C H A P T E R
5
IN T E G R A L S
T he Idea of th e Integral
T h e p ro b le m
of s u m m a tio n is t o a d d u l+. .+ u n .I t is s o lv e di f w e fin d f 's s u c h t h a t u j=f j-f j- l.
T h e n
U I
+. . .+un e q u a ls fn- fo . T h e c a n c e lla tio n in(f l-fo )+ ( f a-f l ) +. . .+(f n- f n -1 )leaves only fn and -foe
Taking sum s is the reverse (or inverse) of taking differences.
The differences between 0,1 ,4 ,9 a r e u l , u z ,u 3=
l,S ,S . Forf j=j 2 the difference betw een
f l o
a n d
f 9
i s
u lo=1 9 .F ro m th is p a tte rn
1+3+5+.. + 1 9 e q u a ls1 0 0 .
F o r fu n c tio n s , fin d in g th e in te g ra l is th e re v e rse of fh d in gth e d e r iv a tiv e .If th e d e riv a tiv e off (x ) is u (x ),
then the in teg ral of u(x) is f (x).I fu (x )= 1 0 % th e nf (x )=5 x 2 . T h is is th e a r e a of a tria n g le w ith b a se x a n d
h e ig h t 1 0 2 .
Integrals begin w ith sum s.
T h e tria n g le u n d e r v=
103: o u t to x=
4 has area8 0 .
I t is a p p ro x im a te d b y
fo u r re c ta n g le s of h e ig h ts 1 0 , 2 0 , 3 0 , 4 0 a n d a re a1 0 0 . I t is b e tte r a p p ro x im a te d b y e ig h t re c ta n g le s of h e ig h ts
5 '1 0 ,. . . '4 0 a n d a re a9 0 . F o rn re c ta n g le s c o v e rin g th e tria n g le th e a re a is th e s u m of&( $
+
+
..+4 0 )=
8 0+g. A sn-+
oo
th is s u m s h o u ld a p p ro a c h th e n u m b e r8 0 . T h a t is th e in te g ra l of u=
1 0 % fro m
0t o/ .
1 1 ,3 ,7 ,1 5 ,1 2 7
J - ~ - '- '= '-
2
4
8
8
5 fj-f~ = -
7 3 ~ f0 r~ < 7 ,7 ~ -4 f0 r~ 2 1
g
l
r
,
,
11L ow erby2
lS U p ,d o w n ;re c ta n g le
1 5 d a -+ ;A
X
; %
; &
1 7 6 ; 1 8 ; tria n g le
1 9 1 8 re c ta n g le s
2 1 62-
x z- 1 0 ;6- x
2 3
2 5 x Z ;x 2 ; $ x 3
4 AnyC
can be added to f (x) because the d eriv ativ e of a constant is sero.
A nyC
can be added to fo,f l ,.
because the difference betw een f's is not changed.
rn -1
6fo =
'-'= O ;l+ r+ ...+ rn
=
fn =
-
r - 1
r - 1
i+l
8The f's are 0 '1 , -1'2,
-2 ,
-
.H ere u j=
(-l)j+ '
jor vj=
and fj={4
jo d d
{L
:ttn
je v e n
1 0 W ithin each quarter the sum over 13 w eeks is low er
-than the single value for the w hole G arter.
1 2 The last rectangle for the pessim ist has height4 ~ .
S in c e th e o p tim is t's la s t re c ta n g le of a r e a
a f i
=?is m issed, the to tal area is reduced by$ .
14 ~
h
;
o p tim is t's re c ta n g le s c o n ta in th e c u rv e . T h e p e s s im is t's re c ta n g le s lie u n d e r th e c u rv e .
1 6U n d e r th ef i c u rv e , th e first tria n g le h a s b a se1 , h e ig h t1 , a re ai . T o its rig h t is a re c ta n g le of a re a 3 .
A b o v e th e re c ta n g le is a tria n g le of b a s e 3 , h e ig h t1 ,areai . The total area$+ 3+
=5 is below th e curve.
1 8 T he total rectangular area is 21.
20 T he rectangles have area2tim e s 5 ,2 tim e s 3 , a n d 2 tim e s1 , a d d in g t o 1 8 . T h is is e x a c tly c o rre c t b e c a u s e
e a c h o v e re s tim a te is c o m p e n s a te d b y a n e q u a l u n d e re s tim a te .
2 2 T h e re g io n is a rig h t tria n g le w ith h e ig h t 6-x and base6 -x and area i(6 - x ) '.
T h is h a s d e riv a tiv e
x-6 ,w hich is -v(x)
(m inus sign because area decreases as x increases).
24 T he areas underf i and under x2 add to1 . T he sam e is true for the areas under x3 and x1I3.
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