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Math 135 Business Calculus Spring 2009Class Notes
1.1 Limits: A Numerical and Graphical Approach
The limit of a function is the fundamental concept in calculus and is used to define the derivative of afunction, the subject of this first chapter. In this first section, we’ll introduce an intuitive definition of the limit of a function.Calculus is concerned with how function values, or outputs, change as the input changes. Supposewe have a function
y
=
f 
(
x
). Then
x
is the input and
y
the output. Suppose that, as the input
x
gets closer and closer to some fixed number
a
, the function values get closer and closer to some fixednumber
L
. The number
L
is called the
limit 
of 
f 
as
x
approaches
a
.
EXAMPLE
Consider the function defined by
f 
(
x
) =
x
2
+
x
−
2
x
−
1
.
First note that
f 
(
x
) is not defined at
x
= 1 since the denominator
x
−
1 equals 0 at
x
= 1. Eventhough the function is not defined at
x
= 1, we can still examine how the function behaves for
x
closeto
1. We can do this either
numerically 
by constructing a table of function values for values of 
x
closeto 1, or
graphically 
by looking at its graph near
x
= 1.
a)
Complete the following table of values
x
approaches 1 from left
−→
|
←−
x
approaches 1 from right
x
0 0
.
8 0
.
9 0
.
99 0
.
999 1 1.001 1.01 1.1 1.2 2
f 
(
x
)Based upon the table, what are the function values doing as
x
gets closer and closer to 1?
b)
Use the table of values to sketch the graph of the function close to 1. Based upon the graph, whatare the function values doing as
x
gets closer and closer to 1?
 –1 0 1 2 3
 x
1234
 y
1
 
2
Chapter 1
Di 
ff  
erentiation
In the above example, even though the function is not defined at
x
= 1,as
x
approaches 1 from either side, the function approaches 3.We use an arrow,
→
, to stand for the words “approaches.” So the above statement can be written:As
x
→
1,
f 
(
x
)
→
3
.
The number 3 is called the
limit 
of 
f 
(
x
) as
x
approaches 1 from either side and we writelim
x
→
1
f 
(
x
) = 3
.
DEFINITION OF LIMIT
As
x
approaches
a
, the
limit
of 
f 
(
x
) is
L
, writtenlim
x
→
a
f 
(
x
) =
L
provided that we can make the values of 
f 
(
x
) arbitrarily close to
L
(as close to
L
as we like) by taking
x
to be su
ffi
ciently close to
a
(on either side of 
a
) but not equal to
a
.The notation lim
x
→
a
f 
(
x
) indicates that
x
approaches
a
from both the left and the right. If we onlyallow
x
to approach
a
from the left or from the right, we can consider a
one-sided limit 
. We writelim
x
→
a
+
f 
(
x
) to indicate a limit from the rightandlim
x
→
a
−
f 
(
x
) to indicate a limit from the left
EXAMPLE
Consider the piecewise-defined function given by
H 
(
x
) =
Ω
2
x
+ 2 for
x <
12
x
−
4 for
x
≥
1Complete the following table of values and draw a graph of the function to find the limit lim
x
→
1
H 
(
x
), if it exists. If not, explain why the limit does not exist.
x
0 0
.
8 0
.
9 0
.
99 0
.
999 1 1.001 1.01 1.1 1.2 2
f 
(
x
)
 –
 
6
 
 –5
 
 –4
 
 –3
 
 –2
 
 –1 1 2 3 4 5 6
 x
 
 –6
 
 –5
 
 –4
 
 –3
 
 –2
 
 –1123456
 y
 
1.1
Limits: A Numerical and Graphical Approach
3
In the preceding example, the function
H 
(
x
) approaches di
ff 
erent values as
x
approaches 1 fromthe left and from the right. The limits from the left and from the right both exist but are not equal toone another. In order for the (two-sided) limit lim
x
→
a
f 
(
x
) to exist, both one-sided limits must exist andbe the same.
THEOREM: RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN ONE-SIDED AND TWO-SIDED LIMITS
The limit of 
f 
(
x
), as
x
approaches
a
, is
L
if and only if the limits from the left and the right bothexist and both equal
L
. That is,lim
x
→
a
f 
(
x
) =
L
if and only if lim
x
→
a
−
f 
(
x
) =
L
and lim
x
→
a
+
f 
(
x
) =
L.
In the first example in this section, the limit lim
x
→
1
f 
(
x
) exists even though the function
f 
(
x
) is notdefined at
x
= 1. In the second example, the left-hand limit lim
x
→
1
−
H 
(
x
) = 4 even though
H 
(1)
6
= 4.
THE LIMIT DOES NOT DEPEND UPON THE FUNCTION VALUE
The limit of a function as
x
approaches
a
only depends upon the function values close to
a
and not at
a
itself. This means that the limit at
a
does not depend 
upon
f 
(
a
) or even on whether that functionvalue exists.
EXAMPLE
Consider the piecewise-defined function given by
G
(
x
) =
Ω
5 for
x
= 2
x
−
1 for
x
6
= 2Graph the function and find each of the following limits, if they exist. If necessary state why the limitdoes not exist.
a)
lim
x
→
2
G
(
x
)
b)
lim
x
→−
3
G
(
x
)
–6
 
 –5
 
 –4
 
 –3
 
 –2
 
 –1 1 2 3 4 5 6
 x
 
 –6
 
 –5
 
 –4
 
 –3
 
 –2
 
 –1123456
 y
of 00

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