Effects of Transitory Emergency Response on Sustainability of Water Systems
Bilal Javed and Saeed Akhtar1
ABSTRACT
October 8, 2005 earthquake was a major calamity affecting the northern regions of Pakistandisturbing the social system generally and drinking water supply systems specifically. Inresponse several organizations of national and international backgrounds intervened theaffected areas contributing in different areas including water supply systems. The current study assessed over eight hundred (800) water supply systems in NorthernPakistan. The water system were either rehabilitated or re-established during the humanitarianresponse in the study area. New sources were developed succeeding the known principle of build back better in emergencies. Source displacement in case of spring sources due tovariation in tectonic plates left behind the only alternative for the intervening agencies; thesurface water source. Sources were developed on surface water (nearly 60% of the newdeveloped sources). The newly developed sources within a limited duration of six years areshowing the signs of decay (More than 95% of the sources). The interventions on transitorybasis fulfilled drinking water needs but will be a major setback in achievement of MDGs for safedrinking water for the area. The findings from the study suggest that the emergency responseshould only focus on life saving activities, while disregarding the long term planning areas of emergency stricken areas. Responding to issues requiring long term planning andcomprehensive actions during the emergency response stage with projects of shorter durationcan lead to long term problems for the concerned government line agencies that at a later stagerequire even a greater rehabilitation and recovery effort.
Key words:
drinking water supplies, sustainability, source protection, Pakistan
1 Introduction
October 8, 2005 earthquake was a major catastrophe the South Asian region faced in recentyears. The calamity disturbed the entire social setup of the affected areas in Pakistan,Independent State of Jammu and Kashmir and Indian occupied Kashmir. Affected districts inKhyber Pakhtunkhawa (KP) of Pakistan displayed the most alarming statistics regarding life andinfrastructure damages.In response to the catastrophe government and non-government agencies from national andinternational backgrounds involved in the quake affected districts practicing lifesaving activitiesinitially and infrastructure development measures in later days. The overall estimated water supply coverage before the earthquake was 50 % of the totalpopulation of 500,000 households in five Districts of KP damaged by the earthquake, coveringabout 250,000 households (including 180,000 households with house to house connections). Asa result of the earthquake an estimated 77,500 households had only partial or no water supply. The figure does not include the 250,000 households that did not have a water source within areasonable limit of their house (500 meters) even before the earthquake. Overall damage to the763 large schemes (average 300 households per scheme) operated by the Water andSanitation Department, includes 220 that were partially damaged (minor to major repair). Out of the 3,323 small community or TMA operated schemes (hand pumps and small gravity schemes– average 20 households per scheme) 1,234 were partially damaged while 2,089 wereoperational. The overall estimated cost of these damages to both Public Health EngineeringDepartment (PHED) and community schemes was Rs. 482 million (
Government of Pakistan,Ministry of Economic Affairs and Statistics, 2006
).
Effects of Transitory Emergency Response on Sustainability of Water SystemsBilal Javed and Saeed AkhtarSession:
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1.1 Rehabilitation focusing Source Development
The quake affected drinking water systems were rehabilitated with a rapid pace following theprinciple of
build back better
in emergencies, by numerous humanitarian agencies mostlywithout coordinating the government line agencies and service providers. Out of numerouschallenges faced by the rehabilitating agencies in rehabilitating the existing systems was sourcedisplacement, especially in case of spring sources due to variations in the tectonic plates. Theexisting sources either dried out or their discharge was trimmed down to a significant level. Mostof the affected areas were located on hilly terrains and were dependent on gravity basedsystems mostly based on spring sources (85% of the 800 water supply systems) beforeearthquake. Meager idea of location of alternate water sources and shorter project duration inmost left no choice for the agencies working to rehabilitate the systems but to look for alternatesources. Sources were rapidly identified and developed with a considerable number of schemesdependent on surface water.Agencies intervening in Water and Sanitation sector utilized multiple designs to re-develop orre-habilitate the existing sources for the water supply systems. Structures like cutoff walls,retaining walls and spring boxes were developed on the source points.Due to swift pace of work in adversity and short duration of recovery period along with somevery good engineering practices some cases of unsafe and unimproved source developmentalso occurred. Unsafe source development could be defined as
“applying improper engineering structure either complete or partial for a specific source type”
.Improper engineering at some of the sites distributed the water sources into two broadcategories improved and unimproved sources.
1.1.1 Improved Vs. Unimproved Sources
Improved sources could be defined as the
“sources serving a water supply system with a proper engineering structure on the source point designed as per the site and beneficiary requirement”
.Unimproved sources lacked either one or all of a proper engineering structure, i.e. appropriatedesign, size and implementation site.
2 Methodology
The study was carried out using standard formats formulated in line with World HealthOrganization’s standards (WHO, 2011) to assess the condition of source points of drinkingwater supply systems. Since the completeness of the evaluation required access to a variety of information and that too from different aspects, (such as technical information, informationbased on observations and inspections etc.) a mixed method approach, consisting of quantitative and qualitative data collection tools, was employed as explained:
2.1 Sample Size
A total of eight hundred (800) water supply systems in three earthquake affected districts wereselected for the study using stratified random selection procedure representing both new andrehabilitated water supply systems. The sample distribution of villages by district for the study ispresented in the Table 1 below.
Table 1: Distribution of Sample Schemes for the Study by District S. District Tehsil Number of Water Supply
Effects of Transitory Emergency Response on Sustainability of Water SystemsBilal Javed and Saeed AkhtarSession:
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No. Systems
1 MansehraMansehra 175Oghi 98F. R. Kala Dhaka 132 BattagramBattagram 41Allai 1263 Abbottabad Abbottabad 109
Total 800
2.2 Participatory Technical Assessment and Sanitary InspectionSurvey
A participatory survey at source point by the technical team and the beneficiaries of therespectively water supply systems was conducted following pre-designed questionnaires. Thequestionnaire assessed the following key indicators at source point;i. Location of the Source Pointii. Functional Status of Sourceiii. Source Development Measuresiv. Source Protection Measures
2.3 Sanitary Inspection Survey
Sanitary Inspection Survey was conducted to identify the potential risk of contamination to watersource. All the potential risks are quantified to evaluate the sanitary risk level. A comprehensivechecklist in line with WHO Sanitary Inspection Protocols was used during the sanitary inspectionof the water systems (WHO, 2011). The survey analyzed the following parameters;i. Source development measuresii. Source protection measuresiii. Potential environmental threats to water qualityiv. Possible measures to reduce the potential threats to water quality
2.4 Water Sampling and Analysis
Water sampling from the source points on the basis of WHO recommended standard methodswas carried out for all sample water sources. Water quality of the selected schemes was testedto identify the potential risk of contamination and the physiochemical and microbiological statusof drinking water.A sample of water is said to be microbiologically contaminated when it is polluted by FaecalColiform bacteria. The principal standard indicator for Fecal Coliform is
Escherichia coli
(
E.Coli
).
Escherichia Coli
(
E. Coli
) was tested using the Oxfam-DelAgua Water Testing Kit, whichhas been developed by scientists at the University of Surrey in collaboration with colleagues atOxfam. Besides microbiological parameters the physiochemical parameters of drinking waterare also of paramount importance to analyze the quality of source water. The study used thefollowing key parameters to analyze microbiological and physicochemical quality of the sourcewater;i. Microbiological quality and those parameters that control microbiological quality(disinfectant residuals, pH and turbidity)i. Parameters which cause rejection of water (these include turbidity, taste, color and odorof water)
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