Human Growth and Development Theories

The term growth and development

both refers to dynamic process. Often
used interchangeably, these terms have
different meanings. Growth and
development are interdependent,
interrelated process. Growth generally
takes place during the first 20 years of
life.; development continues after that.

Growth:

1. Is physical change and increase in size.

2. It can be measured quantitatively.
3. Indicators of growth includes height, weight, bone
size, and dentition.
4. Growth rates vary during different stages of growth
and development.
5. The growth rate is rapid during the prenatal,
neonatal, infancy and adolescent stages and slows
during childhood.
6. Physical growth is minimal during adulthood.

Development:

1. Is an increase in the complexity of function and skill

progression.
2. It is the capacity and skill of a person to adapt to the
environment.
3. Development is the behavioral aspect of growth.

THEORIES:

THEORIES:

1. Freud’s Psychosexual Development Theory

STAGE AGE CHARACTERISTICS

1. Oral Birth to 1½ y/o Center of pleasure: mouth (major source of gratification &
exploration)
 Primary need: Security

Major conflict: weaning

2. Anal 1½ to 3 y/o Source of pleasure: anus & bladder (sensual satisfaction &
self-control)

Major conflict: toilet training

3. Phallic 4 to 6 y/o Center of pleasure: child’s genital (masturbation)

Major conflict: Oedipus & Electra Complex

4. Latency 6 y/o to pubertyEnergy directed to physical & intellectual activities

Sexual impulses repressed

Relationship between peers of same sex

5. Genital Puberty Energy directed towards full sexual maturity & function &
onwards development of skills to cope with the environment

2. Erikson’s Stages of Psychosocial Development Theory

STAGE AGE CENTRAL (+) RESOLUTION (-) RESOLUTION

TASK
1. Infancy Birth-18 mos Trust vs Learn to trust others Mistrust, withdrawal,
Mistrust estrangement
2. Early 1½ to 3 y/o Autonomy vs Self control w/o loss Compulsive, self-
childhood Shame & doubt of self esteem restraint or
compliance.
Ability of cooperate
& express oneself Willfulness &
defiance.
3. Late 3 to 5 y/o Initiative vs Learns to become Lack of self-
childhood guilt assertive confidence.

Ability to evaluate Pessimism, fear of

one’s own behavior wrongdoing.

Over-control & over-

restriction.
4. School Age 6 to 12 y/o Industry vs Learns to create, Loss of hope, sense
Inferiority develop & of being mediocre.
manipulate.
Withdrawal from
Develop sense of school & peers.
competence &
perseverance.
5. 12–20 y/o Identity vs role Coherent sense of Feelings of
Adolescence confusion self. confusion,
indecisiveness, &
Plans to actualize possible anti-social
one’s abilities behavior.
6. Young 18-25 y/o Intimacy vs Intimate relationship Impersonal
Adulthood isolation with another person. relationships.

Commitment to work Avoidance of

and relationships. relationship, career
or lifestyle
commitments.
7. Adulthood 25-65 y/o Generativity vs Creativity, Self-indulgence, self-
stagnation productivity, concern concern, lack of
for others. interests &
commitments.
8. Maturity 65 y/o to Integrity vs Acceptance of worth Sense of loss,
death despair & uniqueness of one’s contempt for others.
own life.

Acceptance of death.

3. Havighurst’s Developmental Stage and Tasks

DEVELOPMENTAL DEVELOPMENTAL TASK

STAGE
1. Infancy & early childhood - eat solid foods

- walk

- talk

- control elimination of wastes

- relate emotionally to others

- distinguish right from wrong through development of a

conscience

- learn sex differences and sexual modesty

- achieve personal independence

- form simple concepts of social & physical reality

2. Middle childhood - learn physical skills, required for games
 - build healthy attitudes towards oneself

- learn to socialize with peers

- learn appropriate masculine or feminine role

- gain basic reading, writing & mathematical skills

- develop concepts necessary for everyday living

- formulate a conscience based on a value system

- achieve personal independence

- develop attitudes toward social groups & institutions

3. Adolescence - establish more mature relationships with same-age
individuals of both sexes

- achieve a masculine or feminine social role

- accept own body

- establish emotional independence from parents

- achieve assurance of economic independence

- prepare for an occupation

- prepare for marriage & establishment of a family

- acquire skills necessary to fulfill civic responsibilities

- develop a set of values that guides behavior

4. Early Adulthood - select a partner

- learn to live with a partner

- start a family

- manage a home

- establish self in a career/occupation

- assume civic responsibilities

 - become part of a social group
5. Middle Adulthood - fulfill civic & social responsibilities

- maintain an economic standard of living

- assist adolescent children to become responsible, happy

adults

- relate one’s partner

- adjust to physiological changes

- adjust to aging parents

6. Later Maturity - adjust to physiological changes & alterations in health
status

- adjust to retirement & altered income

- adjust to death of spouse

- develop affiliation with one’s age group

- meet civic & social responsibilities

- establish satisfactory living arrangements

4. Levinson’s Seasons of Adulthood

AGE SEASON CHARACTERISTICS

18-20 yrs Early adult transition Seeks independence by separating from family
21-27 yrs Entrance into the Experiments with different careers & lifestyles
adult world
28-32 yrs Transition Makes lifestyle adjustments
33-39 yrs Settling down Experiences greater stability
45-65 yrs Pay-off years Is self-directed & engages in self-evaluation

4. Sullivan’s Interpersonal Model of Personality Development

STAGE AGE DESCRIPTION

1. Infancy Birth to 1½ yrs Infant learns to rely on caregivers to meet needs &
desires
2. Childhood 1½ to 6 yrs Child begins learning to delay immediate
gratification of needs & desires
3. Juvenile 6 to 9 yrs Child forms fulfilling peer relationships
4. Preadolescence 9 to 12 yrs Child relates successfully to same-sex peers
5. Early Adolescence 12 to 14 yrs Adolescent learns to be independent & forms
relationships with members of opposite sex
6. Late Adolescence 14 to 21 yrs Person establishes an intimate, long-lasting
relationship with someone of the opposite sex

5. Piaget’s Phases of Cognitive Development

PHASE AGE DESCRIPTION

a. Sensorimotor Birth to 2 yrs Sensory organs & muscles become more
functional
Stage 1: Use of Birth to 1 Movements are primarily reflexive
reflexes month
Stage 2: Primary 1-4 months Perceptions center around one’s body.
circular reaction
Objects are perceived as extensions of the self.
Stage 3: Secondary 4-8 months Becomes aware of external environment.
circular reaction
Initiates acts to change the movement.
Stage 4: Coordination 8-12 months Differentiates goals and goal-directed activities.
of secondary schemata
Stage 5: Tertiary 12-18 months Experiments with methods to reach goals.
circular reaction
Develops rituals that become significant.
Stage 6: Invention of 18-24 months Uses mental imagery to understand the
new means environment.

Uses fantasy.
b. Pre-operational 2-7 years Emerging ability to think
Pre-conceptual stage 2-4 year Thinking tends to be egocentric.

Exhibits use of symbolism.

Intuitive stage 4-7 years Unable to break down a whole into separate parts.

Able to classify objects according to one trait.

c. Concrete 7-11 years Learns to reason about events in the here-and-
Operations now.
d. Formal Operations 11+ years Able to see relationships and to reason in the
abstract.

6. Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Development

LEVEL AND STAGE DESCRIPTION

LEVEL I: Pre-conventional Authority figures are obeyed.
(Birth to 9 years) Misbehavior is viewed in terms of damage done.
Stage 1: Punishment & obedience A deed is perceived as “wrong” if one is punished;
orientation the activity is “right” if one is not punished.
Stage 2: Instrumental-relativist
orientation
LEVEL II: Conventional
(9-13 years)
Stage 3: Interpersonal concordance
Stage 4: Law and order orientation
LEVEL III: Post-conventional
(13+ years)
Stage 5: Social contract orientation It is “wrong” to violate others’ rights.
Stage 6: Universal ethics
orientation
7. Gilligan’s Theory of Moral Development
LEVEL
I. Orientation of Individual Survival Concentrates on what is best for self.
Transition
Transition 1: From Selfishness to
Responsibility
II. Goodness as Self-sacrifice
Transition 2: From Goodness to
Truth
“Right” is defined as that which is acceptable to &
approved by the self.
When actions satisfy one’s needs, they are “right.”
Cordial interpersonal relationships are maintained.
Approval of others is sought through one’s actions.
Authority is respected.
Individual feels “duty bound” to maintain social
order.
Behavior is “right” when it conforms to the rules.
Individual understands the morality of having
democratically established laws.
The person understands the principles of human
rights & personal conscience.
Person believes that trust is basis for relationships.
CHARACTERISTICS
Selfish.
Dependent on others.
Recognizes connections to others.
Makes responsible choices in terms of self and
others.
Puts needs of others ahead of own.
Feels responsible for others.
Is dependent.
May use guilt to manipulate others when attempting
to “help.”
Decisions based on intentions & consequences, not
on others’ responses.
Considers needs of self and others.
 Wants to help others while being responsible to self.

Increased social participation.

III. Morality of Nonviolence Sees self and others as morally equal

Assumes responsibilities for own decisions.

Basic tenet to hurt no one including self.

Conflict between selfishness and selflessness.

Self-judgment is not dependent on others’

perceptions but rather on consequences & intentions
of actions.

8. Fowler’s Stages of Faith

STAGE AGE CHARACTERISTICS

Pre-stage: Infant Trust, hope and love compete with
Undifferentiated faith environmental inconsistencies or threats if
abandonment.
Stage 1: Intuitive- Toddler-preschooler Imitates parental behaviors and attitudes
projective faith about religion and spirituality.

Has no real understanding of spiritual

concepts.
Stage 2: Mythical- School-aged child Accepts existence of a deity.
literal faith
Religious & moral beliefs are symbolized by
stories.

Appreciates others’ viewpoints.

Accepts concept of reciprocal fairness.

Stage 3: Synthetic- Adolescent Questions values & religious beliefs in an
conventional faith attempt to form own identity.
Stage 4: Late adolescent & Assumes responsibility for own attitudes &
Individuative- young adult beliefs.
reflective faith
Stage 5: Conjunctive Adult Integrates other perspectives about faith into
faith own definition of truth.
Stage 6: Adult Makes concepts of love & justice tangible.
Universalizing faith