now this standard is kept under the plunger of the comparator and zero reading is set. There after product is kept under the plunger one by one to know the difference in their size either on positive or negative side. Like this with comparator defective products can be segregated speedily in mass production.
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Mechanical Comparator
One vertical beam is kept in between two flat springs A. These flat spring are attached with fixed member K which is fixed with back plate. Shank B at the end of vertical beam provided to have contact with the job. 110
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Stock C controls upper and lower position. To transfers movement of the beam/plunger, without friction, up to the pointer Y arm E is adjusted on diamond bearing.
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Metallic ribbon F wound one turn on spindle G is attached with the ends of Y arm. Pointer H is kept on spindle G and moves on marked dial. Trigger J is provided for the safety of contact member. Required magnification is achieved by arrangement of Y arm.
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The vertical capacity of this comparator is 150 to 600 mm and magnification is 500 to 5000. Its least count is 0.25 micron.
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Application
In work shop under normal atmosphere. For faster inspection of component. To check the gauge and other parts. These are also used as laboratory standards. Comparators are used for inspecting newly purchased gauges
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Advantage
These are usually cheaper in comparison to other devices of amplifying. These do not require any external supply such as electricity or air and as such the variations in outside supplies do not affect the accuracy. Usually the mechanical comparators have linear scale which is easily understood. These are usually robust and compact and easy to handle. For ordinary workshop conditions, these are suitable and being portable can be issued from a store.
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Limitation
The mechanical comparators have got more moving parts than other types. Due to more moving parts, the friction is more and ultimately the accuracy is less. ii) Any slackness in moving parts reduces the accuracy considerably. iii) The mechanism has more inertia and this may cause the instruments to be sensitive to vibration. iv) The range of the instrument is limited as the pointer moves over a fixed scale. 117
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Electrical Comparator
These comparators depend for their operation on Wheatstone bridge circuit. In d.c. circuit, a change of balance of the electrical resistance in each arm of the bridge is caused by the displacement of an armature relative to the arm under the action of the measuring plunger.
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Once out of balance is caused in the bridge, it is measured by a galvanometer graduated to read in units of linear movement of plunger. This circuit is operated by battery. For the bridge to balance, the ratios of the resistances in two arms must be equal.
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Advantages
1)Small number of moving parts 2)High range of usage 3)Not sensitive to vibrations 4) As a A.C source is used for the working of comparator the cyclic vibration generated by A.C source reduces the sliding friction 5) Measuring unit can be made very small
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Disadvantages
1) Requires external power supply 2) Calibration may be altered due to heating elements used 3) Expensive
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Application
For external and internal gauging. To measure flatness, wall thickness of tube.
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Pneumatic Comparator
When air is passed with constant pressure between two orifices than air pressure at the gape of this two orifice depends on cross sectional area of two orifice. If cross sectional area of one orifice is kept constant than air pressure between two orifice will depend on cross sectional area of another orifice. 123
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Compressed air is gating expanded in deep tube keeping the head of water h constant. Excess air goes out in the form of bubbles. Thus air with constant pressure passes through control orifice and ultimately leaves out of measuring jet.
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Pressure of air at the space in between control orifice and measuring jet depends on the air gape between measuring jet and surface of the job. This gape depends upon size of the job.
Thus depending upon different sizes of the job this gape increases or decreases.
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This makes changes in the air pressure between control orifice and measuring jet and due to this changes liquid head in the manometer changes. And by this size of the job is known with calibrated scale.
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Advantages Disadvantages Accurate control is required for pressurized air. Measuring scale is not uniform. Application Measuring deep hole.
No Frication and accuracy can be maintained. Soft surface of the job can also be measured. Any dirt inside the job is getting removed. Higher magnification can be achieved. Higher L/D are measured.
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Optical Comparators
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Principal
In these comparators, use is made of a fundamental optical law and instead of a printer, the edge of the shadow is projected on to a curved graduated scale indicate the comparison measurement. If the mirror is tilted through an angle the reflected ray of light has moved through an angle 2 In optical comparators, the mirror is tilted by the measuring plunger movement and the movement of the reflected light is recorded as an image on a screen.
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In mechanical optical comparators, small displacement of the measuring plunger are amplified first by a mechanical system consisting of pivoted levers. The amplified mechanical movement is further amplified by a single optical system involving the projection of an image.
In this system, Mechanical amplification L2/L1 (by lever principal) and If the movement of the plunger causes the mirror to tilt by an angle , then the image will be tilted by 2. optical amplification = L4/L3 2
Overall magnification of this system = 2 L4/L3 L2/L1
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Application
To check the profile of smaller parts
i.e. gear tooth, Screw thread, cam, jig etc.
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Advantage Moving parts are less Disadvantages Cannot work in absence of electric Accuracy can be supply. maintained. Bulky construction High magnification. High cost Absence of sufficient Continuous reading cannot be taken lighting reading can be taken easily
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COMBINATION SET
Combination set is a set of equipment combining the functions of protractor, engineer square, steel rule, Centre finder, level rule, and scriber.
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(2) Centre head: used to locate centers of round work pieces. (3) Protractor Head: used to set the rule at a desired angle to an edge of a work piece. Also used for measuring angles.
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Slip gauges
Slip gauges or gauge blocks are universally accepted end standard of length in industry. They are precision-round square or rectangular blocks are made of steel, chrome, or tungsten carbide.
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Purpose of wringing
In this way air is expelled out from between the gauge faces causing gauge faces to adhere. The gap between two wrung slips is only of the order 0.635 X 10-3 mm. The success of precision measurement by slip gauges depends on the phenomenon of wringing.
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- For second decimal place of 0.05, select 1.05mm slip gauge. Therefore the reminder = 28.55 1.05 = 27.5 mm. - Now select 7.5 mm and 20 mm of slip gauges. - Thus, we have 20 + 7.5 + 1.05 +1.008 = 29.558 mm. - Always begin wringing with the largest sizes first.
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