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GE Inspection Technologies
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Seven exciting Special Pavilions give attendees new reasons to come to the Show:
Gas Products Oilfield and Pipeline
To participate in any of the pavilions or for more information, please contact our Welding Show Exhibit Sales office at: 1-800-443-9353, ext. 295 or 242.
Equipment Cutting and Grinding Products Brazing and Soldering Resistance Welding Laser Welding and Cutting Nondestructive Testing and Inspection
CONTENTS
26
Features
26 30
Departments
Washington Watchword..........4 Press Time News..................6 Editorial ............................8 News of the Industry ............10 Aluminum Q & A ................16 CyberNotes ......................18 New Products ....................20 Coming Events ..................44 Navy Joining Center ............52 Welding Workbook ..............54 Society News ....................55 Tech Topics ......................61 Standards Errata Guide to AWS Services ........70 New Literature ..................72
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Welding Research Supplement
319-S Physical and Welding Metallurgy of Gdenriched Austenitic Alloys for Spent Nuclear Fuel Applications Part II: Nickel-based Alloys
Personnel ........................74 Welding Journal Index..........76 Classifieds........................90 Advertiser Index ................92 Welding Consultants Directory ......................92
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Nickel-based, gadolinium-enriched alloys showed improved hot ductility and cracking resistance compared to Gd-enriched stainless steels J. N. DuPont et al.
330-S Numerical Simulation of Transient 3-D Surface Deformation of a Completely Penetrated GTA Weld
A transient numerical model was developed to investigate the dynamic behavior of a completely penetrated GTAW joint C. S. Wu et al.
Cover photo courtesy of Craig Bratt, Fraunhofer USA. The hybrid laser beam welding process combines the traditional GMAW process with laser beam processing.
WELDING JOURNAL
WASHINGTON WATCHWORD
BY HUGH K. WEBSTER AWS WASHINGTON GOVERNMENT AFFAIRS OFFICE ing of foreign highly skilled workers. This is the seventh time since 1997 that the H-1B cap was reached before the end of the fiscal year, but the first time that it was reached on the first day of the new year. Business groups have asked Congress to intervene by extending the 65,000 visa limit.
Contact the AWS Washington Government Affairs Office at 1747 Pennsylvania Ave. NW, Washington, DC 20006; e-mail hwebster@wc-b.com; FAX (202) 835-0243.
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Automation
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Consumables
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Copyright 2004 by American Welding Society in both printed and electronic formats. The Society is not responsible for any statement made or opinion expressed herein. Data and information developed by the authors of specific articles are for informational purposes only and are not intended for use without independent, substantiating investigation on the part of potential users.
MEMBER
www.saldat.it
The Italian exhibition dedicated to welding and cutting technologies to stay in touch with the market and its key players
After the success of the first edition, SALDAT is back. Sponsored by ANASTA, the Italian Association for Welding, Cutting, and Related Technology Companies, this biannual event has been designed for the trade operators and for all interested in the welding and cutting market. At SALDAT, end users, integrators, professionals, and dealers will learn about the new market trends, attend demonstrations and presentations and guided tours, get new contacts, find concrete offerings to improve their business. Thanks to ANASTAs collaboration with organizations, associations, and universities, SALDAT will be rich with opportunities of discussing all of the latest issues, attending conferences on specific topics, and participating in training sessions for schools and professional institutes. Entrance is free For information: Exhibition Organization Tel. + 39 02 7002534
Italian Association for Welding, Cutting, and Related Technology Companies
The exhibitors at SALDAT are exclusively Italian manufacturing firms, subsidiaries of multinational companies, distributors for the Italian market of trade brands and firms working in related industries. During the event, the most innovative solutions to the welding and cutting needs of the various industry segments will be presented, including: manual oxy-gas welding, cutting and heating; manual and semiautomatic arc and resistance welding and cutting; consumables products; automation of welding and cutting; support machinery and accessories of welding and cutting.
www.anasta.it www.weld.it
EDITORIAL
Founded in 1919 to Advance the Science, Technology and Application of Welding
Officers
President James E. Greer Moraine Valley Community College Vice President Damian J. Kotecki The Lincoln Electric Co. Vice President Gerald D. Uttrachi WA Technology, LLC Vice President Gene E. Lawson ESAB Welding & Cutting Products Treasurer Earl C. Lipphardt Consultant Executive Director Ray W. Shook American Welding Society
Directors
T. R. Alberts (Dist. 4), New River Community College B. P. Albrecht (At Large), Miller Electric Mfg. Co. A. J. Badeaux, Sr. (Dist. 3), Charles Cty. Career & Tech. Center K. S. Baucher (Dist. 22), Technicon Engineering Services, Inc. M. D. Bell (At Large), Preventive Metallurgy J. C. Bruskotter (Dist. 9), Bruskotter Consulting Services C. F. Burg (Dist. 16), Ames Laboratory IPRT N. M. Carlson (Dist. 20), INEEL H. R. Castner (At Large), Edison Welding Institute N. A. Chapman (Dist. 6), Entergy Nuclear Northeast S. C. Chapple (At Large), Consultant N. C. Cole (At Large), NCC Engineering J. D. Compton (Dist. 21), College of the Canyons L. P. Connor (Dist. 5), Consultant J. R. Franklin (At Large), Sellstrom Mfg. Co. J. D. Heikkinen (Dist. 15), Spartan Sauna Heaters, Inc. W. E. Honey (Dist. 8), Anchor Research Corp. D. C. Howard (Dist. 7), Concurrent Technologies Corp. J. L. Hunter (Dist. 13), Mitsubishi Motor Mfg. of America, Inc. M. D. Kersey (Dist. 12), The Lincoln Electric Co. E. D. Levert (Past President), Lockheed Martin Missiles & Fire Control V. Y. Matthews (Dist. 10), The Lincoln Electric Co. J. L. Mendoza (Dist. 18), City Public Service T. M. Mustaleski (Past President), BWXT Y-12, LLC R. L. Norris (Dist. 1), Merriam Graves Corp. T. C. Parker (Dist. 14), Miller Electric Mfg. Co. O. P. Reich (Dist. 17), Texas State Technical College at Waco E. Siradakis (Dist. 11), Airgas Great Lakes K. R. Stockton (Dist. 2), PSE&G, Maplewood Testing Serv. P. F. Zammit (Dist. 19), Brooklyn Iron Works, Inc.
DECEMBER 2004
10
DECEMBER 2004
Meeting participants got a first-hand look at ARL Penn States Laser Processing Laboratory. held after the meetings and presentations, with demonstrations of combined 4.5-kW Nd:YAG laser and gas metal arc welding to join 12-in.-thick steel in a single pass, and laser free forming (or cladding) of metal matrix composite materials.
WELDING JOURNAL
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an initiative by a four-member consortium: The American Society of Mechanical Engineers, The American Petroleum Institute, ASTM International, and CSA America. Through this Beijing office, the consortium will form relationships with peer agencies in China, monitor standards development, and promote acceptance of members standards and conformity assessment systems. Once established and staffed, they will prepare Chinese marketing materials and a Web site, obtain market and standards information of strategic importance, network with government agencies and standards officials, and conduct training. The funds awarded to the consortium are made available through the Commerce Departments Market Development Cooperator Program, and the consortium will match every federal dollar with two dollars of its own.
used to determine the beginning and completion of one or more phase transformations. As well, the practice can provide data for computer models used in the control of steel manufacturing, forging, casting, heattreating, and welding processes.
This sculpture at the Raleigh-Durham Airport, commemorating the Wright brothers first powered flight, features an eliptical ring and a pair of intersecting wings atop a 50-ft tower. Van Noorden Co., Franklin, Mass., recently built and erected a 40-ton sculpture for the Raleigh-Durham Airport that serves
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as an icon commemorating the 100th anniversary of the Wright brothers first powered flight. It evokes the Wright brothers spirit of invention and the circuitous nature of air travel involving time, movement, and return. The 122-ft-long sculpture is fabricated from 38-in. steel plate, and features an eliptical ring and a pair of intersecting wings atop a 50-ft tower. Architect Wellington Reiter of Urban Instruments, Newton, Mass., designed the sculpture.
WELDING JOURNAL
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LLC, to pursue launching of Hondas HF118 turbofan engine in the jet engine market. The HF118 will enter service in the 1600-lb thrust class. Also, the engine has run more than 2400 h in ground tests and more than 450 h in flight tests to demonstrate reliability, long maintenance interval, and fuel economy. The 50/50 joint company will begin operating near the end of 2004 in Cincinnati, Ohio. It envisions a future market of approximately 200 or more of these business jets annually.
execution of dry-docking work on the nuclear-powered submarine USS Hyman G. Rickover. Maintenance work on the Rickover will be performed at the companys Newport News sector. This includes blasting and painting the submarines internal and external tanks, removal and overhaul of various system valves, steering and diving gear inspection and repair, repairs to torpedo systems, and inspection and repairs to the sail, pressure, and nonpressure hulls. It will take approximately five months to complete and should be finished in March 2005.
Industry Notes
The Titan Corp., San Diego, Calif., has been awarded an indefinite delivery/indefinite quantity multiple award contract for engineering and technical services to the U.S. Navys NAVSEA Shipbuilding Office (NAVSHIPSO). As a multiple award five-year contract, with one base year and four one-year options, it has a potential ceiling value in excess of $1.05 billion. Titan will compete against seven other companies for task orders to provide NAVSHIPSO habitability, propulsion, electrical, auxiliary and electronics systems engineering, and technical services for ships and shore stations. South Korean steelmaker Posco is in discussions with Brazilian iron-ore giant Companhia Vale do Rio Doce to participate in a joint venture to develop an $11.4 billion steel-manufacturing plant on Brazils north coast. This new slab-making operation would make Brazil one of the top steel producers in the world, according to a recent Wall Street Journal article. Praxair, Inc., Danbury, Conn., announced that Praxair Distribution, a division of Praxair Canada, Inc., has signed an agreement to provide welding gases and hard goods to TSC Stores,
Maintenance work on the USS Hyman G. Rickover is expected to be completed in March 2005. Northrop Grumman Corp., Newport News, Va., has been awarded a contract valued at $36.5 million for the planning and
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Ltd., a London, Ont., Canada, based retailer that specializes in hardware and farm supplies. By the end of the year, Praxairs industrial cylinders exchange program, which lets customers purchase new cylinders or exchange empties for full ones of Praxairs Star gases and blends for welding and cutting, and the store-within-a-store program will be available at all of TSC Stores 25 retail outlets in southwestern and eastern Ontario. Lime Rock Partners and SGAM/4D have announced the purchase of Serimer DASA, headquartered in Paris with a second facility in Villers-Cotterets, France, and Serimer DASA North America, with offices in Houston, Tex., from Stolt Offshore. This is the first time Serimer DASA has not been a part of an offshore contractor group. David Williams will assume the position of chairman of the board. United Rentals, Inc., Greenwich, Conn., recently purchased Atlantic Rentals, Ltd., of Woodstock, NB, Canada. Atlantic Rentals is the largest equipment rental company in Canadas Maritime Provinces, with revenues of approximately $35 million. IPG Laser GmbH, Burbach, Germany, has appointed HM Laser as a new distributor in China. HM Laser will provide training, support, and service to Chinese OEMs and systems manufacturers for IPGs industrial fiber lasers.
Correction
In the August Welding Journal on pg. 10, there was an announcement that Lincoln Electric Holdings, Inc., had acquired the controlling interest in a tungsten electrode factory in northern China. That item should have stated that the controlling interest was in a covered electrode factory.
Circle No. 7 on Reader Info-Card
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ALUMINUM Q&A
Q: I have heard, on occasion, reference
made to some aluminum alloys as unweldable. What does this mean? Are there such aluminum alloys, and if so, what makes them unweldable?
BY TONY ANDERSON dergoing various degrees of solidification. The hot-cracking sensitivity of any aluminum alloy is influenced by a combination of mechanical, thermal, and metallurgical factors. A number of high-performance, heattreatable aluminum alloys have been developed by combining various alloying elements in order to improve the materials mechanical properties. In some cases, the combination of the required alloying elements has produced materials with high hot-cracking sensitivity. ture. Because these alloying constituents have lower melting phases, the stress of solidification may cause cracking at the grain boundaries and/or establish the condition within the material conducive to stress-corrosion cracking later. High heat input during welding, repeated weld passes, and larger weld sizes can all increase the grain-boundary segregation problem (segregation is a time-temperature relationship) and subsequent cracking tendency.
A: I shall start by saying that the majority of aluminum-based alloys can be successfully arc welded when using the correct welding procedures. However, yes, there are some aluminum-based alloys that are sometimes referred to as unweldable. These groups of alloys are well known as being unsuitable for arc welding and, for this reason, are joined mechanically by riveting or bolting. Before we start examining the various reasons for the poor weldability of these alloys, we should start by considering the term unweldable. This is a nonstandard term that is sometimes used to describe aluminum alloys that can be difficult to arc weld without encountering problems during and/or after welding. These problems are usually associated with cracking, most often hot cracking, and on occasion, stress-corrosion cracking (SCC). When we consider the aluminum alloys that fall into this difficult-to-weld category, we can divide them into different groups. We will first consider the small selection of aluminum alloys that were designed for machineability, not weldability, such as 2011 and 6262 that contain 0.200.6 Bi, 0.200.6 Pb and 0.400.7 Bi, 0.400.07 Pb, respectively. The addition of these elements (bismuth and lead) to these materials greatly assists in chip formation in these free-machining alloys. However, because of the low solidification temperatures of these elements, they can seriously reduce the ability to successfully produce sound welds in these materials. There are a number of aluminum alloys that are quite susceptible to hot cracking if arc welded. These alloys are usually heat-treatable alloys and are most commonly found in the 2xxx-series, aluminum-copper (Al-Cu), and 7xxxseries, aluminum-zinc (Al-Zn) groups of materials. In order to understand why some of these alloys are unsuitable for arc welding (unweldable), we need to consider the reasons why some aluminum alloys can be more susceptible to hot cracking. Hot cracking, or solidification cracking, occurs in aluminum welds when high levels of thermal stress and solidification shrinkage are present while the weld is un-
Coherence Range
Perhaps the most important factor affecting the hot-crack sensitivity of aluminum welds is the temperature range of dendrite coherence and the type and amount of liquid available during the freezing process. Coherence is when the dendrites begin to interlock with one another to the point that the melted material begins to form a mushy stage. The coherence range is the temperature between the formation of coherent-interlocking dendrites and the solidus temperature; this could be referred to as the mushy range during solidification. The wider the coherence range, the more likely hot cracking will occur because of the accumulating strain of solidification between the interlocking dendrites.
TONY ANDERSON is Director of Technical Training for ESAB North America. He is a Senior Member of the TWI and a Registered Chartered Engineer. He is Chairman of the Aluminum Association Technical Advisory Committee for Welding and Joining and holds numerous positions including Chairman, Vice Chairman and Member of various AWS technical committees. Questions may be sent to Mr. Anderson c/o Welding Journal, 550 NW LeJeune Rd., Miami, FL 33126 or via e-mail at
tanderson@alcotec.com.
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DECEMBER 2004
The Al-Zn-Mg-Cu alloys, such as 7075, have small amounts of Cu added. The small amounts of Cu, along with the Mg, extend the coherence range and, therefore, increase the crack sensitivity. A similar situation can occur with these materials as with the 2024-type alloys. The stress of solidification may cause cracking at the grain boundaries and/or establish the condition within the material conducive to stress-corrosion cracking later.
Be Aware
It should be stressed that the problem of higher susceptibility to hot cracking from increasing the coherence range is not only confined to the welding of these more susceptible base alloys, such as 2024 and 7075. Crack sensitivity can be substantially increased when welding incompatible dissimilar base metals (which are normally easily welded to themselves) and/or through the selection of an incompatible filler metal. For example, by joining a perfectly weldable 2xxx series base metal to a perfectly weldable 5xxx series base metal, or by using a 5xxx series filler metal to weld a 2xxx series base metal, or a 2xxx series filler metal on a 5xxx series base metal, we can create the same scenario. If we mix high Cu and high Mg, we can extend the coherence range and, therefore, increase the crack sensitivity.
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CYBERNOTES
A COLLECTION OF INDUSTRY NEWS FROM THE INTERNET
Wolf Robotics. This new Web site offers information on the company, its products, services, and staff. Based in Fort Collins, Colo., the company is the former Welding Systems Division of ABB and still serves as its strategic partner for robotic arc welding and cutting systems in the United States. The site provides information on the companys standard and custom products and optional accessories. It features a company history, contact information for specific business operations, a breakdown of sales territories, and directions to the manufacturing plant. In addition, it includes descriptions of a variety of training classes. www.wolfrobotics.com
TV America, Inc. The company is an international, third-party testing and certification organization providing global conformity testing and certification services. Its Web site includes sections on the industries it serves, including aerospace/ defense, automotive, electrical and mechanical safety, management systems, medical, pressure equipment, semiconductor, and telecom. The site includes a Breaking News and Events section, an online store, a media center, a listing of company locations worldwide, and reference tools to provide visitors with information about TVs accreditations, certification marks, and clients. That section also includes a list of industry-related links. Visitors can access the companys TV Service News online newsletter. www.tuvamerica.com
discussion, chapter forum, heat treating, and failure analysis and testing. Visitors can also register for both on-site and online training, request brochures of various types, and download a free micrograph screen saver. The sites Materials Information section consists of three main content areas: ASM Handbooks Online, which features the complete contents of 20 ASM Handbook volumes plus two ASM Desk Editions: Alloy Center Online, which features property data, performance charts, and processing guidelines for specific metals and alloys; and Micrograph Center Online, which includes more than 2500 micrographs for industrially important alloys. The ASM Archive lists thousands of articles published in the organizations magazines, journals, and conference proceedings, including hundreds of articles related to materials testing and characterization, many of which are available in PDF format. ASM members can download two free PDF documents per year; they are available for purchase by nonmembers. www.asminternational.org
Nilfisk-Advance America. The company recently launched an e-commerce section on its Web site. Manufacturers can now purchase a select group of industrial vacuum cleaners, vacuum filters, and vacuum attachments directly from the site. The companys most popular Nilfisk and CFM vacuum models, including portable, compressed air, and wet/dry vacuums, as well as several specialty vacuums are available. Visitors can also shop for a variety of filters, hoses, nozzles, brushes, wands, and other accessories. www.n-aa.com/info31 18 DECEMBER 2004
ASM International. Although much of this sites offerings are restricted to members only, a wide variety of materials information can be viewed by nonmembers. The site includes industry news, an online bookstore, standards information, descriptions of affiliate societies and links to their Web sites, an online newsletter, and a calendar of events. The Ask ASM section offers discussion groups in the following technical interest areas: general
Milwaukee, WI May 2-7, 2005 Pittsburgh, PA May 23-28, 2005 Baton Rouge, LA July 18-23, 2005
NEW PRODUCTS
Transducer Measures Gas Flows in Real Time
FOR MORE INFORMATION, CIRCLE NUMBER ON READER INFORMATION CARD. of the gas in real-time. The output is linear over the flow range, and the device is contained in a rugged NEMA 4 housing. Proportion-Air, Inc.
P.O. Box 218, McCordsville, IN 46055
100
The F-series flow transducer can measure gas flows as low as 2 ft3/h with a realtime output of 010 V or 420 mA. The pressure changes that occur when a gas is passed through a special venturi orifice is measured and used to determine the flow
101
The Freedom Telemetry and Management System for bulk storage tanks ensures that tanks will never run out. This system uses state-of-the-art microproces-
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DECEMBER 2004
sor control technology. It features compatibility with most electronic gauges/pressure switches on bulk storage units and micro-bulk tanks; monitors for up to two gas units, two bulk storage tanks, or one bulk tank and one gas manifold; alerts at two levels (high and low) of product with input in percentages, gallons, liters, kilograms, pounds, or cubic feet; signals using 420 mA input; rugged stainless steel enclosure for severe weather conditions; Windows-based software to allow information processing in an easyto-understand format; and software to e-mail information. Rexarc International, Inc.
35 E Third St., West Alexandria, OH 45381
1 in., and it can run at speeds of up to 4400 rpm. CGW-Camel Grinding Wheels, USA 103
7525 N Oak Park Ave., Niles, IL 60714
102
V power supply, with a 3-A-h battery; clearance of 332 in.; manual torch adjustment horizontally and vertically of 34 in.; carrying capacity for walls vertically and horizontally of 15 lb, with flat position of 50 lb; speed of 3.939 in./min; dimensions of 13.5 8.4 10.6 in.; and a weight of 16 lb without the battery. Bug-O Systems
3001 W Carson St., Pittsburgh, PA 15204-1899
104
SM
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tent down to 10 ppm and displays the results on an alphanumeric LED display that can also be switched to show oxygen content as a percentage. The unit can be interlocked to isolate welding equipment or a power supply to ensure that welding takes place only under the right conditions. Instructions are on the menu-driven display, and users can control the unit using a four-button layout. An internal alarm can be set to operate when minimum or maximum oxygen levels are reached, and only users with access to a security code number can change the settings. Oxygen levels are monitored continuously from the exhaust of the purge area via a tube and passed across the face of a sensor. The monitor measures 140 8060 mm, operates from a 110- or 220-V, 50- or 60-Hz single-phase electricity supply, and has a serial port for connection to a PC; optional software can be used to provide traceability documents to confirm oxygen levels during welding operations. Huntingdon Fusion Techniques, Ltd.105
Stukeley Meadow, Burry Port, Carmarthenshire Wales, U.K. SA16 0BU
ins to 208/230-V and 460-V three-phase outlets are available. Micro Air
P.O. Box 1138, Wichita, KS 67201
106
and plant air cleaning versatility. The user rolls the cleaner to where it is needed, plugs it into any 120-V single-phase outlet, and chooses the attachment needed. Attachments include articulated source capture arms in various sizes, dual articulated arms, downdraft table, backdraft hood, and long-reach flexible hose with hood; these make the unit capable of source capturing pollutants when grinding, welding, cutting, gluing, and painting. It is powered by a high-capacity motorblower assembly that provides 1000 ft3/min, all within a 2512 35-in. footprint. Also, the unit has dual cartridge filters cleaned by the companys Roto-Pulse cartridge cleaning system. Optional plug-
The 797 Electronic Caliper Series offer IP65 level protection in harsh manufacturing environments. They are resistant to coolant, water, dust, dirt, and metal chips. The calipers also feature a large, easy-to-read LCD with 0.310-in.-high characters, zero at any position, instant in./mm conversion, manual on/off with auto-off after four hours of nonuse, CR2032 battery with more than 3500 continuous hours of life, RS232 output port for collecting and outputting data to devices, and a fitted plastic case. Made of
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Circle No. 18 on Reader Info-Card
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DECEMBER 2004
hardened stainless steel, they are available in sizes from 0 to 6 in. with outside jaw depth of 112 in. and inside jaw depth of 58 in., 08 in. with outside jaw depth of 178 in. and inside jaw depth of 34 in., and 012 in. with outside jaw depth of 212 in. and inside jaw depth of 34 in. The L. S. Starrett Co.
121 Crescent St., Athol, MA 01331-1915
107
The CADDY BCISN beam clamps design features a finger close smart nut that allows installation of a 38-in. threaded rod for attachment to beam flanges up to 1 2 in. Without the use of tools or the need for added nuts, it positions on a 38-in. threaded rod and allows for fine tuning and adjustment after the rod is locked in place. This product and the companys standard beam clamps are reversible on flat flanges, and they both can be removed when needed. Erico, Inc.
34600 Solon Rd., Solon, OH 44139
108
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AWS FOUNDATION
Highlights of 2004
The Foundation, along with Section support, surpassed $340,000 in scholarship and fellowship funding, serving nearly 350 students. The Foundation has established four additional scholarships this year. The Donald and Shirley Hastings which awards $2,500 to a student pursuing a four-year degree in welding engineering or welding engineering technology; the ITW Welding Companies Scholarship, which awards two $3,000 scholarships to students pursuing a four-year degree in welding engineering technology or welding engineering, with a preference for WET at Ferris State University; and the Robert L. Peaslee Detroit Brazing & Soldering Division Scholarship which awards $2,500 to an individual pursuing a minimum four-year degree in welding engineering or welding engineering technology with an emphasis on Brazing and Soldering applications.
Circle No. 15 on Reader Info-Card
*1991 and 1993 recipients received alternate scholarship funds, which were prior to the start of the Miller Scholarship.
We would like to thank the following Major Donors who have supported the Foundation's activities:
INDIVIDUALS CORPORATIONS
Wilma J. Adkins Osama Al-Erhayem Richard Amirikian Richard L. Arn Roman F. Arnoldy Hil J. Bax D. Fred Bovie William A. and Ann M. Brothers Joseph M. and Debbie A. Cilli Donald E. and Jean Cleveland Jack and Jo Dammann Mr. and Mrs. J. F. Dammann Louis DeFreitas Frank G. DeLaurier William T. DeLong Richard D. French Glenn J. Gibson Joyce E. Harrison Donald F. and Shirley Hastings Robb F. Howell Jeffrey R. Hufsey Joseph R. Johnson Deborah H. Kurd J. J. McLaughlin L. William and Judy Myers Robert and Annette OBrien Robert L. Peaslee Ronald C. Pierce Jerome L. Robinson Robert and Mitzie Roediger Ray W. Shook Myron and Ginny Stepath Charley A. Stoody R. D. Thomas, Jr. James A. Turner, Jr. Gerald and Christine Uttrachi Nelson Wall Amos O. and Marilyn Winsand Nannette Zapata
Airgas Air Liquide America Corporation Air Products and Chemicals, Inc. American Welding Society Caterpillar, Inc. Chemalloy Company, Inc. C-K Worldwide Cor-Met, Inc. ESAB Welding & Cutting Products Edison Welding Institute Eutetic Castolin The Fibre-Metal Products Company Gases and Welding Distributors Association Gibson Tube, Inc. Malcolm T. Gilliland, Inc. Gullco International, Inc. Harris Calorific, Inc. High Purity Gas Hobart Brothers Company - Corex - McKay Welding Products - Tri-Mark Hypertherm, Inc. Illinois Tool Works Companies Independent Can Company Inweld Corporation The Irene & George A. Davis Foundation J. W. Harris Company, Inc. Kirk Foundation Kobelco Welding of America, Inc. The Lincoln Electric Company The Lincoln Electric Foundation MK Products, Inc. Matsuo Bridge Co. Ltd. Miller Electric Mfg. Co. Mountain Enterprises, Inc. National Electric Mfg. Association National Welders Supply Company Navy Joining Center NORCO, Inc. ORS NASCO, Inc. OXO Welding Equipment Company Pferd, Inc. Praxair Distribution, Inc. Roberts Oxygen Company, Inc. Saf-T-Cart Select-Arc, Inc. SESCO Shell Chemical LP - WTC Thermadyne Holdings Corporation Trinity Industries, Inc. Uvex Safety, Inc. Webster, Chamberlain & Bean Welding Engineering Supply Co., Inc. Weldstar Company Wolverine Bronze Company
The new Bay Bridge is seen in this artist rendering. It is scheduled for completion in 2009. (Photo courtesy of CALTRANS.)
Since the creation of gas metal arc welding (GMAW) in the early 1920s and its implementation in 1948, shielding gas mixtures have played a critical role in the application and development of this important welding process. As related arc welding processes have progressed, flux cored and metal cored arc welding have evolved with literally hundreds of filler metal and gas mixture choices. One point has proved crucial with improvements in wire welding. The cylinder gas mixture quality and consistency have become as critical a component to these welding processes as the electricity provided from the power source. Without reliability in either one, the other doesnt work very well. Manufacturers in the welding industry have experienced the evolution of these mixtures and the value they add to their BRYAN ONEIL is U.S. Cylinder Business Development Manager, Air Liquide America, L.P., (713) 624-8000. MARVIN E. RODGERS III is General Manager, Alliance Gas Products, Oakland, Calif., (510) 663-9353. 26 DECEMBER 2004
processes over the last few decades. Certainly there are endless applications and special considerations that each individual involved in making a gas choice must consider. The major gas companies and their distributors have developed through research, experience, and field trials a wide selection of products to meet these needs.
increased travel speeds. Even newer developments are beginning to enter the market with small additions of nitrogen in specific mixtures. To maximize overall productivity, manufacturers are faced with numerous options with traditional GMAW or FCAW. This is where the right gas mixtures designed to optimize speed, appearance, and deposition rate in all positions have evolved for a given filler metal and diameter and weld size. While there is never a one-size-fits-all solution, combinations of optimized gas components have been developed to address the majority of concerns a fabricator may have in most welding situations. An example of a critical job where these criteria were taken into consideration was for the San Francisco Bay Bridge Project in California.
1989 during the World Series, or the horrific pictures and videos that were taken in the San Francisco and Oakland area of the collapsed Cypress Freeway. Although the Cypress Freeway has since been relocated and reconstructed, many people dont realize that some 15 years later, the residents of the Bay area are still crossing the same bridge. After an extensive study of the span where a section collapsed in 1989, the California Department of Transportation (CALTRANS) determined that it was not feasible to simply retrofit the eastern span of the Bay Bridge to protect it from earthquake damage; instead, a new eastern span would need to be constructed. In a section of the country famous for majestic bridges and city skylines, the replacement span could not simply be another traditional trestle bridge. The successful design turned out to be a combination skyway and suspension bridge. The bridge will be the worlds first singletower, self-anchored suspension bridge. In addition, the new span, which features some of the largest and heaviest components ever seen in bridge building, needs to exceed the safety requirements set forth to become an earthquake-resistant bridge build.
The Challenges
The 1993 Northridge earthquake in southern California raised many concerns regarding welding procedures for public works structures. The filler metal and construction industries have responded by creating new products and procedures to ensure mechanical integrity will exceed the design requirements. In addition, shielding gases have not been overlooked. CALTRANS has considered shielding gases just as important a contributor as any other material to the mechanical properties of the final weldment. To ensure repeatability and certification of weld procedures, CALTRANS set standards it would be willing to accept for gas purity and mixture tolerance. In addition, it wanted the welding gas at the arc to be traceable, and to also be certified for purity and mixture accuracy. There were logistics challenges as well. KFM needed to complete all of the work from barge platforms. All the gases had to be transported to the barge from the shore or supply barge via crane. Crane time was scarce, and gas movement could not be scheduled on a daily basis. Operationally, the company could not run out of product once welding started, so it needed a package that would hold product without venting for an indefinite period of time. More importantly, workers needed accuracy and traceability of contents to ensure KFM was receiving the product specified within the welding procedures.
Fig. 1 A welding operator monitors the uphill FCA welding with Blueshield within the internal section of bridge piling. This is one of more than 5000 weld joints requiring 35 or more passes each to be completed on the Bay Bridge project. The base material thickness is in excess of 2 in. in some joints. Preheating is done by electrical means. Gas quality is ensured at the welding gun for this complex application.
Fig. 2 Working in confined spaces at the Bay Bridge site brought new challenges for welding teams, requiring calesthenics as part of their workday. Here, the Pier 16E night welding crew warms up before dropping into the cofferdam in May 2003. (Photo courtesy of KWT.)
Fig. 3 A welder is hard at work inside a piling at the new Bay Bridge site. (Photo courtesy of KWT.)
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exchanging equipment are used to measure the oxygen content and replace the atmosphere with fresh air. Since there is little room for additional equipment, the construction group needed to choose an innovative package and mixture to assist in achieving the desired results. Alliance contacted its partner, Air Liquide, to address the needs of the specific customer requirements. Working together, both companies reviewed the stringent requirements of the contractors and governing agency. Looking at past success in similar applications, a unique patented assembly and high-quality cylinder brand name, Blueshield, was chosen. This provided the features of innovative package design, safety in handling, reliability in service, and, most importantly, traceability of each package back to the original gas analysis at the fill plant. The value of a premium mixture used in combination with proper weld parameters provided the company with easy slag removal and higher travel speed out of position. Welding on the bridge commenced in April 2003 and is scheduled to end May 2005. With almost five miles of welding scheduled, innovative gas use will result in a much shorter welding time and more time spent depositing weld metal, with less time spent worrying about gas mixture quality and handling.
February
Dec. 17
March
Jan. 17
April May
Feb. 18 March 18
Conclusion
It is important for fabricators to undertake a thorough analysis of shielding gas mixtures that includes the following: Test the product being considered over a trial period in production and not just in a demonstration. Measure and track results. Also, make sure the packaging and quality process is in place, particularly when considering AWS and ASME codes and bridge and marine specifications. Look for safety enhancements or handling advantages offered to improve the welders environment. Lastly, ensure that you are meeting or exceeding the mechanical requirements of the gas and filler metal combination and a program is in place for traceability of the product purchased.
June
April 15
July
May 16
August
June 17
September
July 15
October November
Aug. 19 Sept. 16
December
Oct. 17
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DECEMBER 2004
AWS Fellowships
To: Professors Engaged in Joining Research Subject: Request for Proposals for AWS Fellowships for the 2005-06 Academic Year
The American Welding Society (AWS) seeks to foster university research in joining and to recognize outstanding faculty and student talent. We are again requesting your proposals for consideration by AWS. It is expected that the winning researchers will take advantage of the opportunity to work with industry committees interested in the research topics and report work in progress. Please note, there are important changes in the schedule which you must follow in order to enable the awards to be made in a timely fashion. Proposals must be received at American Welding Society by January 10, 2005. New AWS Fellowships will be announced at the AWS Annual Meeting, April 26-28, 2005. THE AWARDS The Fellowships or Grants are to be in amounts of up to $25,000 per year, renewable for up to three years of research. However, progress reports and requests for renewal must be submitted for the second and third years. Renewal by AWS will be contingent on demonstration of reasonable progress in the research or in graduate studies. The AWS Fellowship is awarded to the student for graduate research toward a Masters or Ph.D Degree under a sponsoring professor at a North American University. The qualifications of the Graduate Student are key elements to be considered in the award. The academic credentials, plans and research history (if any) of the student should be provided. The student must prepare the proposal for the AWS Fellowship. However, the proposal must be under the auspices of a professor and accompanied by one or more letters of recommendation from the sponsoring professor or others acquainted with the students technical capabilities. Topics for the AWS Fellowship may span the full range of the joining industry. Should the student selected by AWS be unable to accept the Fellowship or continue with the research at any time during the period of the award, the award will be forfeited and no (further) funding provided by AWS. The bulk of AWS funding should be for student support. AWS reserves the right not to make awards in the event that its Committee finds all candidates unsatisfactory. DETAILS The Proposal should include: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. Executive Summary Annualized Breakdown of Funding Required and Purpose of Funds (Student Salary, Tuition, etc.) Matching Funding or Other Support for Intended Research Duration of Project Statement of Problem and Objectives Current Status of Relevant Research Technical Plan of Action Qualifications of Researchers Pertinent Literature References and Related Publications Special Equipment Required and Availability Statement of Critical Issues Which Will Influence Success or Failure of Research
In addition, the proposal must include: 1. 2. 3. 4. Students Academic History, Resume and Transcript Recommendation(s) Indicating Qualifications for Research Brief Section or Commentary on Importance of Research to the Welding Community and to AWS, Including Technical Merit, National Need, Long Term Benefits, etc. Statement Regarding Probability of Success
The technical portion of the Proposal should be about ten typewritten pages. Proposal should be sent electronically by January 10, 2005, to: Gricelda Manalich (gricelda@aws.org) Executive Assistant, Board Services/IIW American Welding Society
550 N.W. LeJeune Rd., Miami, FL 33126 Yours sincerely, Ray W. Shook Executive Director American Welding Society
The hybrid laser beam welding process combines the traditional GMAW process with laser beam processing. (Photo courtesy of Craig Bratt, Fraunhofer USA.)
Make yourself more competitive globally through improved shielding gas selections
BY RICHARD GREEN
wo divergent forces are hard at work in todays business world: one is the constant updating of the latest and greatest technology, and the second is the ongoing political rhetoric about outsourcing jobs to lower-wage-paying countries. Inverter technology, for example, offers better power efficiency and, in some
cases, more stable arc characteristics. International competition, however, utilizes simpler technology coupled with lower overhead costs to put pressure on manufacturing jobs in the United States. Being pressured into making a capital investment of tens of thousands of dollars that may only achieve incremental cost savings over current optimized prac-
RICHARD GREEN (richard.green@ concoa.com) is Product Manager, CONCOA, Virginia Beach, Va.
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.045 spray .045 globular .045 shortcircuiting arc .035 spray .035 globular .035 shortcircuiting arc
Fig. 1 The approximate current ranges include the three modes of transfer for both 0.035- and 0.045-in.-diameter solid wire.
Fig. 2 This graph illustrates voltage and current relationship through a shortcircuiting arc sequence transfer. (Reprinted from AWS C5.6-89R, Recommended Practices for Gas Metal Arc Welding, p. 6.)
tices is obviously a pitfall to avoid. Instead, American business and its employees can offer the world the ingenuity it takes to produce quality weldments cost-competitively. What follows is a strategy for optimizing the cost to produce a mild steel gas metal arc weldment. This includes evaluating the mode of transfer as well as labor and overhead rates, deposition efficiency, electrode cost, and power consumption. It also shows the gas system required to obtain a competitive rate using existing assets. To begin, the three basic modes of metal transfer for a gas metal arc welding (GMAW) procedure as classified by current range need to be understood. Figure 1 illustrates the approximate current ranges for the three modes of transfer for both 0.035- and 0.045-in.-diameter solid wire. Short-circuiting arc occurs between 60 and 175 A for 0.035 wire, and 90 to 220 A for 0.045 wire. Short-circuiting arc welding offers low thermal input, which facilitates welding in all positions and reduces part distortion. Metallurgical properties are not adversely affected by the low energy input and subsequent dilution of the base material. Figure 2 illustrates the voltage and current relationship as the metal is transferred from the wire to the workpiece. As the wire is fed into the weld pool, the tip of the wire connected to the positive terminal of the power supply comes in contact with the workpiece that is connected to the negative terminal, and a short is created in the circuit. The welding machine output current rises to a minimum current level of 320 A for 0.035 wire, and 370 A for 0.045 wire, to separate it from the weld pool. The short-circuit process will occur 50 to 230 times per second depending on process design.
Welding machine manufacturers have developed both fixed and variable slope welding power supplies to control the output voltage with increasing amperage. This limits the maximum energy available to separate the wire from the pool. If there is too much energy, the result is excessive spatter, which lowers the deposition efficiency; with too little energy, the wire piles up, resulting in incomplete fusion and poor weld quality. Secondly, welding equipment manufacturers have developed both fixed and variable inductance to control the rate of the current rise as illustrated by the current curve sequence A-B in Fig. 2. As inductance is increased, the amount of arcing time also increases as illustrated by the voltage curve sequence E-H in Fig. 2. The additional arc-on time produces a more fluid weld pool, which yields a flatter weld bead with better wetting at the edges. In turn, this affects the cosmetics and load-bearing capacity of the joint. The proper selection of shielding gas will drastically affect the energy transfer and deposition efficiency of the GMAW short-circuit transfer mode. Carbon dioxide was the first shielding gas used because of its availability and cost. The arc plasma has a narrow inner core and a low outer temperature envelope resulting from its low thermal conductivity that produces narrow and deep penetration. This presents problems for thin materials. More expensive GMAW wire containing higher amounts of deoxidizing elements is typically needed to balance the oxidizing nature of carbon dioxide. Also, because of centerline crowning and excessive spatter that result in 85 to 95% deposition efficiencies, manufacturers developed binary mixtures of argon and carbon dioxide. Additions of up to 80% argon (with the
balance being carbon dioxide) will produce less crowning, better edge tie-in, and 94 to 98% deposition efficiencies. Argon additions offer better arc ignition and stability based on argons low ionization potential. Argon has a low thermal conductivity that yields similar arc constriction but a shallower penetration profile than carbon dioxide. Plus, argon-carbon dioxide mixtures yield higher deposition rates with less spatter, which is ideal for allposition welding and thin materials. As additional welding current is applied, the end of the welding wire becomes overheated and balls up 1.5 to 3 times the wire diameter. This establishes a longer arc length as illustrated in sequence F-H of Fig. 2. Gravity facilitates the metal transfer, which creates instability and excessive spatter. Deposition efficiency tends to fall between 80 and 90% depending on gas selection and processing parameters. For this reason and welding position limitations, it is wise to stay outside the globular transition range of 160 to 185 A for 0.035 wire, and 200 to 220 A for 0.045 wire. Depending on the gas selection, the minimum transition current for spray transfer occurs between 155 and 195 A for 0.035 wire, and 220 and 250 A for 0.045 wire. Above this transfer range, the end of the wire electrode develops a taper that emits fine droplets of metal across the arc with virtually no spatter, yielding 97 to 99% deposition efficiencies. The spray transfer yields higher travel speeds and deposition rates because of the superior arc stability and high droplet rate. However, the high heat input limits the weldment to the flat position. Choosing the optimal shielding gas for spray transfer takes some forethought to understand the application and effects each gas component will contribute to the
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Table 1 Economic Comparison Short-Circuiting Arc Spray Transfer On-Site Mixing Gas System 40 9.7 0.45 0.8 0.98 40 5.28 0.06 29 300 15
Labor and Overhead ($/h) Deposition Rate (lb/h) Duty Cycle (%) Electrode Cost ($/lb) Deposition Efficiency (%) Gas Flow Rate (ft3/h) Gas Cost (dollars per hundred cubic feet) Electrical Cost (kWh) Machine Volts Machine Amps Travel Speed (in./min) Cost per Foot of Weld Labor and Overhead Wire Cost Shielding Gas Cost Power Cost Total Cost per Foot of Weld Percent Cost Reduction
Fig. 3 Simple blending systems allow for additional duty cycle or productivity savings by eliminating daily cylinder handling.
deposition efficiency and cost, environmental, and mechanical properties. Pure argon produces higher arc voltage and subsequent longer arc lengths, which create arc instability and excessive undercut at the edge of the welds. For this reason, 5 to 20% carbon dioxide is added to create an argon mixture that stabilizes the spray transfer. It is well documented that the lower the amount of carbon dioxide concentration, the lower the minimum spray transfer current and subsequent fume generation rates. It should also be noted that 8 to 15% carbon dioxide mixtures are flexible enough to facilitate both spray and shortcircuit transfer modes. In some cases, 1 to 5% oxygen may be added to argon to achieve superior arc stability and better tie-in (wetting) at the weld edge. Oxygen tends to provide a wider but shallower penetration profile, as compared to carbon dioxide mixtures, because of its lower ionization and higher thermal conductivity properties. Oxygen additions tend to yield better toughness and strengths because of the absence of carbon retention associated with carbon dioxide mixtures. Shielding gas development has led manufacturers to design three-component gas blends that offer the benefits of both carbon dioxide and oxygen additions to argon-based mild steel gas metal arc applications. As mentioned previously, each company must evaluate the incremental benefits of three-component mixtures as compared to two. In most cases, attention to quality and continually training personnel to meet the basic processing parame-
ters will yield the greatest return with minimal investment. For example, assume that the weldment is a 14-in. mild steel, 12-in. fillet weld requiring 0.106 lb/ft of welding wire. Current practice calls for a 0.045-in.-diameter wire using 75% argon balance carbon dioxide. It is assumed that the wire costs $0.80 per pound on a 33-lb spool, and the typical labor and overhead rate is $40/h. There is a total of ten weld stations each using a single T-size (330 ft3) high-pressure bottle. The company uses eight bottles per week at a cost of $18 each. The manual welding is performed utilizing conventional short-circuit parameters set at 20 V/200 A, yielding a deposition rate of 5.5 lb/h at 96% efficiency. In todays market, it is also safe to assume that the company is receiving pricing pressure from international competitors. Utilizing existing equipment and providing the required training, the procedure is changed to a spray transfer with the following parameters listed below. The shielding gas is changed to 92% argon, balance carbon dioxide. The welding machine parameters are 29 V/300 A, which provide a deposition rate of 9.7 lb/h with a 98% efficiency. The economic results displayed in Table 1 show that a 38% cost reduction per foot of weld is achievable because of the higher deposition rate and efficiency of a spray transfer. As well, Table 1 illustrates that an additional 6% in cost savings can be realized by mixing the argon-carbon dioxide shielding gas on-site. Simple blending systems as illustrated in Fig. 3 enable the company to realize ad-
ditional duty cycle or productivity savings by eliminating daily cylinder handling. Finally, the on-site blending system enables the company to adjust the ratio of carbon dioxide in the shielding gas, which will have a positive effect on the weldments mechanical properties and work environment. With American business facing so much competitive pressure today, it is necessary to look for the lowest hanging fruit to reduce production costs and enhance the quality of products. Getting back to the basics will further enhance the incremental cost savings of future investment in technology. To achieve such results, solutions as simple as evaluating the mode of transfer for a gas metal arc weld and the gas delivery system are important in the highly competitive global marketplace.
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he development of unique materials for specific applications is expanding. Metal produced from powder metallurgy is one of those materials that is growing in use. Production by powder metallurgy entails sintering of metal powders mixed to give a desired chemical composition. They are pressed at room temperature into a die in the dimensions and the shape of the part to be manufactured, and then the piece is subjected to a controlled high temperature. The advantages of powder metal materials compared to rolling and casting include the ability to manufacture complexshaped parts, the production of difficult alloys, density control, and economy (Refs. 15). This study investigates the weldability of powder metal parts under various manufacturing conditions.
Fig. 1 Macrophotography of powder metal welded sample. Thermal conductivity not only depends upon the property of the material, but also the amount of porosity. As the volume of porosity changes, so does the heat transfer. The change in heat transfer naturally affects the welding parameters and properties such as hardenability. Since the porosity slows down the heat transfer through reduced thermal conductivity, the cooling rate of the material also slows during welding, reducing the hardening tendency (Refs. 610).
pearance, and economy should all be considered. Fusion and solid-state welding methods are used successfully to join powder metal parts. Fusion welding methods are preferred in the welding of mediumand high-density (>7.0 g/cm3) powder metals, whereas solid-state welding is used to weld low-density (<6.5 g/cm3) powder metals (Ref. 7). In this study, the weldability of the powder metal iron parts have been examined using manual arc welding with the shielded metal arc process.
A. KURT, H. ATES, A. DURGUTLU, and K. KARACIF are with Gazi University, Technical Education Faculty, Dept. of Metallurgy Education, Besevler/Ankara, Turkey.
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welded samples is presented in Fig. 1. Microstructure and hardness samples were prepared from vertically cut coupons right after the joint was welded. The samples were prepared for metallographic examination by grinding (2001200), polishing (with Al2O3), and etching with 2% nital. Photographs of the microstructure were taken with an optical microscope showing the base metal, heat-affected zone, and weld metal. Vickers hardness values were taken using a 5-kg load from the regions shown in Fig. 2.
Density increases in powder metal parts as the pressure increases, although it is minimal after 90% of density is reached. At the lowest compaction pressure of 240 MPa, the density was measured as 68.35%, at 265 MPa the density was 73.01%, and at 300 MPa it was 72.86%. The slight decrease in density observed at 300 MPa is probably the result the powder particles hardening with the increased compaction pressure. The hardened particles have a negative influence on density. No big decrease in density was observed after sintering, but a few factors do affect an increase in density from sintering. One of these is the outgassing of air from the cavities of porosity through the sintering process. Also, the weight of the sample diminished from the vaporization of low-melting-point elements. It was observed that factors like these do not have much effect since a lubricant such as Zn sterat was not added to the powders. If lubricants had been added, a density of more than 80% would have been realized. Lubricant was not added for the purpose of determining the weldability of powder metals with porosity. In the metallographic study, it was observed that porosity decreased as compaction pressure increased in the powder metal parts Fig. 3. A great amount of porosity was observed in the microstructure of the sample compacted at 240 MPa Fig. 3A. The material is denser at 265 MPa of pressure Fig. 3B. It is observed in Fig. 3C that the den-
Fig. 3 Microstructures (100) of the powder metal iron parts compacted with various pressures. A 240 MPa; B 265 MPa; and C 300 MPa.
Fig. 4 Microstructures (50) of weld interface regions of powder metal iron parts compacted at various pressures. A 240 MPa; B 265 MPa; and C 300 MPa.
Table 1 Features of Hganas AB 100 Iron Powders Particle size range (m) 20180 Apparent density (g/cm3) 3.04 Flow (s/50 g) 24 H2 loss (%) 0.10 C (%) < 0.10 Green Strength (N/mm2) at 600 MPa 33 Compressibility (g/cm3) at 4.2 t/cm2 at 600 MPa 6.72 7.17
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Table 2 Density Changes of Powder Metal Parts Compacting Pressure (MPa) 240 265 300 Weight before Sintering (g) 72.907 75.097 73.548 Weight after Sintering (g) 72.902 75.021 73.540 Green Density (%) 68.35 73.01 72.86 Sintered Density (%) 68.34 72.93 72.84
C 0.08
Mn 0.50
Si 0.40
Regions where hardness was obtained Compaction Pressure (MPa) 240 265 300 1 55 60 68 2 65 69 76 3 70 74 84 4 160 155 140
Fig. 5 Weld metal microstructures (50) of powder metal iron parts compacted at various pressures. Top 240 MPa; and bottom 300 MPa. sity is less than the other compacted sample and its porosity is greater. This is probably due to the hardening of the powders caused by the increased pressure.
Fig. 6 Result of hardness test. 265 MPa does not display a regular fusion-solidification as it does in the structure of the compacted sample in 265 MPa in Fig. 4C. In fusion welding, weld metal is a combination of base metal and welding electrode. It is known that in single-pass welding, two-thirds of the weld metal comes from the welding electrode and one-third of the weld metal comes from the base metal. For this study, it can be said that the base metal ratio of weld metal is less than one-third because of the porosity structure of the base metal. Thus, the electrode controls the composition of the weld metal Fig. 5. lowest compaction pressure of 240 MPa, hardness values were measured as 55, 65, 70, and 160 HV for the base metal, heataffected zone, base metal-weld metal transition zone, and weld metal, respectively. At 265 MPa, these values were measured as 60, 69, 74, and 155 HV, and they were measured as 68, 76, 84, and 140 HV, respectively, at 300 MPa. It is seen from Fig. 6 that increasing the density of the base metal increases the base metal hardness and decreases the weld metal hardness. This can be contributed to the ratio of electrode metal to base metal. In the low-density powder metal samples, the quantity of base metal in the weld metal will be low, and the amount of electrode metal in the weld metal will be high. Consequently, the hardness is dominantly controlled by the electrode metal. In powder metal samples, increasing density of the mixing rate of powder metal materials to weld metal increases, therefore electrode metal rate decreases. As a
result of this, base metal hardness increases with increasing density, while weld metal hardness decreases with increasing density.
Conclusions
In this experimental study, the joinablity of powder metal iron parts using a manual arc welding method have been investigated with the following results. 1. The porosity of powder metal materials decreased with increased compacting pressure. 2. Iron-based materials produced by powder metallurgy were successfully joined using a manual welding method. 3. Aluminum powder metal materials showed more porosity and surface oxides than other metallic materials. 4. The rate of density did not change more than the critical density (73%).
References
1. Saritas, S. 1995. Powder steel forging. METU Journal of Applied Research, 3 (11): 126 ( in Turkish). 2. Demir, A., Saritas, S. 1993. Mechanical properties of powder metal steels. AU Isparta Journal of Mechanical Engineering, Vol. 7, pp. 113 ( in Turkish). 3. German, R. M., and Dangelo, K. A. 1984. Enhanced sintering treatments for ferrous powders. Int. Metals Rev., Vol. 29, pp. 249272. 4. Metals Handbook, 9th Ed., Vol. 7. 1984. Powder Metallurgy, pp. 2399. Materials Park, Ohio: ASM International. 5. German, R. M. 1984. Powder metallurgy science, pp. 955. Princeton, N.J.: Metal Powder Industries Federation. 6. Hamill, J. A. 1991. PM joining processes materials and techniques. The Int. J. of Powder Metallurgy, 27 (4): 363371. 7. Kurt, A., Glen, B., and Durgutlu, A. 1999. Investigation of HAZ in RollePM Cu materials joined by fusion welding methods. Second National Powder Metallurgy Conference Proceedings, pp. 565570 (in Turkish). 8. Kurt, A., Glen, B., and Trker, M. 1996. Investigation of weldability of PM parts compacted pure iron powder to lowcarbon steel by MIG-MAG welding. First National Powder Metallurgy Conference Proceedings, pp. 595602 ( in Turkish). 9. Hamil, J. A. Jr. 1993. What are the joining processes, materials and techniques for powder metal parts? Welding Journal 72(2): 3745. 10. Dudas, J. H., and Dean, W. A. 1969. The production of precision aluminum P/M parts, Progress in Powder Metallurgy, Conference Proceedings, MPIF, Vol. 25, pp. 101129.
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Sgt. Corley shows a Marine Corps mobile welding unit to Education Committee Chair Dennis Klingman. Klingman said the unique tour was an excellent example of the benefits gained by volunteering for AWS committees.
Sgt. Bruckshaw shows an educational display at the Armys Ordnance Mechanical Maintenance School.
Military recruits learn how welding can protect a nation in an unassuming industrial building on the 72,500-acre campus of the Aberdeen Proving Ground in Aberdeen, Md. Aberdeen, one of the nations most secretive military installations, recently opened its gates to volunteer members of the AWS Education Committee so they could take a rare look at how soldiers prepare for battlefield welding. Their tour behind the wall of this topsecret facility left the committee members with a huge respect for the challenges of welding in hostile territory, and an equally great respect for the men and women who train their comrades to work in harms way. A tour of the U.S. Army Ordnance Mechanical Maintenance School (OMMS) was conducted by Marine Sgt. Brian Corley, Air Force Sgt. Jason Ratliff, and Army Sgt. Jeffrey Bruckshaw. Bruckshaw is well known at AWS headquarters, where he was deployed last year to expand and share his expertise. Bruckshaw was instrumental in helping incorporate AWSs
S.E.N.S.E. educational program into the Army. Three branches of the military share the OMMS facility. (The Navy and Coast Guard, with their unique needs, share two other welding training centers one on each coast.) Service personnel from the Army, Air Force, and Marines also share some of a 13-week curriculum. We give them the basics, and hopefully when they get to their field units, theyll have a good NCO (noncommissioned officer) to give them more, said Bruckshaw. Training starts with a four-day module on theory and identification of metals (primarily steel and brass). Recruits also master welding symbols and the use of hand tools, and learn a respect for safety matters. The recruits then spend about two weeks in a 50-student lab learning oxyacetylene welding, plasma cutting, soldering, and brazing. The third phase involves another 50-student lab equipped with SMAW (shielded metal arc welding) booths. The
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Army and Marines train together with Miller 350 LX machines, while the Air Force trains separately with Lincoln Power MIG 300 machines and place more emphasis on fleet vehicles and aircraft, as opposed to mechanized armor. The Air Force detachment utilizes very sophisticated welding booths that incorporate high-resolution, close-up cameras that record the welders actions and display multiple angles on wide-screen LCD displays for replay and review. The Marines and Army personnel proceed to a module on GMAW (gas metal arc welding) of aluminum and stainless steel, including butt-joint and completejoint-penetration welding. Soldiers learn how to troubleshoot wire feeders in the field. The Marines take an additional month of training that includes welding titanium and often leads to AWS certification, while the Army personnel practice using field equipment to repair breeched armor, and learn such tasks as dye penetrant testing and plasma arc gouging. We have a different theory from the Army on armor repair, said Corley. He showed the visitors the Marines mobile trailer for field repair of mechanized armor and artillery. The Army recruits learn other skills that could be useful in the field, such as auto body and glass repair, fuel tank and radiator maintenance, and riveting patches over bullet holes on Humvee fenders. Welders in the line of fire can provide a strategic advantage for a military force if they can keep damaged tanks and other equipment operational. They may be working in difficult terrain, in bad weather (such as 115F heat in Iraq), and under intense pressure. Maybe bullets are flying. In addition to hostile forces, military welders contend with vehicles that are armored with very hard, exotic metals, ceramics, and composite materials. The vehicles usually contain explosive weaponry that could kill a welder, and sophisticated electronics that can be damaged if the welder makes a mistake. Among environmental hazards are depleted uranium, which is used to strengthen armaments, and the CART (chemical agent retardant technology) paint used on tanks, which can have dangerous health effects to a welder. Were fighting to see that our welders in the field are taken care of, said Army SFC Jim Abels. Theres enough people trying to kill them. We dont want to kill them ourselves. Field welders are trained to wear grounding wrist straps to reduce damage to electronics from static electricity. Anytime you weld, you have to download the ammo, Abels pointed out.
An Air Force welding booth is equipped with plasma display panels that show close-up images of welding. Abels has helped develop strategies to reduce the risk to battlefield welders from hostile actions and environmental risks. He showed the AWS visitors some armored vehicle first-aid kits that include high-tech Belzona polymeric adhesives for patching armor. These materials consist of packets or tubes of base and solidifier chemicals that can be mixed on a ration kit or a piece of cardboard to attach a armor patch. This provides a strong temporary repair until the armored vehicle can be safely welded. Abels said Aberdeen is under a Congressional mandate to test all armored equipment under live fire. Its mandatory that you take it over the fence and shoot at it, he said. Then 86% of the time were able to MacGyver the stuff and return it to work.
Aberdeen Proving Ground features many fields displaying historic armaments from various nations. Aberdeen is also home to the U.S. Army Ordnance Museum, which is open to the public.
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Since 1919, weve established the standards that guide welding. Doesnt it make sense to let us guide you to getting certified?
SIGN UP FOR THE AWS CWI OR CWE SEMINARS, AND PREP WITH THE EXPERTS.
We offer five and a half days of intensive seminars that help prepare you to pass the AWS certification tests. Our experienced teachers help you learn the material you need to know fast, and show you how to use and understand the latest standards. AWS seminars are an excellent value, saving you time and literally hundreds of dollars, by supplying you with many of the books you need FREE . Seminar topics include D1.1 Code, API 1104 Code, Welding Inspection and Technology, and Visual Inspection, followed by the certification exam at the end of the week. By grouping the preparation with the test, you can attend AWS seminars with less time off from the job and less travel expense. When it comes to preparing for an exam that proves youre one of the best, then take it from the people who know it bestAWS.
FIND THE AWS SEMINAR NEAREST YOU.
LOCATION SEMINAR DATES EXAM DATES LOCATION SEMINAR DATES EXAM DATES
To become an AWS member, call 800-443-9353, ext. 480, or visit our website at http://www.aws.org
CNF1129 12/04
MIAMI, FL (EXAM ONLY) BATON ROUGE, LA 1/23-28 BOSTON, MA 1/23-28 DENVER, CO 1/302/4 SEATTLE, WA 1/302/4 ONTARIO, CA 1/302/4 BIRMINGHAM, AL 2/6-11 MIAMI, FL (EXAM ONLY) CORPUS CHRISTI, TX (EXAM ONLY) NORFOLK, VA 2/20-25 HARTFORD, CT 2/27-3/4 LAS VEGAS, NV 3/6-11 NASHVILLE, TN 3/6-11 PERRYSBURG, OH (EXAM ONLY) ROCHESTER, NY (EXAM ONLY) MIAMI, FL (EXAM ONLY)
1/20/2005 1/29/2005 1/29/2005 2/5/2005 2/5/2005 2/5/2005 2/12/2005 2/17/2005 2/19/2005 2/26/2005 3/5/2005 3/12/2005 3/12/2005 3/12/2005 3/12/2005 3/17/2005
HOUSTON, TX 3/13-18 NEW ORLEANS, LA 3/13-18 MOBILE, AL (EXAM ONLY) YORK, PA (EXAM ONLY) SAN FRANCISCO, CA 3/20-25 ANCHORAGE, AK 3/20-25 CORPUS CHRISTI, TX (EXAM ONLY) MIAMI, FL (EXAM ONLY) PORTLAND, ME 4/17-22 ROANOKE, VA 4/17-22 BAKERSFIELD, CA 4/24-29 COLUMBUS, OH (AT NBBPVI)* 4/25-29 WACO, TX (EXAM ONLY) MILWAUKEE, WI 5/1-6 NEWARK, NJ 5/1-6 SPOKANE, WA 5/1-6
3/19/2005 3/19/2005 3/19/2005 3/26/2005 3/26/2005 3/26/2005 4/16/2005 4/21/2005 4/23/2005 4/23/2005 4/30/2005 4/30/2005 5/7/2005 5/7/2005 5/7/2005 5/7/2005
Follow these navigation and content tips to make your Web site a more effective marketing tool
Conn. In other words, the site has to be intuitive. According to Elges, usability is probably one of the most important aspects of your Web site. It not only will save you time and money, it will also drastically increase the effectiveness of your Web site, whether it exists as a brochure, e-commerce, or somewhere in between. Below are five simple steps to help your business ensure its Web site offers good usability. brochure and catalog. By defining the purpose and goals, you can ensure the correct selection of site navigation, prioritize tasks appropriately, and get the correct message out about what your company does that is of value to your user. In addition, your purpose and goals aid in the choice of the appropriate navigation style, page layout, graphics utilization, and what technologies should be used.
Based on information from Talln, Glastonbury, Conn. For more information, contact Mary Elges at mary_elges@tallan.com.
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make sure that your site is accessible with the equipment your target audience will have at hand. Will some visitors be handicapped or need to use screen readers? This will affect the overall design of your site.
Navigation Tips
System navigation should not be tricky or confusing. Elges suggests the following: Determine the Appropriate Navigation Structure. This can be done by considering navigation complexity, the tasks at hand, and the depth of the site to minimize the path of action traveled. Determine How Your Users Like to Navigate. Do they prefer images instead of buttons or text? Ensure Your Links Look Clickable. Utilize Page Identifiers. Let the visitor know where they are currently located in the site. Show Navigation State. Utilize style sheets and variations of graphics to show visited links and currently active page links.
readable at a glance. Use bullets, introduction summaries, and clear labeling and titles. Ensure Text Is Legible. Ensure all of your fonts are from the same font family and are at least ten points. Ensure there is good contrast between the page background and the font color, and remember white background with black text is still the most legible for your users. In addition, align your text to the left, and avoid using all capital letters and italics in large bodies of text. Use Color to Your Advantage. Color can be used for grouping, dividing, showing relationships, or to draw attention. But if you overuse color, it becomes more of a distraction than a marketing tool. My rule of thumb is to use no more than three colors throughout a site. If users visit your site and cant figure out how to find information or how to order a product, theyre going to go somewhere else and not come back, Elges explained. This is why companies cant put off making sure that their sites are up to par for usability. If your site has never been reviewed for usability, do it now. Every day that your company goes by with an ineffective Web site means another day of lost business.
Content Tips
As for content, Elges said the rule of thumb is to make the site easily understandable. Use the Users Language. Use Labels that Users Already Recognize. For example, use a Contact Us page, not Give Us a Yell. Write Clearly. Create content that is
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For more information, contact Mary Ellen Mills (800) 443-9353, ext. 444 or memills@aws.org.
WEM1156
COMING EVENTS
NOTE: A DIAMOND () DENOTES AN AWS-SPONSORED EVENT. International Laser Safety Conference. March 710, Marriott Hotel, Marina Del Rey, Calif. Sponsored by the Laser Institute of America. Contact: (407) 380-1553; www.laserinstitute.org; ilsc@laserinstitute.org. JOM-12, Twelfth International Conference on the Joining of Materials, and Fourth International Conference on Education in Welding. March 2023, Helsingr, Denmark. Contact Institute for the Joining of Metals, jom_aws@post10.tele.dk. Metalform 2005 Symposium. March 2023, Donald E. Stephens Convention Center, Rosemont, Ill. Sponsored by the Precision Metalforming Assn. Contact Precision Metalforming Assn., 6363 Oak Tree Blvd., Independence, OH 44131; (216) 901-8800; www.metalforming.com. WESTEC APEX (Advanced Productivity Exposition). April 47, Los Angeles Convention Center, Los Angeles, Calif. Contact Society of Manufacturing Engineers, (313) 425-3155; www.sme.org/events.
2528, David Inter-Continental Hotel, Tel Aviv, Israel. Sponsored by AWS Israeli International Section, Israeli National Welding Committee, and Association of Engineers and Architects in Israel. Cosponsored by AWS, IIW, and DVS. Contact: www.bgu.ac.il/me/convention/welding/welding2005.html.
Weldmex 2005 Welding Show and Symposium. Jan. 2527, World Trade Center, Mexico City, Mexico. Symposium to include resistance, arc, laser beam, and spot welding, and welding stainless steels. Contact: www.weldmex.com; chuckcross17@msn.com. Advanced Materials Conference Ship and Ground Vehicle Applications. Feb. 12, Rosen Centre Hotel, Orlando, Fla. Concurrent Technologies Corp., facilitated by National Center for Excellence in Metalworking Technology. Contact: www.ncemt.ctc.com.
New Orleans, La. Sixteen experts will discuss the elements of hot and cold cracking, weld repair, lamellar tearing, stress corrosion cracking, toughness testing, and heat treating. Contact American Welding Society, www.aws.org/conferences; (800/305) 443-9353, ext. 449. HOUSTEX APEX (Advanced Productivity Exposition). March 13, George R. Brown Convention Center, Houston, Tex. Contact Society of Manufacturing Engineers, (313) 425-3155; www.sme.org/events.
Dallas, Tex. Featuring gas products, oilfield and pipeline equipment, cutting and grinding products, brazing and soldering, resistance welding, laser beam welding and cutting, nondestructive testing and inspection, the SkillsUSA national student welding competition, and 35th International Brazing and Soldering Symposium. To exhibit, contact Susan Hopkins at (800) 443-9353, ext. 295. For more information, visit www.aws.org/expo.
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DECEMBER 2004
Twin Cities APEX (Advanced Productivity Exposition). May 35, Minneapolis Convention Center, Minneapolis, Minn. Contact Society of Manufacturing Engineers, (313) 425-3155; www.sme.org/events. Rapid Prototyping & Manufacturing. May 1012, Hyatt Regency Dearborn, Dearborn, Mich. Contact Society of Manufacturing Engineers, (313) 425-3155; www.sme.org/events. XXXVI Steelmaking Seminar International. May 1618, Vitria, E.S., Brazil. Contact: sandra.feraccini@abmbrasil.com.br; www.abmbrasil.com.br/seminarios/fusao/index.shtml. EASTEC APEX (Advanced Productivity Exposition). May 2425, Eastern States Exposition Grounds, West Springfield, Mass. Contact Society of Manufacturing Engineers, (313) 4253155; www.sme.org/events. Cleveland APEX (Advanced Productivity Exposition). June 79, I-X Center, Cleveland, Ohio. Contact Society of Manufacturing Engineers, (313) 425-3155; www.sme.org/events. EMO Hannover: The World of Machine Tools & Metalworking. Sept. 1421, Fairgrounds, Hannover, Germany. Contacts: www.emo-hannover.de; Hannover Fairs USA, Angela Dessables, at adessables@hfusa.com. FABTECH International 2005. Nov. 1316, McCormick Place South, Chicago, Ill. Contact Society of Manufacturing Engineers, (313) 425-3155; www.sme.org/events. FabForm 2005. Dec. 68, Exhibition Center, Nuremberg, Germany. Encompasses key sectors of sheet metal forming and fabricating technologies. Contact, www.fabform.de.
CWI/CWE Course and Exam. This 10-day program designed to prepare students for taking the AWS-certified CWI/CWE exam is presented in Troy, Ohio. The exam is presented on the last day. For schedule and entry requirements, contact Hobart Institute of Welding Technology, (800) 332-9448; www.welding.org; hiwt@welding.org. T.E.S.T. NDT, Inc., Courses. CWI preparation, ultrasonic, eddy current, radiography, dye penetrant, magnetic particle, and visual at Levels 1, 2, and 3. Meet SNT-TC-1A and NAS-410 requirements. On-site training available. T.E.S.T. NDT, Inc., 193 Viking Ave., Brea, CA 92821; (714) 255-1500; FAX (714) 255-1580; e-mail: ndtguru@aol.com; www.testndt.com. Boiler and Pressure Vessel Inspectors Training Courses and Seminars. Courses and seminars cover such topics as ASME Code Sections I, IV, V, VIII (Division 1), IX, and B31.1; Writing Welding Procedures; Repairing Pressure Relief Valves; Understanding How Boilers and Pressure Vessels Are Constructed and Inspected; and others. To obtain the 2004 schedule of training courses and seminars offered by the National Board of Boiler and Pressure Vessel Inspectors at its Training and Conference Center in Columbus, Ohio, contact: Richard McGuire, Manager of Training, (614) 888-8320, e-mail: rmcguire@nationalboard.org; www.nationalboard.org. Welding Introduction for Robot Operators and Programmers. This one-week course is offered at the Troy, Ohio, facility; or presented at a corporate location tailored to specific needs. Contact Hobart Institute of Welding Technology, (800) 3329448, ext. 5603; Web site: www.welding.org. Unitek Miyachi Corp. Training Services. Unitek Miyachis Applications Lab offers personalized training services on resistance and laser beam welding and laser marking. For information, contact (626) 303-5676 or e-mail info@unitekmiyachi.com; www.unitekmiyachi.com. CWI Preparatory and Visual Weld Inspection Courses. Classes presented in Pascagoula, Miss., Houston, Tex., Houma, La., and Sulphur, La. Course lengths range from 40 to 80 hours. Contact Real Educational Services, Inc., (800) 489-2890; or e-mail to info@realeducational.com. EPRI NDE Training Seminars. EPRI offers NDE technical skills training in visual examination, ultrasonic examination, ASME Section XI, and UT operator training. For information, contact Sherryl Stogner, (704) 547-6174, e-mail: sstogner@epri.com. Free Home Study Internet-based GTAW Training Course for Welding Engineers and Beginners. This three-month-long certificate course requires 23 h study/week. Presented by Huntingdon Fusion Techniques. For complete details, send an e-mail to hft@huntingdonfusion.com. Victor 2004 Training Seminars. Victor Equipment Co. offers training programs for gas apparatus and service repair technicians, end users, and sales personnel. For the 2004 schedule, contact Aaron Flippen, (940) 381-1217; www.victorequip.com. The Fabricators & Manufacturers Association, International (FMA), and the Tube and Pipe Association, International (TPA), Courses. For the course schedule, call (815) 399-8775; e-mail: info@fmametalfab.org; www.fmametalfab.org.
Educational Opportunities
Motorsports Welding School. Basic Course: Jan. 1721, Feb. 2125, March 1418, April 2529, May 2327, June 1317, Aug. 15, Sept. 1216, Sept. 2630, Oct. 1014, Nov. 1418, Dec. 59. Advanced Course: March 2125, May 26, Sept. 1923, Oct. 1721. The Lincoln Electric Co., Cleveland, Ohio. Contact: (216) 383-2461; www.lincolnelectric.com. Laser Welding and Processing Seminar. Feb. 15. A seven-hour seminar discusses Nd:YAG, CO2, disk, and fiber lasers, including basics, metallurgy, joint design, and safety. Registration is $1050. Contact: Hobart Institute of Welding Technology, www.welding.org; e-mail: hiwt@welding.org; (800) 332-9448, ext. 5300. Engineering Effective Team Management & Practice Seminar. Feb. 1618, Aug. 1517. Troy, Mich. Designed for managers at all levels, including those preparing to take on management responsibilities for the first time. Fees, including lunch and refreshments, are $1235, $1135 for members of the Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE). Contact: SAE International, (877) 606-7323; CustomerService@sae.org. Robotic Arc Welding Seminar. April 12. This one-day seminar covers robotic equipment, systems, applications, and economic justifications for implementation. Presented by instructors from Edison Welding Institute. Registration is $1050. Contact: Hobart Institute of Welding Technology, www.welding.org; e-mail: hiwt@welding.org; (800) 332-9448, ext. 5300.
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Educational Opportunities
AWS 2005 Schedule CWI/CWE Prep Courses and Exams
Exam applications must be submitted six weeks before the exam date. For exam information, contact Certification Dept., (800) 443-9353, ext. 273. For information on prep courses, contact Education Dept., (800) 443-9353, ext. 229.
City
Anchorage, Alaska
CWI/CWE Exam
City
New Orleans, La.
CWI/CWE Exam
March 2025 March 26 (API 1104 Clinic also offered) Atlanta, Ga. May 1520 May 21 (API 1104 Clinic also offered) Bakersfield, Calif. April 2429 April 30 (API 1104 Clinic also offered) Baton Rouge, La. Jan. 2328 Jan. 29 (API 1104 Clinic also offered) Beaumont, Tex. June 510 June 11 (API 1104 Clinic also offered) Birmingham, Ala. Feb. 611 Feb. 12 (API 1104 Clinic also offered) Birmingham, Ala. EXAM ONLY May 28 Boston, Mass. Jan. 2328 Jan. 29 (API 1104 Clinic also offered) Boston, Mass. EXAM ONLY May 14 Columbus, Ohio April 2529 April 30 (NBBPVI) Corpus Christi, Tex. EXAM ONLY Feb. 16 Corpus Christi, Tex. EXAM ONLY April 16 Corpus Christi, Tex. EXAM ONLY May 21 Dallas, Tex. Jan. 914 Jan. 15 (API 1104 Clinic also offered) Dallas, Tex. March 2126 No Test 9-Year Recertification Course Denver, Colo. Jan. 30Feb. 4 Feb. 5 (API 1104 Clinic also offered) Denver, Colo. Feb. 2126 No Test 9-Year Recertification Course Fargo, N.Dak. June 510 June 11 (API 1104 Clinic also offered) Fresno, Calif. Jan. 914 Jan. 15 (API 1104 Clinic also offered) Hartford, Conn. Feb. 27Mar. 4 March 5 (API 1104 Clinic also offered) Houston, Tex. March 1318 March 19 (API 1104 Clinic also offered) Knoxville, Tenn. EXAM ONLY Jan. 15 Las Vegas, Nev. March 611 March 12 (API 1104 Clinic also offered) Long Beach, Calif. May 2227 May 28 (API 1104 Clinic also offered) Miami, Fla. EXAM ONLY Jan. 20 Miami, Fla. EXAM ONLY Feb. 17 Miami, Fla. EXAM ONLY March 17 Miami, Fla. EXAM ONLY April 21 Miami, Fla. May 1520 May 21 (API 1104 Clinic also offered) Miami, Fla. EXAM ONLY June 16 Mobile, Ala. EXAM ONLY March 19 Milwaukee, Wis. May 16 May 7 (API 1104 Clinic also offered) Nashville, Tenn. March 611 March 12 (API 1104 Clinic also offered) Newark, N.J. May 16 May 7 (API 1104 Clinic also offered)
Jan. 2429 No Test 9-Year Recertification Course New Orleans, La. March 1318 March 19 (API 1104 Clinic also offered) Norfolk, Va. Feb. 2025 Feb. 26 (API 1104 Clinic also offered) Ontario, Calif. Jan. 30Feb. 4 Feb. 5 (API 1104 Clinic also offered) Perrysburg, Ohio EXAM ONLY March 12 Pittsburgh, Pa. May 2227 May 28 (API 1104 Clinic also offered) Pittsburgh, Pa. June 27July 2 No Test 9-Year Recertification Course Portland, Maine April 1722 Apr. 23 (API 1104 Clinic also offered) Roanoke, Va. April 1722 Apr. 23 (API 1104 Clinic also offered) Rochester, N.Y. EXAM ONLY March 12 Sacramento, Calif. April 49 No Test 9-Year Recertification Course Sacramento, Calif. June 510 June 11 (API 1104 Clinic also offered) St. Louis, Mo. May 1520 May 21 (API 1104 Clinic also offered) San Juan, P.R. May 2227 May 28 (API 1104 Clinic also offered) San Francisco, Calif. March 2025 March 26 (API 1104 Clinic also offered) Seattle, Wash. Jan. 30Feb. 4 Feb. 5 (API 1104 Clinic also offered) Spokane, Wash. May 16 May 7 (API 1104 Clinic also offered) Waco, Tex. EXAM ONLY May 7 York, Pa. EXAM ONLY March 26
INTERNATIONAL COURSES
The Mexico training and testing location is DALUS, S.A. de C.V., Monterrey, N.L. Contact: Lorena Garza at info@dalus.com. DALUS is an AWS-accredited training and testing facility. It employs the S.E.N.S.E. (Schools Excelling Through Skill Standards Education) programs.
April 16 July 16
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Whatever you wear and wherever you are, WeldAcademy puts welding knowledge at your fingertips. Just log your computer onto this convenient Internet-based introductory professional-development course. For in-service training and expanding your personal knowledge, WeldAcademy is precisely what you need. Engineers and others interested in welding technology and the welding industry will find it ideal for individual or corporate use. WeldAcademy offers a great entry point if youre new to welding, or an engaging refresher course to confirm previous knowledge. Its ten modules cover the basics, including safety, welding processes, welding inspection, and metallurgy. Over 30 pre- and post-assessment questions for each module reinforce key learning objectives. Teach yourself at your own pace, and earn up to 40 Professional Development Hours of American Welding Society continuing-education credits. In a corporate setting, WeldAcademys tracking-management system lets instructors rate module-users progress. For a demonstration, skill test, and licensing information, visit www.weldacademy.com You can enroll online or call 888-344-0609 toll-free. Nonmembers: AWS Members: $80/module or $800/set $60/module or $600/set
EDU 1146
The Virginia Class submarine is one candidate for design-for-manufacturing methods being developed by the Navy Joining Center.
he Navy Joining Center (NJC) is leading a project to develop novel design-for-manufacturing methods (DFM) and welding automation to support product-centered structural fabrication at General Dynamics Electric Boat (GDEB). The project team is combining the welding process and automation expertise of Edison Welding Institute (EWI) and the manufacturing systems design talents of the Institute for Manufacturing and Sustainment Technology (iMAST) to assist GDEB in planning a new state-of-theart fabrication facility that will feature product-centered manufacturing. At the onset of this project, the team identified a family of tank components in the Virginia Class submarine as candidates for DFM principles. The tanks identified were for feed water, bilge water, and lube oil. These tanks are complex structures requiring more than 15,000 worker-hours to fabricate. To facilitate making these tanks, state-of-the-art welding automation technologies have been evaluated for GDEB production welding operations. The most appropriate welding process and portable automation solutions have been determined, and the functional requirements have been established for a comprehensive flexible fixture design. 52 DECEMBER 2004
The primary purposes of any welding fixture are to ensure accurate positioning of components for production welding, and to provide minimal interference to the welder (or automation device) during the welding process. Even with an optimum welding fixture, the ability to produce a final component meeting all of the dimensional requirements will be limited unless consideration is given to the sequence in which individual pieces, or subassemblies, are introduced and included into the final welded structure being fabricated. Toward that end, the project team is currently selecting automation methods and developing new fixturing technology. Fixtures are also being designed to accommodate the access and positioning requirements dictated by optimized welding procedures and automation welding systems. A Welding Procedure Estimator is also under development to accurately predict welding fabrication time. This tool will assist in making production work assignments and enable GDEB to easily compare the economic benefits of multiple welding processes, or to compare the advantages of semiautomatic vs. automated deployment of a single welding process. The key to exploiting product-centered
manufacturing is to improve productivity across all production operations. Electric Boat has already achieved significant advancements in cutting, forming, marking, and surface-preparation processes. Without first developing the requisite infrastructure to support product-centered manufacturing, the potential of these enhanced capabilities cannot be fully realized. Thus far, the project has been successful and work will continue during the next year to apply flexiblefixture approaches employing DFM principles to applications for fabrication of foundation tanks in the Virginia Class submarine. For more information, contact Nancy Porter, Navy Joining Center, at 614-6885194 or e-mail to nancy_porter@ewi.org.
Operated by
The Navy Joining Center 1250 Arthur E. Adams Dr. Columbus, OH 43221 Phone: (614) 688-5010 FAX: (614) 688-5001 e-mail: NJC@ewi.org www: http://www.ewi.org Contact: Larry Brown
If you dont have this, you dont have the latest welding requirements for quality fabrication.
The industry reference since 1928, the 2004 edition covers: Design of Welded Connections Pre-qualification of Welding Procedure Specifications Qualification for Procedures and Personnel Fabrication Inspection Stud Welding Strengthening and Repair of Existing Structures
$616
$462
Founded in 1919 to Advance the Science, Technology and Application of Welding. To become an AWS member, call 800.854.7179 or visit our website at http://www.aws.org
WELDING WORKBOOK
Datasheet 262a
Fig. 2 Surfacing oscillation techniques and bead configurations. Excerpted from the Welding Handbook, Vol. 4, eighth edition. 54 DECEMBER 2004
SOCIETYNEWS
Candidates Named for Election to Key AWS Posts
BY HOWARD M. WOODWARD
he 20032004 Nominating Committee has announced its slate of candidates who will stand for election to AWS national offices for the 20052006 term, which begins June 1, 2005. Nominated are the following: Damian J. Kotecki for president Gerald D. Uttrachi for vice president Gene E. Lawson for vice president Victor Y. Matthews for vice president (Three vice presidents to be elected.) Osama Al-Erhayem for director-at-large William A. Rice, Jr., for director-at-large (Two directors-at-large to be elected.)
Moran, District 12 director; Mace Harris, District 15 director; John Mendoza, District 18 director; and Jack Compton, District 21 director. Don Howard, District 7 director, is fulfilling the June 1, 2004, through May 31, 2006, term vacated by the previous director. Nominated for President Damian J. Kotecki Damian J. Kotecki is currently completing his third year as an AWS vice president. He joined The Lincoln Electric Co. in 1989 where he serves as technical director for stainless and high-alloy product development. Kotecki has been active in the development of stainless steel welding filler metals since 1974. Kotecki holds a Ph.D. in mechanical engineering from the University of Wisconsin-Madison. Kotecki is past chair of the AWS Technical Activities Committee, the A5 Committee on Filler Metals and Allied Materials, the WRC Subcommittee on Welding Stainless Steels, and the WRC Subcommittee on Hardfacing and Wear. In addition, he is past chair of the International Institute of Welding (IIW), Commission II, as well as U.S. delegate to that commission. This year, he was elected vice president of the IIW. He is a member of the AWS Technical Papers Committee, the IIW Select Committee on Standardization, IIW Technical Committee, and ISO TC44 and its Subcommittee 3.
Kotecki continued on page 58
The National Nominating Committee was chaired by Past President Ernest D. Levert. Serving on the committee with Levert were Nancy C. Cole, Wayne J. Engeron, Alfred F. Fleury, Jesse A. Grantham, Wallace E. Honey, Robert J. Teuscher, Dave L. McQuaid, Dave J. Nangle, Tully C. Parker, Geoffrey H. Putnam, Oren P. Reich, and Eftihios Siradakis. Jack McLaughlin served as secretary. The Nominating Committees for Districts 3, 6, 9, 12, 15, 18, and 21 have selected the following candidates for election or reelection as District directors for the three-year terms June 1, 2005, through May 31, 2008. The nominees are Alan J. Badeaux, Sr., District 3 director; Neal A. Chapman, District 6 director; John Bruskotter, District 9 director; Sean
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Shown leaving the Edward G. Budd Mfg. Co. in 1935, the Flying Yankee starts out on what will become a 22-year-long history-making journey.
R. David Thomas, Jr., explained during his presentation speech, October 9, The AWS Past Presidents Committee meets once a year to review the nominations for the AWS Historical Welded Structure Award and vote on its Dave Thomas selections. I, for one, was tremendously impressed with this welded structure, representing the only historical structure we had yet recognized that made use of the electric resistance welding process. In this process, the surge of power to make the weld nugget in adjacent sheet steel components is measured in milliseconds to minimize the heat that would otherwise damage the strength and corrosion-resistant properties of the stainless steel. 56 DECEMBER 2004
Shown during the formal presentation of the AWS Historical Welded Structure Award October 8, are (from left) Joseph Tokarski; Lisa Jamen representing Governor Benson's office; George Howard, treasurer, Flying Yankee Restoration Group; Carol A. Murray, commissioner, N.H. DOT; and AWS District 1 Director Russ Norris. Taken at the New Hampshire Department of Transportation (NHDOT) headquarters in Concord. (NHDOT photo) A patent was issued in 1931 for the welding process which, because of its extremely short time interval, has since been termed shot welding. On behalf of the officers of the American Welding Society, I am privileged to make this award to be displayed with the train to railroad buffs, tourists, and other visitors to this exhibit. The inscription on the plaque reads:
Romanticized in this 1935 E. G. Budd Mfg. Co. advertisement, the Flying Yankee no doubt raised hopes for a brighter future for millions of Americans emerging from the depths of the Great Depression.
The Flying Yankee drew crowds in Nashua, N.H., March 1935, during the innovative streamliners inaugural run. (Photo from the collection of Ted Polinski.)
The American Welding Society Historical Welded Structure Award Is honorably bestowed upon the Flying Yankee. In recognition of the advanced technology and innovative welding technique known as shot welding that was developed by the Edward G. Budd Manufacturing Company to join stainless steel throughout this train. This process created a lighter and faster train, thereby revolutionizing American rail travel. The Flying Yankee remains one of the technological marvels of the modern world, and a testament to the quality of work undertaken by the welders and engineers who constructed it. October 8, 2004.
The AWS Historical Welded Structure Award honors structures that are at least 35 years old and have had a significant impact on history. Previous recipients include the St. Louis Arch, Hoover Dam, USS Intrepid aircraft carrier, and USS Nautilus submarine. George Howard said, The Flying Yankee not only pushed the limits of technology when it was built in 1935 at the end of the Great Depression, it also gave the American people the confidence they could dream again. Engineered with eye-popping Art Deco good looks and innovative features guaranteed to dazzle, it covered intermediate distances quickly with its Winton 201 diesel-electric locomotive the first longer-distance train not
powered by steam. It was the first train with fixed windows because it was also the first train with air conditioning. True, it had no dining car, but food was prepared in a galley and served to passengers on trays affixed to the seat in front the forerunner of the trays used today on all airlines. It was the first of the streamliners constructed of welded lightweight stainless steel throughout. Edward G. Budd Mfg. Co., Philadelphia, Pa., delivered the Flying Yankee on February 10, 1935, to the B&M Railroad, Mechanicville, N.Y. For the next several weeks, the train went on tour over the entire B&M-MEC Railroad system. In Nashua, N.H., 10,000 people came to see it, while 20,000 reportedly showed up to marvel over it in Boston. On April 1, 1935, the Flying Yankee was christened (with a bottle of water from Lake Sebago, Maine) and began service on its rigorous daily route: Portland to Boston to Portland to Bangor to Portland to Boston and back to Portland 750 miles/day, 6 days a week. (Maintenance was performed every Sunday.) The train was successful beyond expectations. It reliably served for 22 years until May 7, 1957, when service was discontinued. The train set was donated by B&M to the Edaville Rail Road in Carver, Mass., where it languished almost 40 years until a visionary, Robert S. Morrell, purchased the train and moved it to New Hampshire to begin its restoration to operating condition as an example of American ingenuity in the face of adversity. He stored the train in Glen, N.H., until 1997 when it was moved to the Claremont Concord Railroad facility at Claremont Junction, N.H. There the Flying Yankee is being restored to operate again some day as Mr. Morrell envisioned. To view many more photographs and interesting information visit, www.flying yankee.com.
A Snow Goose? Yes, the sleek aerodynamic front end of the Flying Yankee unfortunately scooped snow up over the windows obscuring the engineers view of the tracks. It took some more Yankee ingenuity to invent and retrofit this Snow Goose, whose wide-spread stainless steel wings deflected the white stuff off to the sides of the train. Also, you might want to fetch your November 1934 issue of Welding Journal to read M. B. Butler, Jr.s, article detailing how E. G. Budd Mfg. Co. used the shot-weld process to produce lightweight stainless steel truck bodies. The Flying Yankees restoration to operating condition, now about twothirds completed, will cost about $4 million and require another two years of work. But stimulated by her designation as an AWS Historical Welded Structure, the future looks brighter for this shotwelded stainless steel grand old lady to once again hear the All aboard! then fire-up her engine, head down the tracks, and start flying once more. WELDING JOURNAL 57
An AWS Fellow and a registered Professional Engineer, Kotecki holds several patents for arc welding filler metals. He has authored numerous technical papers and writes the Welding Journals Stainless Q&A column. AWS presented Kotecki with the James F. Lincoln Gold Medal in 1979 and again in 1987; the William Irrgang Award in 1987; the R. D. Thomas Memorial Award in 1983; the R. D. Thomas, Jr. International Lecture Award in 1994; the Prof. Dr. Rene Wasserman Memorial Award in 1995 and 1997; the George E. Willis Award in 1995; and the A. F. Davis Silver Medal in 1996. He was awarded the IIW Thomas Medal in 1999. He was selected by AWS to present the 1996 Comfort A. Adams Memorial Lecture titled Ferrite Determination in Stainless Steel Welds Advances since 1974. Nominated for Vice President Gerald D. Uttrachi Gerald D. Uttrachi, an AWS Life Member, is currently completing his second year as an AWS vice president. Uttrachi is president of his company, WA Technology, LLC. The firm sells his invention, a recently patented device that effects major cost savings during welding by minimizing shielding gas losses. Previously, he served as a development engineer, project engineer, welding materials laboratory manager, and director of welding market development with Linde Division of Union Carbide Corp. He was vice president of marketing for L -TEC Welding & Cutting Systems, then vice president of equipment marketing for ESAB Welding & Cutting Products. Throughout his 39-year career in the welding industry, Uttrachi has been involved with the development of automatic welding processes and welding materials. He has published numerous technical papers on welding processes and filler metals. Uttrachi holds masters degrees in mechanical engineering and in business management from New Jersey Institute of Technology. Uttrachi has served on various filler metals committees, the Welding Handbook Committee, Technical Papers Committee, and has chaired the Marketing and PEMCO Committees. He has also acted as representative to IIW Committees on Filler Metals Specifications. Uttrachi is currently chairman of the AWS Metric Practices Committee, a member of the Conference Committee, and is an AWS Foundation trustee. 58 DECEMBER 2004
Nominated for Vice President Gene E. Lawson Gene E. Lawson is currently completing his first year as an AWS vice president. An AWS member since 1974, he received a degree in commercial art/advertising from Colorado Institute of Art. He continued his education at Denver Community College specializing in welding and metallurgy. At Chemetron Corp., he specialized in sales of welding consumables and equipment. In 1975, he moved to southern California as Chemetrons regional sales manager. Although Chemetron later became Alloy Rods Corp., and is now ESAB Welding & Cutting Products, Lawson remains its representative as territory sales manager for southern California, Arizona, and Hawaii. Lawson has served several terms as chairman of the Los Angeles Section, served three years as a director-at-large, and two terms as District 21 director. He has taken the CWI preparation course and proctored CWI examinations. In 1990, he served on the Steering Committee for the AWS National Convention held in Anaheim, Calif. He also served on the Liaison Committee in 1996 for the Los Angeles show. Lawson has been a member of the Product Development, Prayer Breakfast, Membership, and Executive committees, and served on the Government Affairs Liaison, National Nominating, and Convention Site Committees. He has sat on the Board of Directors and Districts, Communications, and Marketing Councils. Lawson also serves on the advisory board at Orange Coast College. Nominated for Vice President Victor Y. Matthews Victor Y. Matthews, a member of the Cleveland Section for 37 years, began his career at The Lincoln Electric Co. in 1963 as a bend brake operator. He attended Lincolns welding school and earned all of the diplomas it had to offer. He progressed to work in the Electrode Research and Development group for 13 years where his work and name are recorded on patents in eight countries. Matthews moved to the manufacturing facility as Plant Welding Engineer where he worked for 12 years. He automated many workstations and put into production the companys firstever welding robot for piecework. In 1990, he joined the Service Department with responsibility for engine-driven welding machines. In 1992, he was assigned responsibility for Clevelandmanufactured consumable products worldwide. Currently, he is responsible
for consumables, GTA and SMA welding machines, plasma arc cutting machines, inverters under 300 A, and is liaison to the Italian subsidiaries. Lincoln recognized him with its Man of the Year Award in 1995. He is the past president of the Lincoln Electric Employees Association and Sick Benefit Fund. Matthews also is a past chairman of the Cleveland Section. He served as national chairman of the Liaison Committee for the 1995 Welding Show held at the Cleveland IX-Center. Currently, he is District 10 Director and serves on the Prayer Breakfast Committee, Standards Council, Districts Council, and the Membership Committee. He served eight years on PEMCO, the Executive Committee, the Professional Development Council, TFPS, and Government Affairs Liaison Committee. Nominated for Director-at-Large Osama Al-Erhayem Osama Al-Erhayem founded the Institute for Joining of Materials (JOM) in Denmark in 1979 to enhance training and research and development in welding technology. The Institute currently publishes a journal for its members residing in 40 countries. Al-Erhayem left his native Iraq following high school to study mechanical engineering in Germany. He earned his Ph.D. at the Technical University at Hannover in 1966. The topic of his dissertation was submerged arc welding of high-strength steels in shipbuilding. He moved to Denmark in 1966 and received Danish citizenship in 1973. He chartered and has chaired the AWS International Scandinavia Section in Denmark serving AWS members in Sweden, Norway, Finland, and Denmark. From 1969 until 1996, Al-Erhayem was a lecturer in welding and materials technology at Polytechnic, Elsinore, Denmark, and from 1996 until 2001 he was an associate professor at Denmark Technical University. From 1986 until the present he has served as an executive for the JOM Institute. Al-Erhayem has published widely and has been invited to present his papers in Egypt, Europe, Korea, and Scandinavia. He has received numerous awards, including the AWS International Meritorious Award, the AWS Leaders of Excellence Award, and the Distinguished Member Award. Nominated for Director-at-Large William A. Rice, Jr. William A. Rice, Jr., holds the AWS Silver Award for 25 years of membership in the Society. Now semiretired, he serves as a part-time CEO for OKI Bering Supply, and is a member of the
Neal A. Chapman
Donald C. Howard
John C. Bruskotter
boards of trustees for several health and financial organizations in West Virginia. Rice worked for Airgas, Inc., from 1993 to 2001, where he served as its president and COO. From 1971 to 1992, he was president of Virginia Welding Supply Co., and president of several other welding-related companies, which he later sold to Airgas. He served as chairman of the state VICA welding contests 19791983. Rice earned his degree in business marketing from West Virginia University with postgraduate studies in journalism, public relations, psychology, and labor relations. He has completed numerous welding-related courses presented by AWS, Hobart Brothers, Union Carbide, Stellite Hardfacing School, Stoody, The Lincoln Electric Co., and Thermal Dynamics. Nominated for Director District 3 Alan J. Badeaux, Sr. Alan Badeaux, an AWS member for 24 years, has been nominated for reelection as District 3 director. Badeaux has 24 years of experience as a welding instructor in the public school system training students to become certified welders and fabricators using federal, state, and industry guidelines and procedures to comply with OSHA and MOSHA regulations. Currently with Charles County Career Technology Center, where he has taught since 2001, he previously taught for 22 years at Crossland High School in Maryland. He chaired the Washington, D.C., Section 20012002, and served as advisor for many years for the Crossland High School and the Washington, D.C., Student Chapters. A graduate of the University of Maryland, he holds an advanced professional certification from the state of Maryland, is a certified highpressure-vessel pipe welder, and is certified as a structural steel welder.
Nominated for Director District 6 Neal A. Chapman Neal Chapman is a welding engineer for Entergy Nuclear Northeast, where he is responsible for the development and administration of the site welding program. He previously did engineering work at New York Power Authority in Scriba, N.Y., and as a corporate welding/quality engineer for J. P. Bell and Sons in Rochester, N.Y. Chapman has served as treasurer and technical representative for the Syracuse Section, and sits on the national level Certification Committee and the Ethics Subcommittee. He has chaired the Subcommittee on Certified Welding Engineers. He holds a degree in welding technology from Community College of Beaver County in Monaca, Pa., with continuing studies at the State University of New York at Oswego. Nominated for Director District 7 Donald C. Howard Don Howard is currently fulfilling the term vacated by the previous director: June 1, 2004, through May 31, 2006. He is a technical staff member at Concurrent Technologies Corp., a nonprofit applied research and development company in Johnstown, Pa., where he has worked in the Advanced Materials department since 1990. His area of interest is the welding of high-strength low-alloy (HSLA) steels for use in shipbuilding. His published reports concern the characteristics of HSLA steels. Prior to joining the company, he worked as a welder in a truck body manufacturing plant, and welding and fabrication as part of a building construction crew. Howard received his welding engineering technologies degree from Westmoreland County Community College, where he serves as an adjunct faculty member, teaching courses in its welding program.
Nominated for Director District 9 John C. Bruskotter John Bruskotter has been nominated for reelection as District 9 director. He currently operates Bruskotter Consulting Services working for an independent oil and gas operator. Previously, he worked for several years as a project manager with Dynamic Industries, Inc. From 19862000, Bruskotter was employed with Houma Industries, Inc., where his positions included fabrication and quality control manager, vice president of operations onshore, offshore fabrication and coatings and warehousing and maintenance. Bruskotter joined the AWS New Orleans Section in 1993 where he served as its treasurer and vice chair. From 1999 to 2000, he served as both the Section chairman and District 9 deputy Director. Nominated for Director District 12 Sean P. Moran Sean Moran is currently a product manager for Miller Electric Mfg. Co. He joined the company in 1999 as a welding engineer in the Arc Research group. His prior experience includes ten years as a welding instructor for secondary and postsecondary levels at public and private institutions. His teaching credentials were earned at the University of North Texas. He earned his engineering degree at The Ohio State University and his masters in engineering management from Milwaukee School of Engineering. He is a Certified Welding Inspector (CWI) and a Certified Welding Educator (CWE). He served on the AWS Welding Handbook Volume 2 Committee as chair of the Chapter Committee on Arc Welding Power Sources. He currently serves as a member of the Welding Handbook Volume 3 Committee on Welding Processes, with oversight for WELDING JOURNAL 59
Sean P. Moran Chapters 1, 3, and 5. He has served on the Education Scholarship Committee and is currently a member of the Educators Committee. Moran received the AWS District Educator Award, and also the Donald Hastings and the Hypertherm Hytech awards for leadership and scholarship. Nominated for Director District 15 Mace Harris Mace Harris joined Reynolds Welding Supply in 1988, where he currently serves as a route salesman. Earlier, he worked as a mechanic and a welder for ten years. A member of AWS since 1990 with the Northwest Section, he worked his way though the chairs and served as chairman 19992000. He has served on various Section committees. Currently, he is the cochair of the scholarship committee, a position he has held for six years. He also plays a leadership role in the SkillsUSA/VICA welding contests in Minnesota.
Mace Harris
John L. Mendoza
Nominated for Director District 18 John L. Mendoza John Mendoza is currently completing his first three-year term as District 18 director and has been nominated for reelection. Mendoza has served the City Public Service in San Antonios gas and electric utility for 30 years. He is qualified to ASME Section IX in SMA and GTA welding, and has performed power plant maintenance for more than 20 years. He joined AWS in 1991 and has held several offices in the San Antonio Section, including chairman 19971999. As an AWS Certified Welding Inspector and a Certified Welding Educator, he has served as a supervisor for the CWI and CWE exams. Mendoza has received the District Dalton E. Hamilton Memorial CWI of the Year Award.
Jack Compton learned the basics of welding from his father, who did a lot of welding, soldering and brazing, and sheet metal work. After he graduated high school, he worked as a welder at an aerospace company in Burbank, Calif. He performed welding in the U.S. Army where he served as a combat engineer in Vietnam. Following discharge, he welded at night and studied civil engineering and industrial arts in the daytime. He earned his associates degree from Pierce College, and later his bachelors from California State University at Los Angeles, doing welding jobs to pay his tuition. In 1976, he started teaching full time at College of the Canyons and Wm. S. Hart High School. He is the author and publisher of Guide to Certified Welder Examinations, which has sold 14,000+ copies. Today he does what he enjoys most teaches welding at College of the Canyons.
Greater Huntsville (8) Morgan City (9) Drake Well (10) Detroit (11) Upper Peninsula (12) Illinois Valley (13) Louisville (14) Siouxland (16) Ozark (17) Sabine (18) Puget Sound (19) Albuquerque (20) Hawaii (21) Fresno (22). Districts 2, 6, and 15 have no Sections qualifying for this award.
istrict Director Awards provide a means for District directors to recognize individuals who have contributed their time and effort to the affairs of their local Section and/or District.
Victor Matthews, District 10 Director, has nominated the following member for this award for 20032004. Guy Euliano Northwestern Pennsylvania Section.
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DECEMBER 2004
Tech Topics
technical committee meetings
WS technical committee meetings are open to the public. To attend a meeting, contact the staff secretary of the committee as listed in the Guide to AWS Services, on page 70 of this issue of Welding Journal. No technical committee meetings are listed at this time. equipment are available from individual manufacturers. Stakeholders: This document will be used by oxyfuel gas cutters (operators) involved with steel plate cutting, tooling fabrication, manufacturers of equipment, and building construction. Revised standard: Harold Ellison ext. 299.
standards notices
one standard for PINS
Development work has begun on the following revised standard. Materially affected individuals are invited to contribute to its development. Contact the staff secretary Harold Ellison, ext. 299, for more information. Participation on AWS Technical Committees and Subcommittees is open to all persons. AWS C4.2:200X, Recommended Practices for Safe Oxyfuel Gas Cutting Torch Operation. The new revised manual for oxyfuel gas cutting includes the latest procedures to be used in conjunction with oxyfuel gas cutting equipment. The manual also includes the latest safety requirements. Complete lists of
merged Arc Welding. Extension granted to 9/25/06. A5.20-95, Specification for Carbon Steel Electrodes for Flux Cored Arc Welding. Extension granted to 8/18/05. A5.23/A5.23M:1997, Specification for Low Alloy Steel Electrodes and Fluxes for Submerged Arc Welding. Extension granted to 9/25/06. A5.24-90R, Specification for Zirconium and Zirconium Alloy Welding Electrodes and Rods. Extension granted to 8/11/06. A5.30-97, Specification for Consumable Inserts. Extension granted to 8/11/06.
Membership Counts
Member Grades As of 11/1/04
Sustaining companies ......................414 Supporting companies* ....................199 Educational institutions ....................322 Affiliate companies............................257 Welding distributor companies ........ 51 Total corporate members .................. 1,243 *Supporting Company members identified as welding distributors have been upgraded to the Welding distributor companies category. Individual members......................42,947 Student + transitional members ........4,439 Total members.............................. 47,386
WELDING JOURNAL
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Affiliate Companies (continued) K. K. Welding, Inc. 107 Providence St., Hyde Park Boston, MA 02136 King Fabrication, LLC 19300 W Hardy Rd. Houston, TX 77073 M. K. Enterprises, Inc. DBA Van Grouw Welding 430 W Main St., Wyckoff, NJ 07481 Metal Sartigan, Inc. 1000 40th St., St. Georges QC G5Y 6V2 Canada Mingo Aerospace, LLC 8141 N 116th East Ave. Owasso, OK 74055 NI Welding Supply, LLC P.O. Box 11335 New Iberia, LA 70562
Nicks Welding, Inc. 1625 Main St. Lewiston, ID 83501 Suncoast Industries of Florida 11385 Ranchette Rd. Fort Myers, FL 33912 Sygometal Kokkinis D & Co. 15 Athinon Ave. 10447 Athens, Hellas 108657 Greece Waynes, Inc. P.O. Box 187 Morgan, MN 56266 Supporting Companies F. A. Wilhelm Construction, Inc. 3914 Prospect St. Indianapolis, IN 46206-0516 STADCO 1931 N Broadway Los Angeles, CA 90031
Distributor Member Best Welders Supply, Inc. 1824 SW Blvd. Tulsa, OK 74107 Educational Institutions College of the North Atlantic Box 370, Burin Bay Arm Newfoundland, Canada A0E 1G0 GEICO Auto Damage School 1690 Old Meadow Rd. McLean, VA 22102 Ivy Tech State College Region 14 200 Daniels Way Bloomington, IN 47404 Lurleen B. Wallace Community College MacArthur Campus 1708 N Main St. Opp, AL 36467
Member-Get-a-Member Campaign
isted are the members participating in the 20042005 campaign. For rules and a prize list, see page 67 of this Welding Journal. For questions regarding your member proposer points, call the Membership Dept. at (800) 443-9353, ext. 480.
Presidents Club (Members sponsoring 610 new Individual Members between June 1, 2004, and May 31, 2005.) W. M. Shreve, Fox Valley 8 J. Compton, San Fernando Valley 7 Presidents Honor Roll (Members sponsoring 15 new Individual Members between June 1, 2004, and May 31, 2005. Only those sponsoring 2 or more are listed.) M. Tryon, Utah 5 D. Guthrie, Tulsa 4 B. Franklin, Mobile 3 G. Taylor, Pascagoula 3 A. Baughman, Stark Central 2 J. Campbell, Racine-Kenosha 2 J. Cantlin, Southern Colorado 2 J. Carney, Western Michigan 2 J. Emmerson, Connecticut 2 K. Erickson, Florida West Coast 2 E. Ezell, Mobile 2 G. Fudala, Philadelphia 2 G. Garner, St. Louis 2 P. Harper, Baton Rouge 2 J. Jaeger, Kansas 2 D. Kensrue, Long Beach/Orange Cty. 2 J. Krall, Dayton 2 P. Layola, International 2 R. Robles, Corpus Christi 2 S. Salamon, New Jersey 2 G. Schroeter, Puget Sound 2 T. Shirk, Tidewater 2 O. Templet, Baton Rouge 2
Winners Circle (Members who have sponsored 20 or more new Individual Members, per year, since June 1, 1999.) J. Compton, San Fernando Valley (4) E. H. Ezell, Mobile (2) J. Merzthal, Peru (2) B. A. Mikeska, Houston (1) R. L. Peaslee, Detroit (1) W. L. Shreve, Fox Valley (1) G. Taylor, Pascagoula (2) S. McGill, Northeast Tennessee (1) T. Weaver, Johnstown/Altoona (1) G. Woomer, Johnstown/Altoona (1) R. Wray, Nebraska (1) ( ) Denotes the number of times the member has achieved Winners Circle status. Status will be reviewed at the close of each membership campaign year. Presidents Guild (Members sponsoring 20 or more new Individual Members between June 1, 2004, and May 31, 2005.) M. Karagoulis, Detroit 43
Student Sponsors (Members sponsoring 3 or more new Student Members between June 1, 2004, and May 31, 2005.) H. Hughes, Mahoning Valley 27 A. Baughman, Stark Central 22 D. Scott, Peoria 21 G. Euliano, Northwestern Pa. 20 C. Daily, Puget Sound 19 J. Fox, Northwest Ohio 17 D. Newman, Ozark 16 N. Carlson, E. Idaho/Montana 11 R. Collins, New York 11 J. Davis, Maryland 11 D. Combs, Santa Clara Valley 10 S. Robeson, Cumberland Valley 10 A. Badeaux, Washington, D.C. 9 G. Seese, Pittsburgh 8 J. Crosby, Atlanta 7 L. Davis, New Orleans 7 D. Hatfield, Tulsa 6 M. Hill, Lexington 6 M. Tait, L.A./Inland Empire 6 T. Alberts, Southwest Virginia 5 J. Boyer, Lancaster 5 J. Carney, Western Michigan 5 J. Pelster, Southeast Nebraska 5 D. Zabel, Southeast Nebraska 5 T. Buchanan, Mid-Ohio Valley 4 T. Shirk, Tidewater 4 B. Taves, Puget Sound 4 R. Theiss, Houston 4 R. Palovcsik, St. Louis 3 D. Vranich, North Florida 3
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DECEMBER 2004
SECTIONNEWS
Shown at the Boston Section program are John Scholl (left) and Ralph Fatieger. Shown at the Lancaster Section board meeting are (from left) Michael Sebergandio, Claudia Bottenfield, Russ Ross, John Boyer, Chairman John Ament, Trina Siegrist, Joe Taylor, and Tim Siegrist.
DISTRICT 1
Director: Russ Norris Phone: (603) 433-0855
NEW JERSEY
SEPTEMBER 21 Speaker: Dennis Sullivan, regional manager Affiliation: ESAB Welding & Cutting Topic: Flux cored wire and welding Activity: The Section honored Bill Miller, a past chairman, on his retirement as a welding instructor at Somerset County Vo-Tech. Ed Jones, Somerset County Vo-Tech principal, attended the program. October 19 Speaker: Tim Gittens , marketing manager Affiliation: Praxair Topic: Shielding gases and mixing techniques Activity: The program was held at the LAffaire Restaurant in Mountainside, N.J., the New Jersey Sections regular meeting place.
BOSTON
OCTOBER 4 Speaker: John Scholl, welding instructor Affiliation: Engineers Local No. 4 Topic: Specification used for the repair of earthmoving equipment Activity: The Section members toured the Operating Engineers Training Center at the Hoisting and Portable Engineers Local No. 4, led by welding instructors Ralph Fatieger and John Scholl.
Retiree Bill Miller (right) is shown with Ed Jones, principal, Somerset County VoTech, at the September New Jersey Section program.
CONNECTICUT
JUNE 15 Activity: The Section toured the Four Horsemen Motor Company in Preston, Conn., to study the designing, engineering, and fabrication of custom-made motorcycles. Steve Raymond, partner, conducted the tour. AUGUST 10 Activity: The Connecticut Section members joined members of the ASM International Hartford Chapter for a jointly sponsored golf tournament held at Blackridge Country Club. The event attracted 140 participants.
DISTRICT 3
Director: Alan J. Badeaux, Sr. Phone: (301) 934-9061
LANCASTER
SEPTEMBER 28 Activity: The executive board met to plan the Sections 20042005 calendar.
Shown at the October meeting of the New Jersey Section are Vince Murray (left) and speaker Tim Gittens. Activity: Brian T. Yarrison, advisor, and members of the York County School of Technology Student Chapter were guests at the program.
DISTRICT 2
Director: Kenneth R. Stockton Phone: (732) 787-0805
DISTRICT 4
Director: Ted Alberts Phone: (540) 674-3600, ext. 4314 WELDING JOURNAL 63
Southwest Virginia Section Chair Bill Rhodes (left) is shown with speaker Dave Waskey (center) and member Robert Gilbert at the September program.
DISTRICT 5
Director: Leonard P. Connor Phone: (954) 981-3977 Shown at the York Central Pennsylvania Section program are York County School of Technology Student Chapter members (front, from left) Andy Flory and Frank Ot; (rear, from left) Kurt Strauble, Shawn Mowery, Advisor Brian Yarrison, Kevin Woolridge, and Matt Wheeler.
DISTRICT 6
Director: Neal A. Chapman Phone: (315) 349-6960
NIAGARA FRONTIER
SEPTEMBER 23 Activity: The Section met at Swagelok Biopharm Services Co. near Rochester, N.Y., to study the high-purity orbital welding and inspection procedures used by the company. Ray Borawski led the tour of the facility. Ed Wolf made a presentation on precision orbital welding. Ron Kinz discussed the companys weld quality inspection procedures. Shown at the September Niagara Frontier Section program are (from left) Ed Wolf, Ray Borawski, Chairman Tom Matecki, and Ron Kinz.
Shown at the Southwest Virginia Section program are (standing, from left) instructor Larry Johnston, and his students Doug Slusher, Erica Franklin, Marcus Martin, Casey R. Campbell, George Evans, and Robert Day; (front row, from left) Chris Robertson, Clayton Mays, Clinton Mays, and Casey K. Campbell.
DISTRICT 7
Director: Don Howard Phone: (814) 269-2895
SOUTHWEST VIRGINIA
SEPTEMBER 23 Activity: The Section members toured the Areva/Framatome facility near Roanoke, Va., to study its steam generator area and technical training areas for performing remote welding opera64 DECEMBER 2004
CINCINNATI
tions during a nuclear power plant malfunction. The tour was conducted by Dave Waskey, welding department manager. Amherst County High School welding instructor Larry Johnston and ten of his welding students attended the program. OCTOBER 19 Speaker: Gordon Smith, ASNT Level III Affiliation: H. C. Nutting Co. Topic: Inspection techniques Activity: The meeting was held at Corinthian Restaurant in Cincinnati, Ohio.
DISTRICT 8
Director: Wallace E. Honey Phone: (256) 332-3366
CHATTANOOGA
SEPTEMBER 21 Activity: Following dinner at Durty Nellys Pub, the Section toured the Tennessee Rand Co.s new 100,000-sq-ft facility in downtown Chattanooga, Tenn. Highlights included the companys engineering and CNC machine shops.
GREATER HUNTSVILLE
AUGUST 19 Activity: The Section members toured the Taylor-Wharton Coyne facility in Huntsville, Ala., to study its methods for producing cylinders of oxygen, acetylene, and mixed gases. SEPTEMBER 23 Activity: Greater Huntsville Section Chair Larry Smith, a welding instructor at Blount County AVC, led the Section members on a tour of the schools shops to observe students engaged in ironworking and welding projects.
Shown at the New Orleans Sections tour are (from left) Ron Fryou, Bob Bartlett, John Schexnayder, Jim Greer, John Gerrets, and John Bruskotter.
HOLSTON VALLEY
OCTOBER 5 Activity: The Section held its social evening at Holiday Lanes Bowling in Johnson City, Tenn. Speaker Barbara Estes poses with Lavon Mills, Mobile Section chair, at the September program.
NASHVILLE
SEPTEMBER 11 Activity: The Section hosted its 10th annual golf tournament at Farm Lakes Golf Course. OCTOBER 12 Activity: The Nashville Section members toured the Bobby Hamilton Racing facility in Mt. Juliet, Tenn.
Gordon Smith (left) accepts a speaker plaque from Uwe Aschemeier, Cincinnati Section secretary, at the October meeting. gram was held at Cock of the Walk Restaurant in Mobile, Ala.
NEW ORLEANS
SEPTEMBER Activity: Gabe Signorelli conducted the Section on a tour of the New Orleans Sewage and Water Board. Jim Greer, AWS president, and John Bruskotter, District 9 director, participated, along with 60 members and guests.
DISTRICT 9
Director: John Bruskotter Phone: (504) 394-0812
Christine Farmer is shown with Lavon Mills, Mobile Section chair, at the September meeting.
MOBILE
SEPTEMBER 9 Speaker: Barbara Estes, president Affiliation: Associated Builders and Contractors Topic: Area construction projects Activity: Christine Farmer, a welder and mechanic at Christ Steam Plant in Pensacola, Fla., described how welding improved her life. She learned the skills she needed to obtain satisfying work at George Stone Vocational School. She attends evening college classes and makes presentations to students on the value of careers in welding. The pro-
PASCAGOULA
SEPTEMBER 30 Speaker: Mickey Holmes, technical representative Affiliation: Lincoln Motor Sports Topic: Job opportunities for welders at NASCAR Activity: This student night program was held at Mississippi Gulf Coast Community College (MGCCC). Students received door prizes including free tickets to the Talladega Winston Cup Race, donated by Lincoln Electric. Chairman William Harris from MGCCC presided over this meeting.
Mickey Holmes (left) is shown with William Harris, Pascagoula Section chair, at the September meeting. WELDING JOURNAL 65
DISTRICT 10
Director: Victor Y. Matthews Phone: (216) 383-2638
CHICAGO
OCTOBER 13 Speaker: Dennis Klingman, manager, technical training Affiliation: The Lincoln Electric Co. Topic: Motorsports welding Activity: Craig Ticheler and Walt Stein received awards for their outstanding service from Jesse Hunter, District 13 director. Jim Greer, AWS president, spoke on items of general interest about the Society. The program was held at Baby Joes Barbecue.
DISTRICT 11
Director: Eftihios Siradakis Phone: (989) 894-4101
DETROIT
Speaker Pat Pollock (right) accepts a speaker gift from Detroit Vice Chair Ray Roberts at the October meeting. OCTOBER 14 Speaker: Pat Pollock, vice president Affiliation: Genesis Systems Group Topic: Managing variations in robotic welding applications
DISTRICT 14
Director: Tully C. Parker Phone: (618) 667-7744
NORTHERN MICHIGAN
SEPTEMBER 30 Activity: The Section members toured the Great Lakes Maritime Academy in Traverse City, Mich. Highlights included a tour of the ship State of Michigan, new academy building, and parts of the Northwestern Michigan College Academy of Maritime and Culinary Arts campus. Jerry Williams conducted the tour.
INDIANA
SEPTEMBER 8, 9 Activity: Gary Dugger and Mike Anderson manned the Sections booth at the Solutions Expo 2004 presented by Praxair Distribution, Inc., in Indianapolis, Ind. SEPTEMBER 20 Activity: The Indiana Section members participated in demonstrations of soldering, brazing, and oxyacetylene procedures emphasizing safety. The program, held at Starweld in Rushville, Ind., was led by Bob Richwine from Ivy Tech State College, Muncie, Ind.
Shown at the September Lakeshore Section program are (from left) speaker Magnus Carlsson, Ben Mueller, and Jim Hoffmann.
WESTERN MICHIGAN
SEPTEMBER 20 Speaker: Mike Soter, vice president Affiliation: Rollan Engineering Services Topic: The art and science of resistance weld verification Activity: The Section made plans for its upcoming golf outing. The meeting was held at OMallys Grill and Pub in Grand Rapids, Mich.
ST. LOUIS
SEPTEMBER 23 Activity: Following an introductory program by Mark Kohler, vice president, manufacturing, the group toured the Gundlach division of JMJ Industries, Inc. The facility does everything inhouse from oxygen cutting to robotic application of hardfacing materials.
DISTRICT 12
Director: Michael D. Kersey Phone: (262) 650-9364 At the Chicago Section program, speaker Dennis Klingman (above, left) is shown with Chairman Jeff Stanczak. Below, Craig Ticheler (left) accepts his achievement award from Jesse Hunter, District 13 director.
LAKESHORE
SEPTEMBER 23 Speaker: Magnus Carlsson, manager Affiliation: SSAB, Oxelsund, Sweden Topic: Working high-strength steels Activity: Carlsson detailed the methods used at SSAB to weld, cut, form, and machine the companys Hardox brand of quenched and tempered wear-resistant steel. The program was held at the Coach Light Inn in Manitowoc, Wisc.
DISTRICT 15
Director: J. D. Heikkinen Phone: (800) 249-2774
DISTRICT 16
Director: Charles F. Burg Phone: (515) 233-1333
KANSAS CITY
OCTOBER 14 Speaker: David Craig Affiliation: Computer Engineering, Inc. Topic: Welding computer programs Activity: The program was held at Haywards Barbecue.
DISTRICT 13
Director: Jesse L. Hunter Phone: (309) 359-8358 66 DECEMBER 2004
DISTRICT 17
Director: Oren P. Reich Phone: (254) 867-2203
DISTRICT 18
Director: John L. Mendoza Phone: (210) 353-3679
SABINE
SEPTEMBER 21 Speakers: Ashley Madray, Jason Willingham, and Carl Chance Affiliation: Gas Innovations/WWS, Inc. Topic: Flux cored wire advantages and gas cylinder inspections Activity: The program was held at La Hacienda Restaurant in Port Arthur, Tex., for 56 attendees. Shown working the Indiana Sections booth at Solutions Expo 2004 are (from left) Gary Dugger and Mike Anderson.
DISTRICT 19
Director: Phil Zammit Phone: (509) 468-2310 ext. 120
DISTRICT 20
Director: Nancy M. Carlson Phone: (208) 526-6302
Bob Palovcsik (front, left), St. Louis Section Chair, presents a gift to Mark Kohler following the Sections tour of the Gundlach facilities.
DISTRICT 21
Director: Jack D. Compton Phone: (661) 362-3218
DISTRICT 22
Director: Kent S. Baucher Phone: (559) 276-9311
Shown at the Sabine Section program are (from left) Ashley Madray, Section Chair Tom Holt, Jason Willingham, and Carl Chance.
David Craig discussed welding software at the Kansas City Section meeting October 14.
INTERNATIONAL SECTION
RIO DE LA PLATA
SEPTEMBER 10 Activity: The International Section sponsored a national technical program named 8th FECOL Expo, attended by more than 200 visitors. Chairman Carlos Nozralah was a featured speaker. The Section also planned the 2nd IAS Conference on Uses of Steel, scheduled for November 35 at Hotel Colonial San Nicolas in San Nicolas, Buenos Aires, Argentina.
Shown at the Rio de la Plata Section Expo are (from left) Roberto Pieklo, Expo organizer; Heriberto Weiberlen, vice chair; Daniel Bottero, secretary; and Section Chairman Carlos Nozralah.
Dick Alley (left), AWS past president (198990), and presenter Bob Richwine (right) are shown at the Indiana Section September 20 program.
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CERTIFICATION OPERATIONS
Director Terry Perez.. tperez@aws.org ..................(470) Information and application materials on certifying welders, inspectors, and educators..(273)
PUBLICATION SERVICES
Department Information ........................(275) Managing Director Andrew Cullison.. cullison@aws.org......(249)
ADMINISTRATION
Executive Director Ray W. Shook.. rshook@aws.org ............(210) CFO/Deputy Executive Director Frank R. Tarafa.. tarafa@aws.org ..........(252) Deputy Executive Director Jeffrey R. Hufsey .. hufsey@aws.org ....(264) Associate Executive Director Cassie R. Burrell.. cburrell@aws.org ....(253) Corporate Director Business Management Systems Linda K. Henderson.. lindah@aws.org (298) Executive Assistant for Board Services Gricelda Manalich.. gricelda@aws.org ..(294)
Welding Journal
Publisher/Editor Andrew Cullison.. cullison@aws.org......(249) National Sales Director Rob Saltzstein.. salty@aws.org ..............(243)
TECHNICAL SERVICES
Department Information ........................(340) Managing Director Andrew R. Davis.. adavis@aws.org ......(466) International Standards Activities, American Council of the International Institute of Welding (IIW) Director, National Standards Activities Peter Howe.. phowe@aws.org................(309) Machinery and Equipment Welding, Robotic and Automatic Welding, Computerization of Welding Information. Manager, Safety and Health Stephen P. Hedrick.. steveh@aws.org (305) Metric Practice, Personnel and Facilities Qualification, Safety and Health, Joining of Plastics and Composites. Technical Committee Secretaries Harold P. Ellison.. ellison@aws.org .....(299) Welding in Sanitary Applications, Automotive Welding, Resistance Welding, High-Energy Beam Welding, Aircraft and Aerospace, Oxyfuel Gas Welding and Cutting. John L. Gayler.. gayler@aws.org ..........(472) Structural Welding, Welding Iron Castings. Rakesh Gupta.. gupta@aws.org ..........(301) Filler Metals and Allied Materials, International Filler Metals, Instrumentation for Welding. Ross Hancock.. rhancock@aws.org ....(226) Welding Qualification, Friction Welding, Railroad Welding, Joining of Metals and Alloys. Cynthia Jenney .. cynthiaj@aws.org ....(304) Definitions and Symbols, Brazing and Soldering, Brazing Filler Metals and Fluxes, Technical Editing. Brian McGrath . bmgrath@aws.org ......(311) Methods of Inspection, Mechanical Testing of Welds, Thermal Spray, Arc Welding and Cutting, Welding in Marine Construction, Piping and Tubing, Titanium and Zirconium Filler Metals, Filler Metals for Naval Vessels. Note: Official interpretations of AWS standards may be obtained only by sending a request in writing to the Managing Director, Technical Services. Oral opinions on AWS standards may be rendered. However, such opinions represent only the personal opinions of the particular individuals giving them. These individuals do not speak on behalf of AWS, nor do these oral opinions constitute official or unofficial opinions or interpretations of AWS. In addition, oral opinions are informal and should not be used as a substitute for an official interpretation.
Welding Handbook
Welding Handbook Editor Annette OBrien.. aobrien@aws.org ......(303) Publishes the Societys monthly magazine, Welding Journal, which provides information on the state of the welding industry, its technology, and Society activities. Publishes Inspection Trends, the Welding Handbook, and books on general welding subjects.
MARKETING
Corporate Director Bob Bishopric.. bbish@aws.org..............(213) Plans and coordinates marketing of AWS products and services.
COMPENSATION + BENEFITS
Director Luisa Hernandez.. luisa@aws.org ..........(266)
DATABASE ADMINISTRATION
Corporate Director Jim Lankford.. jiml@aws.org ..................(214)
Marketing Communications
Senior Manager George Leposky.. gleposky@aws.org ....(416) Manager Amy Nathan.. nathan@aws.org. .............(308)
MEMBER SERVICES
Department Information ........................(480) Associate Executive Director Cassie R. Burrell.. cburrell@aws.org ....(253) Director Rhenda A. Mayo.. rhenda@aws.org ......(260) Serves as a liaison between Section members and AWS headquarters. Informs members about AWS benefits and activities.
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TeleWeld
FAX: (305) 443-5951
Publications Sales/Orders
Global Engineering Documents (800) 854-7179 or (303) 397-7956, or online at www.global.ihs.com.
Reprints
Order quality custom reprints from Claudia Stachowiak, FosteReprints, telephone (866) 879-9144 ext. 121, or e-mail at sales@fostereprints.com.
Honorary-Meritorious Awards
The Honorary-Meritorious Awards Committee makes recommendations for the nominees presented for Honorary Membership, National Meritorious Certificate, William Irrgang Memorial, and the George E. Willis Awards. These awards are presented during the AWS Exposition and Convention held each spring. The deadline for submissions is July 1 prior to the year of awards presentations. Send candidate materials to Wendy Sue Reeve, Secretary, Honorary-Meritorious Awards Committee, 550 NW LeJeune Rd., Miami, FL 33126. A description of the awards follow.
It is the intent of the American Welding Society to build AWS to the highest quality standards possible. The Society welcomes your suggestions. Please contact any of the staff listed on the previous page or AWS President James E. Greer, Moraine Valley Community College, 248 Circlegate Rd., New Lenox, IL 60451.
National Meritorious Certificate Award: This award is given in recognition of the candidates counsel, loyalty, and devotion to the affairs of the Society, assistance in promoting cordial relations with industry and other organizations, and for the contribution of time and effort on behalf of the Society. William Irrgang Memorial Award: This award is administered by the American Welding Society and sponsored by The Lincoln Electric Co. to honor the late William Irrgang. It is awarded each year to the individual who has done the most to enhance the American Welding Societys goal of advancing the science and technology of welding over the past five-year period. George E. Willis Award: This award is administered by the American Welding Society and sponsored by The Lincoln Electric Co. to honor George E. Willis. It is awarded each year to an individual for promoting the advancement of welding internationally by fostering cooperative participation in areas such as technology transfer, standards rationalization, and promotion of industrial goodwill.
International Meritorious Certificate Award: This award is given in recognition of the candidates significant contributions to the worldwide welding industry. This award should reflect Service to the International Welding Community in the broadest terms. The awardee is not required to be a member of the American Welding Society. Multiple awards can be given per year as the situation dictates. The award consists of a certificate to be presented at the awards luncheon or at another time as appropriate in conjunction with the AWS Presidents travel itinerary, and, if appropriate, a one-year membership in the American Welding Society. Honorary Membership Award: An Honorary Member shall be a person of acknowledged eminence in the welding profession, or who is accredited with exceptional accomplishments in the development of the welding art, upon whom the American Welding Society sees fit to confer an honorary distinction. An Honorary Member shall have full rights of membership.
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NEW LITERATURE
English Translations of DIN Standards Released
The 2004 Catalog of DIN Translations, issued as volume 3 of the DIN Catalog of Technical Rules, lists English translations of nearly 14,500 DIN, DIN EN, and DIN ISO standards. The 468-page, soft cover volume covers such diverse fields as gauges, fasteners, steel and nonferrous metal products, compression couplings, building construction contract procedures, insulating materials, materials testing, etc. The 17,700 documents, classified according to subject group, are presented with date of issue and a keyword index. For more information, e-mail foreignsales @beuth.de, or visit www.beuth.de.
FOR MORE INFORMATION, CIRCLE NUMBER ON READER INFORMATION CARD. ment for a wide array of applications in the industrial laser materials processing industry. The applications range from cutting sheet metal to laser beam welding. Systems and equipment are designed to meet the specific requirements of major laser manufacturers including Bystronic, Tanaka, Mitsubishi, and Trumpf. Information is grouped according to specific systems that supply mixtures of gases to CO2 and solid-state lasers with demanding requirements for purity, pressure, and flow. CONCOA
1501 Harpers Rd., Virginia Beach, VA 23454
Detailed are a crushproof thermoplastic polyurethane hose reinforced with a urethane helix, drag-resistant types, lightweight PVC, heavy 60-mil urethane hose, vacuum hoses, and blower hoses. Hi-Tech Hose, Inc.
400 E. Main St., Georgetown, MA 01833
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110
An 18-page, full-color catalog features the companys lines of professionalgrade portable electric power tools and abrasives for industrial construction and welding applications. Among the new and enhanced tools displayed are a rotary hammer, reciprocating saw, masonry bits, jig saw, variable-speed polisher, and a number of new accessories including a cordless battery pack, paint-remover
Circle No. 25 on Reader Info-Card
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accessory, and new 5- and 6-in. random orbit sanding discs. Metabo
1231 Wilson Dr., West Chester, PA 19380
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Explore alternatives - Find practical solutions Specify least cost Welding Procedures
www.iweconsulting.com
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WELDING JOURNAL
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PERSONNEL
Lincoln Names Asia Pacific Head
Lincoln Electric Holdings, Inc., has announced the promotion of Thomas A. Flohn to president of Lincoln Electric Asia Pacific, effective January 1. He will succeed Michael J. F. Thomas A. Flohn Gillespie. Until he retires at the end of the 2005 first quarter, Gillespie will become vice president and special assistant to the president of Asia Pacific. Flohn, with the company for 21 years, is presently vice president, sales and marketing. has named Allen J. (Jeff) Clay III as southern region sales manager, responsible for shielding gas systems and acetylene cylinders in Alabama, Florida, Georgia, Louisiana, MissisAllen J. Clay III sippi, South Carolina, and Texas. Clay previously was national marketing manager for Airgas Nitrous Oxide.
NEW LITERATURE
continued from page 73
metal arc welding (SMAW) and gas metal arc welding (GMAW) processes. The video action is organized in a modular menu-driven format that corresponds with the skills-based student workbooks and comprehensive Instructor Guides. Displayed are dynamic welding videos and close-up views of the weld pool, with all of the amenities of the digital video disc technology including, slow motion, freeze frame, and both English and Spanish sound tracks. For more information and price schedules, contact Training Materials Dept., Hobart Institute of Welding Technology, 400 Trade Square East, Troy, OH 45373; (800) 332-9448, ext. 5433; e-mail hiwt@welding.org.
Kris Scherm
Obituary
Robert (Bob) J. Keller
Robert J. Keller, 92, died December 18, 2003. Mr. Keller, a lifelong supporter of the American Welding Society, was born in southern Indiana. He graduated from Hanover College in 1933 with majors in chemistry and physics. Mr. Keller moved to Milwaukee, Wis., with his wife, Nellie, to work in the A. O. Smith Corp. welding research laboratory. There, he moved up into management positions in the welding research division, which was subsequently sold to Harnishfager, and then to Chemetron. After retiring from Chemetron, Hanover, Pa., he returned to southern Indiana where he took a job selling welding supply contracts for Welding Therapy in Columbus, Ind. Mr. Keller later started his own consulting company serving clients in Australia, Germany, and the U.S.
A 4-page, full-color brochure provides details on the Cutmaster 101 air plasma cutting system for non-high-frequency start automation applications. Described is the advanced torch connector (ATC) for quick disconnects. This system is rated for 3 1 8-in. production cut capacity and 1 4-in. edge start capacity for use on aluminum, stainless steel, and mild steel including thingauge production fabrications. Thermal Dynamics Corp. 115
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DECEMBER 2004
H. Ates, A. Durgutlu, and K. Karacif, 34 (Dec) Power Plant Benefits From Innovative Repair Technology, Nuclear N. Chapman, 36 (Aug) Pressure Vessel Challenge, Vertical Welding Solves a J. Ferrell and P. Formento, 48 (Nov) Profitable Days in Chicago, Spend Four M. R. Johnsen, 38 (Jan) Projection Welding for Hermetic Sealing, Optimizing T. E. Salzer, 42 (March) Properties of Reeled Pipelines, Weld Metal J. R. Still, 42 (July) Protect Your Most Valuable Asset Yourself M. Schifsky, 30 (Sept) Protection, Volunteer Welders Give Troops a Ton of R. Hancock, 83 (Apr) Repair Technology, Nuclear Power Plant Benefits from Innovative N. Chapman, 36 (Aug) Repair Saves Airline Millions, Weld M. R. Johnsen, 28 (Aug) Root Beads in P91, Welding C. Patrick, T. Ferguson, and J. Maitlen, 38 (July) Safety, Force-Guided Relays Add Extra Measure of R. Harris, 38 (Sept) Shipbuilding, New Developments in Aluminum T. Anderson, 28 (Feb) Ships, Laser-Hybrid Welding of S. Herbert, 39 (June) Show, A Look at the AWS Welding A. Cullison, R. Hancock, and M. R. Johnsen, 33 (June) Skills, Dinosaur Project Teaches Ironworkers New N. Borchert, 42 (Nov) Society Turns 85, The American Welding A. Cullison, 50 (June) Solder Alloy Powders by Atomization, Manufacture of Brazed and D. Fortuna, 40 (Oct) Spar Hulls for Oil and Gas Platforms, Now Made in USA: R. Hancock, 38 (Apr) Sports Car, Robotic Welding of Aluminum Space Frames Speeds Introduction of C. Occhialini, 24 (Feb) Stainless Steel, Modern Brazing of S. L. Feldbauer, 30 (Oct) Strongest Linepipe in Arctic Conditions, Welding the Worlds R. Hancock, 58 (July) Success, Dressed for R. Hancock, 29 (Apr) Thermoplastics, Welding of D. Ziegler, 45 (Oct) Tips for Selecting Qxyfuel Cutting Tips J. Jones, 71 (Sept)
Titanium Specification Revised, Update: J. A. McMaster and R. C. Sutherlin, 43 (May) Toolbox?, Whats in Your A. Cullison, R. Hancock, and M. R. Johnsen, 34 (May) Torches, Developments in Guns and R. Hancock and M. R. Johnsen, 29 (May) Trans-Alaska Pipeline, Maintenance Welding on the W. A. Bruce and A. S. Beckett, 48 (July) Troops a Ton of Protection, Volunteer Welders Give R. Hancock, 83 (April) Understanding Distortion D. McGowan, 76 (Sept) Usability, Upgrade Your Web Sites 41 (Dec) Vacuum, EBW of Aluminum Breaks Out of the K. Schulze and D. E. Powers, 32 (Feb) Web Sites Usability, Upgrade Your 41 (Dec) Weldability of Powder Metal Parts, Exploring the A. Kurt, H. Ates, A. Durgutlu, and K. Karacif, 34 (Dec) Welders Give Troops a Ton of Protection, Volunteer R. Hancock, 83 (Apr) Welding, Dads and Daughters Bond through R. Hanock, 91 (Apr) Welding 9% Nickel Steel, Electrodes for J. Hilkes, F. Neesen, and S. Caballero, 30 (Jan) Weld Repair Saves Airline Millions M. R. Johnsen, 28 (Aug) Welding Show, A Look at the AWS A. Cullison, R. Hancock, and M. R. Johnsen, 33 (June) Welding Society Turns 85, The American A. Cullison, 50 (June) Welding Solves a Pressure Vessel Challenge, Vertical J. Ferrell and P. Formento, 48 (Nov) Welding Sparks Self-Esteem for Girls R. Hancock, 73 (Sept) Welding Using Insert Metal, Friction H. Ochi, K. Ogawa, Y. Yamamoto, and Y. Suga, 36 (March) Welding?, Whats Next for Hybrid R. W. Messler, Jr., 30 (March) Wellhead Housing, Postweld Heat Treatment Is Critical to Refurbishing a J. R. Still and V. Blackwood, 34 (Oct) Wheels, Save Time and Money with the Right Abrasive C. Karpac, K. Honaker, and T. Fogarty, 38 (May) Workplace Safety: The Human Factor M. Pankratz and D. Dorn, 32 (Sept) World Now, Theyre in the Real M. R. Johnsen, 87 (Apr) World Trade Center Site, Construction Begins at the B. Sommer, 36 (Nov)
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Sealing, 42 (March) Schifsky, M. Protect Your Most Valuable Asset Yourself, 30 (Sept) Schulze, K. and Powers, D. E. EBW of Aluminum Breaks Out of the Vacuum, 32 (Feb) Sommer, B. Construction Begins at the World Trade Center Site, 36 (Nov) Stewart, C. Vertical Plate Technology Extends the Life of Coke Drums, 34 (Apr) Still, J. R. Understanding Hydrogen Failures of Ferritic Welds, 26 (Jan) Still, J. R. Weld Metal Properties of Reeled Pipelines, 42 (July)
Still, J. R., and Blackwood, V. Postweld Heat Treatment Is Critical to Refurbishing a Wellhead Housing, 34 (Oct) Stratton, P. F., and McCracken, A. Controlled Atmospheres for Bright Brazing, 25 (Oct) Suga, Y., Ochi, H., Ogawa, K., and Yamamoto, Y. Friction Welding Using Insert Metal, 36 (March) Sutherlin, R. C., and McMaster, J. A. Update: Titanium Specification Revised, 43 (May) Yamamoto, Y., Suga, Y., Ochi, H., and Ogawa, K. Friction Welding Using Insert Metal, 36 (March) Ziegler, D. Welding of Thermoplastics, 45 (Oct) Zhang,Y. M., Jiang, M., and Lu, W. Double Electrodes Improve GMAW Heat Input Control, 39 (Nov)
690 and Ductility-Dip V. R. Dave, M. J. Cola, M. Kumar, A. J. Schwartz, and G. N. A. Hussen, 1-S (Jan) Deformation and Fracture of Weld-Bonded Joints, CohesiveZone Modeling of the M. N. Cavalli, M. D. Thouless, and Q. D. Yang, 133-S (Apr) Deformation of a Completely Penetrated GTA Weld, Numerical Simulation of Transient 3-D Surface C. S. Wu, P. C. Zhao, and Y. M. Zhang, 330-S (Dec) Direct Observations of Ausentite, Bainite, and Martensite Formation during Arc Welding of 1045 Steel Using TimeResolved X-ray Diffraction J. W. Elmer, T. A. Palmer, S. S. Babu, W. Zhang, and T. DebRoy, 244-S (Sept) Distortion Analysis for Fillet Welded Thin-Plate T-joints, Plasticity-Based G. H. Jung and C. L. Tsai, 177-S (June) Distortion Control Plans on Angular Distortion in Fillet Welded T-Joints G. H. Jung and C. L. Tsai, 213-S (July) Ductility-Dip Cracking in Nickel-Based Weld Metals Part III, An Investigation of M. G. Collins, A. J. Ramirez, and J. C. Lippold, 39-S (Feb) Ellipsodial Heat Source in Finite Thick Plate, Analytical Approximate Solution for Double N. T. Nguyen, Y. -W. Mai, S. Simpson, and A. Ohta, 82-S (March) Failure Modes and Static Strength of Aluminum Resistance Spot Welds, Effects of Fusion Zone Size on X. Sun, E. V. Stephens, R. W. Davies, M. A. Khaleel, and D. J. Spinella, 308-S (Nov) Filler Metals, The Kinetics of Nitrogen Absorption by ArcMelted Fe-C-Mn-Type Filler Metals A. Gruszczyk, 94-S (March) Fillet Mass and Topology of Aluminum Brazed Joints, Prediction of the D. P. Sekulic, F. Gao, H. Zhao, B. Zellmer, and Y. Y. Qian, 102-S (March) Fillet Welded Thin-Plate T-joints, Plasticity-Based Distortion Analysis for G. H. Jung and C. L. Tsai, 177-S (June) Fillet Welded T-Joints, Fundamental Studies on the Effect of Distortion Control Plans on Angular Distortion in G. H. Jung and C. L. Tsai, 213-S (July) Finite Element Analyses of Nugget Growth, Resistance Spot Welding of Aluminum Alloy to Steel with Transition Material X. Sun and M. A. Khaleel, 197-S (July) Flux Cored Arc Weld Metal Deposits, The Effect of Welding Procedure on ANSI/AWS A5.29-98 E81T1-Ni1 H. G. Svoboda, N. M. Ramini De Rissone, L. A. De Veida, and E. S. Surian, 301-S (Nov) Fracture of Weld-Bonded Joints, Cohesive-Zone Modeling of the Deformation and M. N. Cavalli, M. D. Thouless, and Q. D. Yang, 133-S (April) Friction Welded Aluminum Alloy Subjected to an External Electrostatic Field, Metallurgical Characterization of a L. Fu and S. G. Du, 232-S (Aug) Full-Penetration Al-Mg-Si-Welds, Liquation Cracking in C. Huang and S. Kou, 111-S (April) Fusion Zone Size on Failure Modes and Static Strength of Aluminum Resistance Spot Welds, Effects of X. Sun, E. V. Stephens, R. W. Davies, M. A. Khaleel, and D. J. Spinella, 308-S (Nov) Gases in GTA Welding of a Wrought AZ80 Magnesium Alloy, An Investigation on the Effects of M. Marya, G. R. Edwards, and S. Liu, 203-S (July) GMA Weld Pool with Free Surface, Three Dimensional Simulation of Transient Z. Cao, Z. Yang, and X. L. Chen, 169-S (June) GTA Welding of a Wrought AZ80 Magnesium Alloy, An
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Investigation on the Effects of Gases in M. Marya, G. R. Edwards, and S. Liu, 203-S (July) GTA Weld, Numerical Simulation of Transient 3-D Surface Deformation of a Completely Penetrated C. S. Wu, P. C. Zhao, and Y. M. Zhang, 330-S (Dec) HAZ of New 13% Cr Martensitic Stainless Steels, Microstructure-Property Relationships in O. M. Askelsen, G. Rorvik, P. E. Kvaale, and C. Van Der Eijk, 160S (May) Heat Source in Finite Thick Plate, Analytical Approximate Solution for Double Ellipsodial N. T. Nguyen, Y. -W. Mai, S. Simpson, and A. Ohta, 82-S (March) High-Frequency Electric Resistance Welding, Penetrator Formation Mechanisms during J. -H. Choi, Y. S. Chang, C. -M. Kim, J.-S. Oh, and Y. -S. Kim, 27-S (Jan) Honeycomb Structures A Statistical, Activated Diffusion Brazing Technology for Manufacture of Titanium X. Huang and N. L. Richards, 73-S (March) HSLA Steel Welds, Yttrium Hydrogen Trapping to Manage Hydrogen in C. A. Lensing, Y. D. Park, I. S. Maroeff, and D. L. Olson, 254-S (Sept) Hybrid Welding Parameters on Bead Geometry, The Influence of Various M. El Rayes, C. Walz, and G. Sepold, 147-S (May) Hydrogen in HSLA Steel Welds, Yttrium Hydrogen Trapping to Manage C. A. Lensing, Y. D. Park, I. S. Maroeff, and D. L. Olson, 254-S (Sept) Kinetics of Nitrogen Absorption by Arc-Melted Fe-C-Mn-Type Filler Metals, The A. Gruszczyk, 94-S (March) Kissing Bond Phenomena in Solid-State Welds of Aluminum Alloys A. Oosterkamp, L. Djapic Oosterkamp, and A. Nordeide, 225-S (Aug) Lance, Flame-Focusing Modification of a Wire-Core Thermal H. Wang, P. Pranda, and V. Hlavacek, 283-S (Oct) Laser Beam Welding of Clad Steel Plate, Single-Pass S. Missori, F. Murdolo, and A. Sili, 65-S (Feb) Lasers, Development and Evaluation of an In-Situ Beam Measurement for Spot Welding P. W. Fuerschbach, J. T. Norris, R.C. Dykhuizen, and A. R. Mahoney, 154-S (May) Laser Roll Welding, Joining of Aluminum Alloy 5052 and Low-Carbon Steel by M. J. Rathod and M. Kutsuna, 16S (Jan) Low-Carbon Steel by Laser Roll Welding, Joining of Aluminum Alloy 5052 and M. J. Rathod and M. Kutsuna, 16-S (Jan) Magnesium Alloy, An Investigation on the Effects of Gases in GTA Welding of Wrought AZ80 M. Marya, G. R. Edwards, and S. Liu, 203-S (July) Martensitic Stainless Steels, Microstructure-Property Relationships in HAZ of New 13% Cr O. M. Askelsen, G. Rorvik, P. E. Kvaale, and C. Van Der Eijk, 160-S (May) Mechanisms during High-Frequency Electric Resistance Welding, Penetrator Formation J. -H. Choi, Y. S. Chang, C. -M. Kim, J. -S. Oh, and Y. -S. Kim, 27-S (Jan) Metallurgical Characterization of a Friction Welded Aluminum Alloy Subjected to an External Electrostatic Field L. Fu and S. G. Du, 232-S (Aug) Metallurgy of Gd-Enriched Austenitic Alloys for Spent Nuclear Fuel Applicatons Part I: Stainless Steel Alloys, Physical and Welding J. N. DuPont, C. V. Robino, J. R. Michael, R. E. Mizia, and D. B. Williams, 289-S (Nov) Metallurgy of Gd-enriched Austenitic Alloys for Spent
Nuclear Fuel Applications Part II: Nickel-based Alloys, Physical and Welding J. N. DuPont, C. V. Robino, J. R. Michael, R. E. Mizia, and D. B. Williams, 319-S (Dec) Microstructure and Property Calculations, Reliability of Weld H. K. D. H. Bhadeshia, 237-S (Sept) Modeling of the Deformation and Fracture of Weld-Bonded Joints, Cohesive-Zone M. N. Cavalli, M. D. Thouless, and Q.D. Yang, 133-S (Apr) Modeling of Ultrasonic Welding, Mechanical C. Doumanidis and Y. Gao, 140-S (Apr) Monitoring in Short-Circuit GMAW, Signature Analysis for Quality Y. X. Chu, S. J. Hu, W. K. Hou, P. C. Wang, and S. P. Marin, 336-S (Dec) Microstructure on Fatigue Crack Propagation Behavior of Stainless Steel Welds, The Influence of C. S. Kusko, J. N. DuPont, and A. R. Marder, 6-S (Jan) Nickel-Based Weld Metals Part III, An Investigation of Ductility-Dip Cracking in M. G. Collins, A. J. Ramirez, and J. C Lippold, 39-S (Feb) Nickel-based Alloys, Physical and Welding Metallurgy of Gdenriched Austenitic Alloys for Spent Nuclear Fuel Applications Part II: J. N. DuPont, C. V. Robino, J. R. Michael, R. E. Mizia, and D. B. Williams, XX (Dec) Nitrogen Absorption by Arc-Melted Fe-C-Mn-Type Filler Metals, The Kinetics of A. Gruszczyk, 94-S (Mar) Nuclear Fuel Applicatons Part I: Stainless Steel Alloys, Physical and Welding Metallurgy of Gd-enriched Austenitic Alloys for Spent J. N. DuPont, C. V. Robino, J. R. Michael, R. E. Mizia, and D. B. Williams, 289-S (Nov) Nuclear Fuel Applications Part II: Nickel-based Alloys, Physical and Welding Metallurgy of Gd-enriched Austenitic Alloys for Spent J. N. DuPont, C. V. Robino, J. R. Michael, R. E. Mizia, and D. B. Williams, XX (Dec) Nugget Growth, Resistance Spot Welding of Aluminum Alloy to Steel with Transition Material Part II: Finite Element Analyses of Nugget Growth X. Sun and M. A. Khaleel, 197-S (July) Penetrated GTA Weld, Numerical Simulation of Transient 3-D Surface Deformation of a Completely C. S. Wu, P. C. Zhao, and Y. M. Zhang, 330-S (Dec) Penetration Al-Mg-Si Welds, Liquation Cracking in Full C. Huang and S. Kou, 111-S (Apr) Penetration Al-Cu Welds, Liquation Cracking in Full C. Huang and S. Kou, 50-S (Feb) Plate, Analytical Approximate Solution for Double Ellipsodial Heat Source in Finite Thick N. T. Nguyen, Y. -W. Mai, S. Simpson, and A. Ohta, 82-S (March) Plate, Single-Pass Laser Beam Welding of Clad Steel S. Missori, F. Murdolo, and A. Sili, 65-S (Feb) Pool with Free Surface, Three- Dimensional Simulation of Transient GMA Weld Z. Cao, Z. Yang, and X. L. Chen, 169-S (June) Prediction in Resistance Spot Welding, Expulsion J. Senkara, H. Zhang, and S. J. Hu, 123-S (Apr) Procedure on ANSI/AWS A5.29-98 E81T1-Ni1 Flux Cored Arc Weld Metal Deposits, The Effect of Welding H. G. Svoboda, N. M. Ramini De Rissone, L. A. De Veida, and E. S. Surian, 301-S (Nov) Reliability of Weld Microstructure and Property Calculations H. K. D. H. Bhadeshia, 237-S (Sept) Resistance Welding, Penetrator Formation Mechanisms during High-Frequency Electric J. -H. Choi, Y. S. Chang, C. -M. Kim, J. -S. Oh, and Y. -S. Kim, 27-S (Jan)
Shear Brazed Joints Part 1, Flaw Tolerance in Lap Y. Flom and L. Wang, 32-S (Jan) Shielded Metal Arc Weld Metal Composition for Charpy Toughness, Optimization of M. Murugananth, S. S. Babu, and S. A. David, 267-S (Oct) Short-Circuit GMAW, Signature Analysis for Quality Monitoring in Y. X. Chu, S. J. Hu, W. K. Hou, P. C. Wang, and S. P. Marin, XX (Dec) Simulation of Tranient GMA Weld Pool with Free Surface, Three Dimensional Z. Cao. Z. Yang, and X.L. Chen, 169S (Jun) Simulation of Transient 3-D Surface Deformation of a Completely Penetrated GTA Weld, Numerical C. S. Wu, P. C. Zhao, and Y. M. Zhang, 330-S (Dec) Solid-State Weld of Aluminum Alloys, Kissing Bond Phenomena in A. Oosterkamp, L. Djapic Oosterkamp, and A. Nordeide, 225-S (Aug) Spot Welds, Effects of Fusion Zone Size on Failure Modes and Static Strenght of Aluminum Resistance X. Sun, E. V. Stephens, R. W. Davies, M. A. Khaleel, and D. J. Spinella, 308-S (Nov) Spot Welding of Aluminum Alloy to Steel with Transition Material From Process to Performance Part I: Experimental Study X. Sun, E.V. Stephens, M.A. Khaleel, H. Sao, and M. Kimchi, 188-S (June) Spot Welding, Expulsion Prediction in Resistance J. Senakara, H. Zhang, and S. J. Hu, 123-S (Apr) Spot Welding Lasers, Development and Evaluation of an InSitu Beam Measurement for P. W. Fuerschbach, J. T. Norris, R.C. Dykhuizen, and A. R. Mahoney, 154-S (May) Spot Welding of Aluminum Alloy to Steel with Transition Material Part II: Finite Element Analyses of Nugget Growth, Resistance X. Sun and M. A. Khaleel, 197-S (July) Stainless Steel Alloys, Physical and Welding Metallurgy of GdEnriched Austenitic Alloys for Spent Nuclear Fuel Applicatons Part I J. N. DuPont, C. V. Robino, J. R. Michael, R. E. Mizia, and D. B. Williams, 289-S (Nov) Stainless Steels, Microstructure-Property Relationships in HAZ of Ne 13% Cr Martensitic O. M. Akelesen, G. Rorvik, P .E. Kvaale, and C. Van Der Eijk, 160-S (May) Stainless Steel Welds, The Influence of Microstructure on Fatigue Crack Propagation Behavior of C. S. Kusko, J. N. Dupont, and A. R. Marder, 6-S (Jan) Stainless Steel Welds, Influence of Stress Ratio on Fatigue Crack Propagation Behavior of C. S. Kusko, J. N. Dupont, and A. R. Marder, 59-S (Feb) Statistical Study, Activated Diffusion Brazing Technology for Manufacture of Titanium Honeycomb Structures A X. Huang and N. L Richards, 73-S (March) Steel Using Time-Resolved X-ray Diffraction, Direct Observations of Ausentite, Bainite, and Martensite Formation During Arc Welding of 1045 J. W. Elmer, T. A. Palmer, S. S. Babu, W. Zhang, and T. DebRoy, 244-S (Sept) Stir Welding of Aluminum Alloy to Steel, Friction K. Kimapong and T. Wantanabe, 277-S (Oct) Stress Ratio on Fatigue Crack Propagation Behavior of Stainless Steel Welds, Influence of C. S. Kusko, J. N. DuPont, and A. R. Marder, 59-S (Feb) Susceptibility, Grain Boundary Character in Alloy 690 and Ductility-Dip Cracking V. R. Dave, M. J. Cola, M. Kumar, A. J. Schwartz, and G. N. A. Hussen, 1-S (Jan) Titanium Honeycomb Structures A Statistical Study,
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Activated Diffusion Brazing Technology for Manufacture of X. Huang and N. L. Richards, 73-S (March) T-joints, Plasticity-Based Distortion Analysis for Fillet Welded Thin-Plate T-joints G.H. Jung and C. L. Tsai, 177-S (June) T-Joints, Fundamental Studies on the Effect of Distortion Control Plans on Angular Distortion in Fillet Welded G. H. Jung and C. L. Tsai, 213-S (July) Tolerance in Lap Shear Brazed Joints Part 1, Flaw Y. Flom and L. Wang, 32-S (Jan) Topology of Aluminum Brazed Joints, Prediction of the Fillet Mass and D. P. Sekulic, F. Gao, H. Zhao, B. Zellmer, and Y. Y. Qian, 102-S (March) Transition Material From Process to Performance Part I: Experimental Study, Resistance Spot Welding of Aluminum Alloy to Steel with X. Sun, E. V. Stephens, M. A. Khaleel, H. Sao, and M. Kimchi, 188-S (June)
Ultrasonic Welding, Mechanical Modeling of C. Doumanidis and Y. Gao, 140-S (Apr) Weld-Bonded Joints, Cohesive-Zone Modeling of the Deformation and Fracture of M. N. Cavalli, M. D. Thouless, and Q.D. Yang, 133-S (Apr) Weld Metal Composition for Charpy Toughness, Optimization of Shielded Metal Arc M. Murugananth, S. S. Babu, and S. A. David, 267-S (Oct) Wire-Core Thermal Lance, Flame-Focusing Modification of a H. Wang, P. Pranda, and V. Hlavacek, 283-S (Oct) X-ray Diffraction, Direct Observations of Ausentite, Bainite, and Martensite Formation During Arc Welding of 1045 Steel Using Time-Resolved J. W. Elmer, T. A. Palmer, S. S. Babu, W. Zhang, and T. DEBroy, 244-S (Sept) Yttrium Hydrogen Trapping to Manage Hydrogen in HSLA Steel Welds C. A. Lensing, Y. D. Park, I. S. Maroeff, and D. L. Olson, 254-S (Sept)
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Applicatons Part I: Stainless Steel Alloys, 289-S (Nov) DuPont, J. N., Robino, C. V., Michael, J. R., Mizia, R. E., and Williams, D. B. Physical and Welding Metallurgy of Gdenriched Austenitic Alloys for Spent Nuclear Fuel Applications Part II: Nickel-based Alloys, 319-S(Dec) Dykhuizen, R. C., Mahoney, A. R., Fuerschbach, P. W., and Norris, J. T Development and Evaluation of an In-Situ Beam Measurement for Spot Welding Lasers, 154-S (May) Edwards, G. R., Liu, S. and Marya, M. An Investigation on the Effects of Gases in GTA Welding of a Wrought AZ80 Magnesium Alloy, 203-S (July) Elmer, J. W., Palmer, T. A., Babu, S. S., Zhang, W., and Debroy, T. Direct Observations of Ausentite, Bainite, and Martensite Formation During Arc Welding of 1045 Steel Using Time-Resolved X-ray Diffraction, 244-S (Sept) Flom, Y. and Wang, L. Flaw toletance in Lap Shear Brazed Joints Part 1, 32-S (Jan) Fuerschbach, P. W., Norris, J. T., Dykhuizen, R. C., and Mahoney, A. R. Development and Evaluation of an InSitu Beam Measurement for Spot Welding Lasers, 154-S (May) Fu, L. and Du, S. G. Metallurgical Characterization of a Friction Welded Aluminum Alloy Subjected to an External Electrostatic Field, 232-S (Aug) Gao, Y. and Doumanidis, C. Mechanical Modeling of Ultrasonic Welding, 140-S (Apr) Gao, F., Zhao, H., Zellmer, B., Qian, Y. Y., and Sekulic, D. P. Predicton of the Filler Mass and Topology of Aluminum Brazed Joints, 102-S (March) Gruszczyk, A. The Kinetics of Nitrogen Absorption by ArcMelted Fe-C-Mn-Type Filler Metals, 94-S (March) Hlavacek V., Wang, H. and Pranda, P. Flame-Focusing Modification of a Wire-Core Thermal Lance, 283-S (Oct) Hou, W. K., Wang, P. C., Marin, S. P., Chu, Y. X., and Hu, S. J. Signature Analysis for Quality Monitoring in ShortCircuit GMAW, 336-S (Dec) Huang, C. and Kou, S. Liquation Cracking in FullPenetration Al-Cu Welds, 50-S (Feb) Huang, C. and Kou, S. Liquation Cracking in FullPenetration Al-Mg-Si Welds, 111-S (Apr) Huang, X. and Richards, N. L. Activated Diffusion Brazing Technology for Manufacture of Titanium Honeycomb Structures A Statistical Study, 73-S (Mar) Hussen, N. A., Dave, V. R., Cola, M. J., Kumar, M., and Schwartz, A. J. Grain Boundary Character in Alloy 690 and Ductility-Dip Cracking Susceptibility, 1-S (Jan) Hu, S. J., Senkara, J., and Zhang, H. Expulsion Prediction in Resistance Spot Welding, 123-S (Apr) Hu, S. J., Hou, W. K., Wang, P. C., Marin, S. P., and Chu, Y. X. Monitoring in Short-Circuit GMAW, Signature Analysis for Quality, XX (Dec) Jung, G. H. and Tsai, C. L. Plasticity-Based Distortion Analysis for Fillet Welded Thin-Plate T-joints, 177-S (June) Jung, G. H. and Tsai, C. L. Fundamental Studies on the Effect of Distortion Control Plans on Angular Distortion in Fillet Welded T-Joints, 213-S (July) Khaleel, M.A., Shao, H., Kimchi, M., Sun, X., and Stephens, V. E. Resistance Spot Welding of Aluminum Alloy to Steel with Transition Material - From Process to Performance Part 1: Experimental Study, 188-S (June) Khaleel, M. A. and Sun, X. Resistance Spot Welding of Aluminum Alloy to Steel with Transition Material Part II: Finite Element Analyses of Nugget Growth, 197-S (July) Khaleel, M. A., Spinella, D. J., Sun, X., Stephens, E. V., and
Davies, R. W. Effects of Fusion Zone Size on Failure Modes and Static Strenght of Aluminum Resistance Spot Welds, 308-S (Nov) Kim, C. -M., Oh, J. -S., Kim, Y. -S., Choi, J. -H, and Chang, Y. S. Penetrator Formation Mechanisms during High Frequency Electric Resistance Welding, 27-S (Jan) Kim, Y. -S., Choi, J. -H., Chang, Y. S., Kim, C. -M., and Oh, J.S. Penetrator Formation Mechanisms during High Frequency Electric Resistance Welding, 27-S (Jan) Kimapong, K. and Watanabe, T. Friction Stir Welding of Aluminum Alloy to Steel, 277-S (Oct) Kimchi, M., Sun, X., Stephens, E. V., Khaleel, M. A., Shao, H., and Kimchi, M. Resistance Spot Welding of Aluminum Alloy to Steel with Transition Material - From Process to Performance - Part 1: Experimental Study, 188-S (June) Kou, S. and Huang, C. Liquation Cracking in FullPenetration Al-Cu Welds, 50-S (Feb) Kou, S. and Huang, C. Liquation Cracking in FullPenetration Al-Mg-Si Welds, 111-S (Apr) Kumar, M., Schwartz, A. J., Hussen, G. N. A., Dave, V. R., and Cola, M. J. Grain Boundary Character in Alloy 690 and Ductility-Dip Cracking Susceptibility, 1-S (Jan) Kusko, C. S., DuPont, J. N., and Marder, A. R. The Influence of Microstructure on Fatigue Crack Propagation Behavior of Stainless Steel Welds, 6-S (Jan) Kusko, C. S., DuPont, J. N., and Marder, A. R. Influence of Stress Ratio on Fatigue Crack Propagation Behavior of Stainless Steel Welds, 59-S (Feb) Kutsuna, M., and Rathod, M. J. Joining of Aluminum Alloy 5052 and Low-Carbon Steel by Laser Roll Welding, 16-S (Jan) Lippold, J. C., Collins, M. G., and Ramirez, A. J. An Investigation of Ductility-Dip Cracking in Nickel-Based Weld Metals Part III, 39-S (Feb) Liu, S., Marya, M., and Edwards, G. R. An Investigation on the Effects of Gases in GTA Welding of a Wrought AZ80 Magnesium Alloy, 203-S (July) Mai, Y. -W., Simpson, S., Ohta, A., and Nyugen, N. T. Analytical Approxiamte Solution for Double Ellipsodial Heat Source in Finite Thick Plate, 82-S (March) Mahoney, A. R., Fuerschbach, P. W., Norris, J. T. and Dykhuizen, R. C. Development and Evaluation of an InSitu Beam Measurement for Spot Welding Lasers, 154-S (May) Marder, A. R., Kusko, C. S., and DuPont, J. N. The Influence of Microstructure on Fatigue Crack Propagation Behavior of Stainless Steel Welds, 6-S (Jan) Marder, A. R., Kusko, C. S., and DuPont, J. N. Influence of Stress Ratio on Fatigue Crack Propagation Behavior of Stainless Steel Welds, 59-S (Feb) Marin, S. P., Chu, Y. X., Hu, S. J., Hou, W. K., and Wang, P. C. Monitoring in Short-Circuit GMAW, Signature Analysis for Quality, XX (Dec) Marya, M., Edwards, G. R. and Liu, S. An Investigation on the Effects of Gases in GTA Welding of a Wrought AZ80 Magnesium Alloy, 203-S (July) Michael, J. R., Mizia, R. E., Williams, D. B., DuPont, J. N., and Robino, C. V. Physical and Welding Metallurgy of GdEnriched Austenitic Alloys for Spent Nuclear Fuel Applicatons Part I: Stainless Steel Alloys, 289-S (Nov) Michael, J. R., Williams, D. B., DuPont, J. N., Robino, C. V., and Mizia, R. E. Physical and Welding Metallurgy of Gdenriched Austenitic Alloys for Spent Nuclear Fuel Applications Part II: Nickel-based Alloys, 319-S (Dec)
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Missori, S., Murdolo, F., and Sili, A. Single Pass Laser Beam Welding of Clad Steel Plate, 65-S (Feb) Mizia, R. E., Williams, D. B., DuPont, J. N., Robino, C. V., and Michael, J. R. Physical and Welding Metallurgy of GdEnriched Austenitic Alloys for Spent Nuclear Fuel Applicatons Part I: Stainless Steel Alloys, 289-S (Nov) Mizia, R. E., Michael, J. R., Williams, D. B., DuPont, J. N., and Robino, C. V. Physical and Welding Metallurgy of Gdenriched Austenitic Alloys for Spent Nuclear Fuel Applications Part II: Nickel-based Alloys, XX (Dec) Murdolo, F., Sili, A., and Missori, S. Single-Pass Laser Beam Welding of Clad Steel Plate, 65-S (Feb) Murugananth, M., Babu, S. S., and David, S. A. Optimization of Shielded Metal Arc Weld Metal Composition for Charpy Toughness, 267-S (Oct) Nordeide, A., Oosterkamp, A., and Oosterkamp, L. Djapic Kissing Bond Phenomena in Solid-State Weld of Aluminum Alloys, 225-S (Aug) Norris, J. T., Dykhuizen, R. C., Mahoney, A. R., and Fuerschbach, P. W. Development and Evaluation of an InSitu Beam Measurement for Spot Welding Lasers, 154-S (May) Nyugen, N. T., Mai, Y. -W., Simpson, S., and Ohta, A. Analytical Approxiamte Solution for Double Ellipsodial Heat Source in Finite Thick Plate, 82-S (March) Oh, J. -S., Kim, Y. -S., Choi, J. -H., Chang, Y. S., and Kim, C. M. Penetrator Formation Mechanisms during HighFrequency Electric Resistance Welding, 27-S (Jan) Ohta, A., Nyugen, N. T., Mai, Y. -W., and Simpson, S. Analytical Approxiamte Solution for Double Ellipsodial Heat Source in Finite Thick Plate, 82-S (March) Oosterkamp, A., Oosterkamp, L. Djapic, and Nordeide, A. Kissing Bond Phenomena in Solid-State Weld of Aluminum Alloys, 225-S (Aug) Oosterkamp, L. Djapic, Oosterkamp, A., and Nordeide, A. Kissing Bond Phenomena in Solid-State Weld of Aluminum Alloys,225-S (Aug) Pranda, P., Hlavacek, V., and Wang, H. Flame-Focusing Modification of a Wire-Core Thermal Lance, 283-S (Oct) Palmer, T. A., Babu, S. S., Zhang, W., DebRoy, T., and Elmer, J. W. Direct Observations of Ausentite, Bainite, and Martensite Formation During Arc Welding of 1045 Steel Using Time-Resolved X-ray Diffraction, 244-S (Sept) Qian, Y. Y., Sekulic, D. P., Gao, F., Zhao, H., and Zellmer, B. Prediction of the Fillet Mass and Topology of Aluminum Brazed Joints, 102-S (March) Ramini De Rissone, N. M., De Veida, L. A., Surian, E. S., and Svoboda, H. G. The Effect of Welding Procedure on ANSI/AWS A5.29-98 E81T1-Ni1 Flux Cored Arc Weld Metal Deposits, 301-S (Nov) Ramirez, A. J., Lippold, J. C., and Collins, M. G. An Investigation of Ductility-Dip Cracking in Nickel-Based Weld Metals Part III, 39-S (Feb) Rathod, M. J. and Kutsuna, M. Joining of Aluminum Alloy 5052 and Low-Carbon Steel by Laser Roll Welding, 16-S (Jan) Rayes, M. El, Walz, C., and Sepold, G. The Influence of Various Hybrid Welding Parameters on Bead Geomety, 147-S (May) Richards, N. L. and Huang, X. Activated Diffusion Brazing Technology for Manufacture of Titanium Honeycomb Structures A Statistical Study, 73-S (March) Robino, C. V., Michael, J. R., Mizia, R. E., Williams, D. B., and DuPont, J. N. Physical and Welding Metallurgy of Gd-
Enriched Austenitic Alloys for Spent Nuclear Fuel Applicatons Part I Stainless Steel Alloys, 289-S (Nov) Robino, C. V., Mizia, R. E., Michael, J. R., Williams, D. B., and DuPont, J. N. Physical and Welding Metallurgy of Gdenriched Austenitic Alloys for Spent Nuclear Fuel Applications Part II: Nickel-based Alloys, 319-S (Dec) Rorvik, G., Kvaale, P. E., Van Der Eijk, C., and Akelesen, O.M. Microstructure-Property Relationships in HAZ of New 13% Cr Martensitic Stainless Steels, 160-S (May) Shao, H. E., Kimchi, M., Sun, X., Stephens, V., and Khaleel, M. A. Resistance Spot Welding of Aluminum Alloy to Steel with Transition Material From Process to Performance Part I: Experimental Study, 188-S (June) Schwartz, A. J., Hussen, G. N. A., Dav, V. R., Cola, M. J., and Kumar, M. Grain Boundary Character in Alloy 690 and Ductility-Dip Cracking Susceptibility, 1-S (Jan) Sekulic, D. P., Gao, F., Zhao, H., Zellmer, B., and Qian, Y. Y. Prediction of the Fillet Mass and Topology of Aluminum Brazed Joints, 102-S (March) Senkara, J., Zhang, H., and Hu, S. J. Expulsion Prediction in Resistance Spot Welding, 123-S (Apr) Sepold, G., El Rayes, M., and Walz, C. The Influence of Various Hybrid Welding Parameters on Bead Geometry, 147-S (May) Sili, A., Missori, S., and Murdolo, F. Single-Pass Laser Beam Welding of Clad Steel Plate, 65-S (Feb) Simpson, S., Ohta, A., Nyugen, N. T., and Mai, Y. -W. Analytical Approxiamte Solution for Double Ellipsodial Heat Source in Finite Thick Plate, 82-S (March) Spinella, D. J., Sun, X., Stephens, E. V., Davies, R.W., and Khaleel, M. A. Effects of Fusion Zone Size on Failure Modes and Static Strenght of Aluminum Resistance Spot Welds, 308-S (Nov) Stephens, E. V., Khaleel, M.A., Shao, H., Kimchi, M., and Sun, X. Resistance Spot Welding of Aluminum Alloy to Steel with Transition Material - From Process to Performance Part 1: Experimental Study, 188-S (June) Stephens, E. V., Davies, R. W., Khaleel, M. A., Spinella, D. J., and Sun, X. Effects of Fusion Zone Size on Failure Modes and Static Strength of Aluminum Resistance Spot Welds, 308-S (Nov) Sun, X., Stephens, E. V., Khaleel, M. A., Shao, H., and Kimchi, M. Resistance Spot Welding of Aluminum Alloy to Steel with Transition Material - From Process to PerformancePart I: Experimental Study, 188-S (June) Sun, X. and Khaleel, M. A. Resistance Spot Welding of Aluminum Alloy to Steel with Transition Material Part II: Finite Element Analyses of Nugget Growth, 197-S, (July) Sun, X., Stephens, E. V., Davies, R. W., Khaleel, M. A., and Spinella, D. J. Effects of Fusion Zone Size on Failure Modes and Static Strength of Aluminum Resistance Spot Welds, 308-S (Nov) Surian, E. S., Svoboda, H. G., Ramini De Rissone, N. M., and De Veida, L. A. The Effect of Welding Procedure on ANSI/AWS A5.29-98 E81T1-Ni1 Flux Cored Arc Weld Metal Deposits, 301-S (Nov) Svoboda, H. G., Ramini De Rissone, N. M., De Veida, L. A., and Surian, E. S. The Effect of Welding Procedure on ANSI/AWS A5.29-98 E81T1-Ni1 Flux Cored Arc Weld Metal Deposits, 301-S (Nov) Thouless, M. D., Yang, Q., and Cavalli, M. N. CohesiveZone Modeling of the Deformation and Fracture of WeldBonded Joints, 133-S (Apr) Tsai, C. L. and Jung, G. H. Plasticity-Based Distortion
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Analysis for Fillet Welded Thin-Plate T-joints, 177-S, (June) Tsai, C. L. and Jung, G. H. Fundamental Studies on the Effect of Distortion Control Plans on Angular Distortion in Fillet Welded T-Joints, 213-S (July) Van Der Eijk, C., Akelesen, O. M., Rorvik, G., and Kvaale, P. E. Microstructure-Property Relationships in HAZ of New 13% Cr Martensitic Stainless Steels, 160-S (May) Walz, C., Sepold, G., and El Rayes, M. The Influence of Various Hybrid Welding Parameters on Bead Geometry, 147-S (May) Wang, L. and Flom, Y. Flaw Toletance in Lap Shear Brazed Joints Part 1, 32-S (Jan) Wang, H., Pranda, P., and Hlavacek, V. Flame-Focusing Modification of a Wire-Core Thermal Lance, 283-S (Oct) Wang, P. C., Marin, S. P., Chu, Y. X., Hu, S. J., and Hou,W. K. Monitoring in Short-Circuit GMAW, Signature Analysis for Quality, XX (Dec) Watanabe, T. and Kimapong, K. Friction Stir Welding of Aluminum Alloy to Steel, 277-S (Oct) Williams, D. B., DuPont, J. N., Robino, C. V., Michael, J. R., and Mizia, R. E. Physical and Welding Metallurgy of GdEnriched Austenitic Alloys for Spent Nuclear Fuel Applications Part I: Stainless Steel Alloys, 289-S (Nov) Williams, D. B., DuPont, J. N., Robino, C. V., Mizia, R. E., and Michael, J. R. Physical and Welding Metallurgy of Gdenriched Austenitic Alloys for Spent Nuclear Fuel Applications Part II: Nickel-based Alloys, 319-S (Dec)
Wu, C. S., Zhao, P. C., and Zhang, Y. M. Numerical Simulation of Transient 3-D Surface Deformation of a Completely Penetrated GTA Weld, 330-S (Dec) Yang, Q. D., Cavalli, M. N., and Thouless, M. D. CohesiveZone Modeling of the Deformation and Fracture of WeldBonded Joints, 133-S (Apr) Yang, Z., Chen, X. L., and Cao, Z. Three- Dimensional Simulation of Transient GMA Weld Pool with Free Surface, 169-S (Jun) Zellmer, B., Qian, Y. Y., Sekulic, D. P., Gao, F., and Zhao, H. Prediction of the Fillet Mass and Topology of Aluminum Brazed Joints, 102-S (March) Zhang, H., Senkara, J., and Hu, S. J. Expulsion Prediction in Resistance Spot Welding, 123-S (Apr) Zhang, W., DebRoy, T., Elmer, J. W., Palmer, T. A., and Babu, S. S. Direct Observations of Ausentite, Bainite, and Martensite Formation During Arc Welding of 1045 Steel Using Time-Resolved X-ray Diffraction, 244-S (Sept) Zhang, Y. M., Wu, C. S., and Zhao, P. C. Numerical Simulation of Transient 3-D Surface Deformation of a Completely Penetrated GTA Weld, 330-S (Dec) Zhao, H., Zellmer, B., Qian, Y. Y., Sekulic, D. P., and Gao, F. Prediction of the Fillet Mass and Topology of Aluminum Brazed Joints, 102-S (March) Zhao, P. C., Zhang, Y. M., and Wu, C. S. Numerical Simulation of Transient 3-D Surface Deformation of a Completely Penetrated GTA Weld, 330-S (Dec)
88
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SUPPLEMENT TO THE WELDING JOURNAL, DECEMBER 2004 Sponsored by the American Welding Society and the Welding Research Council
Physical and Welding Metallurgy of Gd-enriched Austenitic Alloys for Spent Nuclear Fuel Applications Part II: Nickel-based Alloys
Tests proved Gd-enriched Ni-based alloys are excellent candidates for use in storing spent nuclear fuels
J. N. DUPONT, C. V. ROBINO, J. R. MICHAEL, R. E. MIZIA, AND D. B. WILLIAMS
ABSTRACT. The physical and welding metallurgy of gadolinium- (Gd-) enriched Ni-based alloys has been examined using a combination of differential thermal analysis, hot ductility testing, Varestraint testing, and various microstructural characterization techniques. Three different matrix compositions were chosen that were similar to commercial Ni-Cr-Mo base alloys (UNS N06455, N06022, and N06059). A ternary Ni-Cr-Gd alloy was also examined. The Gd level of each alloy was ~2 wt-%. All the alloys initiated solidification by formation of primary austenite and terminated solidification by a Liquid g + Ni5Gd eutectictype reaction at ~1270C. The solidification temperature ranges of the alloys varied from ~100 to 130C (depending on alloy composition). This is a substantial reduction compared to the solidification temperature range of Gd-enriched stainless steels (360 to 400C) that terminate solidification by a peritectic reaction at ~1060C. The higher-temperature eutectic reaction that occurs in the Ni-based alloys is accompanied by significant improvements in hot ductility and solidification cracking resistance. The results of this research demonstrate that Gd-enriched Ni-based alloys are excellent candidate materials for nuclear criticality control in spent nuclear fuel storage applications that require production
J. N. DUPONT is Associate Professor and D. B. WILLIAMS is Vice Provost for Research and a Professor, Department of Materials Science & Engineering, Lehigh University, Bethlehem, Pa. C. V . ROBINO is with the Technical Staff, Joining and Coating Department, and J. R. MICHAEL is with the Technical Staff, Materials Characterization Dept.,Sandia National Laboratories, Albuquerque, N.Mex. R. E. MIZIA is Engineering Fellow, Energy and Engineering Technology, Idaho National Engineering and Environmental Laboratory, Idaho Falls, Idaho.
and fabrication of large amounts of material through conventional ingot metallurgy and fusion welding techniques.
Introduction
Part 1 of this research article (Ref. 1) summarized results on development of Gd-enriched stainless steel alloys for nuclear criticality control in spent nuclear fuel storage applications. In that work, it was shown that Gd additions to a 316Ltype matrix leads to the formation of an intermetallic (Fe,Ni,Cr)3Gd phase that produces a very large solidification temperature range (360 to 400C, depending on Gd concentration) and severely limits the hot ductility and weldability of these alloys to a point where commercial production is not practical. As shown by the binary Fe-Gd phase diagram in Fig. 1A (Ref. 2), Fe-Gd alloys with low Gd concentrations exhibit a primary delta solidification mode that is followed by a brief region of austenite solidification. Under nonequilibrium solidification conditions in which solute diffusion in the solid is negligible, austenite formation is followed by a series of cascading peritectic reactions before solidification terminates at 845C by a terminal KEYWORDS Gadolinium-Enriched Nickel-Based Alloys Austenitic Alloys Differential Thermal Analysis Hot Ductility Testing Varestraint Testing Solidification Cracking Eutectic Reaction
eutectic reaction involving the Fe2Gd intermetallic. Thus, the solidification temperature range of simple Fe-Gd alloys is also very large under nonequilibrium solidification conditions. In multicomponent Gd-enriched stainless steels, solidification starts with primary delta and terminates by a peritectic reaction involving the (Fe,Ni,Cr)3Gd phase at ~1060C, which also produces a very large solidification temperature range. Thus, although there are significant differences between simple Fe-Gd alloys and multicomponent Fe-Ni-Cr-Mo-Gd stainless steels, the alloys are similar in that a low-temperature peritectic reaction is responsible for producing a very large solidification temperature range in each system. As mentioned previously, this severely limits the hot ductility and weldability of these alloys. Comparison of the Ni-Gd (Fig. 1B) and Fe-Gd systems reveals some significant differences in the solidification behavior of alloys with low Gd concentrations. In particular, Ni-Gd alloys with less than about 13 wt-% Gd exhibit a simple two step solidification sequence consisting of primary austenite (Ni) formation followed by a terminal eutectic reaction at 1275C involving the Ni17Gd2 intermetallic. The presence of the high-temperature eutectic reaction in the Ni-Gd system significantly decreases the solidification temperature range compared to Fe-Gd alloys. Thus, in general, it appears that the solidification behavior of the multicomponent Gd-enriched stainless steels mimics the Fe-Gd system more closely than the NiGd system. From a technical standpoint, it is highly desirable to identify alloying strategies that could be utilized to modify the solidification behavior of the commercial-type Gd-enriched alloys so that solidification more closely follows that of the WELDING JOURNAL 319 -S
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A
Fe-Gd
Ni-Gd
Table 1 Chemical Compositions of Small-Scale Alloys Used for Preliminary Experiments (All values in wt-%) Alloy E-1 E-2 Gd 6.0 2.0 Fe Bal 2.8 Ni 19.8 Bal Cr 13.9 20.9 Mo 2.3 12.5 Mn 1.4 <0.5 Si 0.13 <0.08
Table 2 Compositions (wt-%) for the Trial Ni-based Alloys(a) Element Gd Mo Cr Fe W Co C Si Mn V P S Ti Al Cu N O Ni N06455-Gd 1.58 14.16 16.21 0.147 0.014 <0.10 0.011 0.033 0.104 0.007 <0.010 0.0018 0.004 0.042 0.004 0.0046 0.0129 bal N06022-Gd 1.98 12.01 21.27 2.02 2.98 0.085 0.006 0.036 0.101 0.012 <0.010 0.0012 0.004 0.056 0.003 0.0068 0.0140 bal N06059-Gd 1.82 15.02 22.64 0.163 0.125 0.008 0.010 0.040 0.103 0.009 <0.010 0.0019 0.005 0.303 0.030 0.0074 0.0209 bal Ni-Cr-Gd 1.93 0.57 22.33 0.087 0.005 <0.10 0.009 0.053 0.098 0.009 <0.010 0.0019 0.003 0.055 0.055 0.0067 0.0191 bal
(a) Values shown are averages of three determinations at each of three laboratories. Fig. 2 SEM photomicrograph and EBSP analysis of high-Ni stainless steel Alloy E-1 with Gd addition.
Ni-Gd system. In particular, it is of interest to develop alloying strategies that would lead to replacement of the lowtemperature peritectic reaction with a higher temperature terminal eutectic reaction. This could potentially produce a significant reduction in the solidification temperature range and concomitant improvements in weldability and hot ductil320 -S DECEMBER 2004
ity. The most obvious approach to accomplish this modification would be to increase the Ni content of the matrix. Thus, the objective of this research is to investigate the use of Ni-based alloys for improving the hot ductility and weldability of Gd-enriched austenitic alloys for spent nuclear fuel applications.
Experimental Procedure
Preliminary Alloy Experiments
The solidification responses of two small-scale (2.3 kg) alloys were first evaluated in the as-cast condition before larger scale heats were prepared. The composi-
WELDING RESEARCH
Fig. 3 DTA traces for as-cast high-Ni stainless steel Alloy E-1 with Gd addition. A Heating trace; B cooling trace.
Fig. 4 Light optical photomicrographs of high-Ni stainless steel Alloy E-1 with Gd addition after DTA analysis.
tions of the two experimental alloys are shown in Table 1. Alloy E-1 was based on a stainless steel type composition with high Ni, while Alloy E-2 is a Ni-based alloy with a matrix composition similar to the commercial alloy UNS #N06022. Alloy E1 was examined to determine if an increased Ni content could be used to significantly modify the solidification behavior in a favorable way, while still maintaining a stainless-steel-type matrix composition. The N06022 alloy heat was examined to determine if higher Ni contents were needed in the matrix in order to produce the desired result. The N06022 matrix composition was chosen because this commercial alloy is already being considered for spent nuclear fuel applications. Each alloy was characterized by differential thermal analysis (DTA) and microstructural characterization techniques as described in Part 1 (Ref. 1).
Large-Scale Alloy Experiments
Results from the preliminary alloy optimization experiments showed that desirable results were obtained by adding Gd to
a N06022-type matrix. Thus, four larger scale heats of Ni-based alloys were prepared for more detailed investigations using the same techniques described in Part 1. The compositions of the four alloys are summarized in Table 2. Three of the alloys were chosen to provide matrix compositions similar to highly corrosionresistant Ni-Cr-Mo alloys (UNS #N06455, UNS #N06022, and UNS #N06059), which will provide the proper long-term corrosion resistance under storage conditions. As with the stainless steel alloys, in order to achieve the desired matrix composition, modifications to the nominal alloy composition were required to account for Ni depletion and Cr enrichment of the matrix due to formation of Gd-rich intermetallics (Ref. 3), and these were based on the measured composition of the intermetallic in the small-scale N06022-Gd trial heat. The fourth alloy is a simplified ternary Ni-Cr-Gd alloy that was included as a basis for comparison. Although previous work (Ref. 1) considered Gd additions up to 6 wt-%, recent experiments performed at the Los Alamos National Laboratory Criticality Experiments
Facility (Ref. 4) indicate that, for the most highly enriched spent nuclear fuel and the current repository container design, a Gd level of 2 wt-% should be adequate to meet criticality control needs. Thus, target Gd levels were set at 2 wt-%. The values shown in Table 2 are averages of three determinations each at three independent laboratories (nine total measurements). For the four alloys, the standard deviation in the Gd determinations, expressed as a fraction of the average value, ranged from 4.4 to 10.7% of the average for the nine measurements. In general, values for the other major elements were in reasonable agreement, with a single standard deviation of approximately 5% of the average value for that element. The same experimental techniques utilized in Part 1 (DTA, hot ductility, Varestraint weldability, microstructural characterization) were conducted on the large scale Ni-based alloys with the following exceptions. The Ni-based alloys were melted by vacuum induction heating, cast into 10-cm-diameter, 11.3-kg ingots, homogenized at 1160C for 16 h, and hot rolled at 1160C with moderate reductions WELDING JOURNAL 321 -S
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Fig. 6 DTA result for the Ni-based Alloy E-2 with Gd addition.
Fig. 7 EPMA results acquired from Ni-based Alloy E-2 with Gd addition. A SEM photomicrograph showing location of EPMA trace; B EPMA results.
(36 mm) per pass to 14-mm-thick by 15.2-cm-wide plate. Frequent reheating was used to maintain the rolling temperature near 1150C. Following rolling, the alloys were annealed in an argon atmosphere at 1150C for 4 h and quenched with chilled flowing argon. Varestraint weldability tests were conducted on the N06455-Gd and Ni-Cr-Gd plate. The Varestraint tests were conducted on 165 25.4 3-mm subsize samples with a current, voltage, and travel speed of 100 A, 9 V, and 3 mm/s, respectively. Augmented strain levels of 1.0% and 3.5% were used. Simple autogeneous welds were also made on the N06455-Gd alloy plate using electron beam welding (EBW) and gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW). The electron beam welds were made at sharp focus, an accelerating voltage of 100 kV, various beam currents between 6 and 40 mA, and travel speeds ranging from 6 to 25 mm/s. Sharp focus was defined as the focus setting that
yielded the maximum visible heating of a tungsten block at the appropriate beam current, voltage, and final lens-to-work distance. This produced welds ranging in penetration from 1.5 to 3.2 mm. The autogeneous GTA weld was made at a voltage of 14 V, a current of 120 A, and a travel speed of 3.4 mm/s.
Results
Preliminary Alloy Optimization Experiments
An SEM photomicrograph of the highNi stainless steel heat (Alloy E-1) in the as-cast condition is shown in Fig. 2 along with EBSP patterns of the phases observed in the microstructure. The lack of retained ferrite in the dendrite cores is apparent, as is the absence of the thin (Fe,Ni,Cr)3Gd rim and terminal ferrite constituents around the interdendritic (Ni,Fe)3Gd phase that were observed in
316L-type stainless steels enriched in Gd (Ref. 1). With the increased Ni content, solidification appears to initiate by the formation of austenite dendrites and terminate by a peritectic-like reaction, since Fe3Gd and Ni3Gd both form by peritectic reactions in the Fe-Gd and Ni-Gd systems, and the (Fe,Ni,Cr)3Gd phase forms peritectically in Gd-enriched 316L stainless steel. Differential thermal analysis of the Ni modified heat is shown in Fig. 3. During heating, liquation of the (Ni,Fe)3Gd phase initiates at 1127C Fig. 3A. Thus, the liquation temperature of the (Ni,Fe)3Gd phase in this alloy is raised by about 65C compared to that in the 316Ltype alloys, which liquates at ~1060C (Ref. 1). The cooling portion of the DTA trace indicates that, for the cooling rate used for the DTA analysis (5C/min), solidification terminates with the formation of two constituents. The microstructure of the DTA samples is shown in Fig. 4 and in-
WELDING RESEARCH
A B
Fig. 8 Backscattered electron SEM photomicrographs of four Ni-based alloys with Gd additions. A N06455-Gd; B N06022-Gd; C N06059-Gd; D Ni-Cr-Gd.
Table 3 Compositions (All Values in wt-%) of Ni5Gd-Type Phase Observed in As-Cast Ingots Alloy N06455-Gd N06022-Gd N06059-Gd Ni-Cr-Gd Ni 63.13 60.50 61.72 61.41 Cr 2.00 2.35 2.82 2.52 Mo 0.69 0.53 0.84 0.04 Mn 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Fe 0.04 0.52 0.00 0.04 W 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Al 0.00 0.02 0.50 0.00 Si 0.08 0.10 0.11 0.04 Gd 35.26 34.93 35.50 34.23
Table 4 Summary of On-Heating DTA Results Sample Eutectic Type L g + Ni5Gd Temperature, C 1290, 1290 1272, 1276 1265, 1269 1291, 1294 Liquidus Temperature, C 1400, 1402 1379, 1381 1370, 1369 1423, 1423 Average Melting Temperature Range, C 110 106 103 131
dicates that at least two constituents are associated with the interdendritic regions. Although these constituents have not yet been identified, consideration of the Fe-
Gd and Ni-Gd phase diagrams, and the established tendency of these alloys to form Gd-rich intermetallics (Ref. 2), implies that the intermetallic phases are probably
based on the Ni3Gd and Ni7Gd2 structures. The presence of two distinct Gd intermetallic phases was not apparent in either the microstructural analysis or heating DTA response of the alloy in the as-cast condition, so it is clear that the cooling rate through the solidification temperature range is an important factor that affects microstructural development in this alloy. In any case, although the solidification temperature range of the Nimodified alloy has been reduced by ~65C, the solidification temperature range is still almost 300C and would not be expected to significantly improve the weldability and hot ductility. The as-cast microstructure of Alloy E-2
WELDING RESEARCH
A B
Fig. 9 Backscattered diffraction results for Alloy Fig. 10 DTA scans from Alloy N06455-Gd that were typical for all the alloys: A Heating; B N06022-Gd that were typical for all the alloys. cooling.
Fig. 11 DTA microstructure of Alloy N06455-Gd showing primary austenite cells and an intercellular g/Ni5Gd eutectic-type constituent.
is shown in Fig. 5. The eutectic constituent in the microstructure is clearly visible, and it is evident that the primary austenite is continuous with the austenite in the eutectic constituent. The results of the differential thermal analysis are shown in Fig. 6. On heating, a single liquation event initiates at approximately 1285C and melting is complete near 1391C. On cooling, some undercooling is apparent, with solidification initiating at 1374C and terminating with the formation of a single constituent at 1255C. The single terminal solidification peak is consistent with the LOM photomicrograph shown in Fig. 5 in which a single eutectic-like constituent was observed. Figure 7 shows the results of an electron probe microanalysis (EPMA) scan conducted across the cellular substructure of this alloy. The line shown in Fig. 7A denotes the location of the EPMA scan. As with the stainless-steel-type alloys, the intermetallic is high in Gd, and there is essentially no Gd
dissolved in the austenite matrix. Based on the results presented above, the Ni-based alloy provides the desirable solidification characteristics in which solidification terminates by a high-temperature eutectic-type reaction instead of a low-temperature peritectic reaction. Comparison of the DTA traces with those for the initial 316L-type heats and the Nimodified alloy indicates that the melting temperature range for this Ni-based alloy is significantly smaller, i.e., ~100C for the Ni-based alloy vs. 300400C for the stainless steel alloys. Thus, based on these initial results, a full series of experiments was conducted on several commercialtype Ni-based alloys with Gd additions (compositions shown in Table 2).
Full-Scale Experiments on Ni-based Alloys
electron images of the large-scale alloys in the as-cast condition. All of the alloys exhibited a cellular substructure with an intercellular secondary constituent. Figure 9 shows a representative backscattered diffraction result, which shows that the matrix is austenite and the secondary phase within the eutectic constituent is a Ni5Gd-type intermetallic. Gadolinium oxides were also observed. These results were consistent among all the alloys. The compositions of the Ni5Gd-type phases observed in each alloy are summarized in Table 3. The composition of the phase is consistent with the Ni5Gd stoichiometry, with small amounts of dissolved Cr, Mo, Fe, and Al. Figure 10A shows a DTA heating scan and Fig. 10B shows a cooling scan from Alloy N06455-Gd that was typical for all the alloys. On heating, the alloy exhibits an endothermic peak at 1290C associated with liquation of the g/Ni5Gd eutectic-
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A B
Fig. 13 Typical photomicrographs of hot ductility samples that failed: A Outside of the hot zone; B inside the hot zone.
Fig. 14 Light optical micrographs of rolled and annealed N06455-Gd plate in the following orientations: A Longitudinal; B transverse; and C rolling plane. Rolling direction is right to left in A and C and plate thickness is vertical in B. Elongated gray features are the Ni5Gd intermetallic, and small spherical black features are Gd oxides.
Fig. 15 Light optical photomicrographs of the autogeneous electron beam weld made on Alloy N06455-Gd in the following conditions: A As polished; B etched.
type constituent, and the austenite matrix is fully molten at 1400C. On cooling, the primary austenite phase begins to solidify at 1400C, and the terminal Liquid g + Ni5Gd eutectic-type reaction occurs at 1272C (18C undercooling). These peaks are consistent with the initial alloy microstructures and DTA microstructures (Fig. 11), which exhibit a primary austenite phase and intercellular g/Ni5Gd eutectic-type constituent. Table 4 summarizes the on-heating DTA data. Results are shown for two separate tests conducted on each alloy, and the reproducibility is always within 4C. The melting temperature range for the alloys varies between
103 and 131C, which is a substantial reduction compared to the original Gdenriched stainless steels considered (360400C) (Ref. 1). Figure 12 shows hot ductility results. In general, each alloy exhibits reasonably good ductility up to a temperature of 1200C. The ductility is lost at 1250C, which is near the liquation temperature of the eutectic constituent. The N06022-Gd alloy generally exhibited the lowest ductility while the Ni-Cr-Gd and N06455-Gd alloys typically exhibited the highest ductility at each test temperature. At the lower temperatures of 900 and 1000C, the samples often failed outside the hot
zone. Samples that failed both within and outside of the hot zone were examined using light optical microscopy to determine the location and mode of failure Fig. 13. The samples that failed within the hot zone (Fig. 13B) generally exhibited significant plastic deformation of both the matrix and Ni5Gd intermetallic. In contrast, samples that failed outside the hot zone (Fig. 13A) exhibited little ductility and significant cracking of the intermetallic phase. The intermetallic cracks were always approximately normal to the tensile axis. The microstructure of the hot rolled N06455-Gd plate in the three principal WELDING JOURNAL 325 -S
WELDING RESEARCH
A B
cracks or other defects were observed in this or the other electron beam welds produced in this study. Figure 16 shows the structure of an autogeneous GTA weld. The weld exhibits a microstructure similar to that of the ingots (primary austenite cells with intercellular g/Ni5Gd eutectic-type constituent). The cell spacing and secondary phase is much finer than the ingots due to the higher cooling rates Fig. 16 Light optical photomicrographs of an autogeneous GTA weld in the weld. A partially made on the Alloy N06455-Gd. The weld exhibits a microstructure simi- melted zone (PMZ) is lar to that of the ingots (primary austenite cells with intercellular g/Ni5Gd clearly distinguishable eutectic-type constituent). outside of the fusion zone (FZ). This PMZ bounds temperatures between the liquidus at plate orientations is shown in Fig. 14, and the PMZ/FZ interface and the Liquid g is representative of that observed in all + Ni5Gd eutectic-type temperature at the the alloys. As shown, the gadolinide disPMZ/HAZ interface. Within this region, tribution is substantially changed during the g/Ni5Gd constituent will liquate, as rolling. At the hot rolling temperature shown in Fig. 16C. The PMZ is often a reused (1150C), the gadolinides appear to gion where liquation cracking will occur in be relatively soft and ductile, and this alloys with wide solidification temperaresults in a gadolinide morphology that is ture ranges. However, the solidification elongated in the rolling direction and flattemperature range in this alloy is relatened out in the rolling plane. In a mantively narrow (110C) and comparable to ner similar to the as-cast microstructure other nickel-based alloys that are readily of Fig. 9, the rolled plate also contains weldable. Thus, liquation cracking is gensmall spherical Gd oxides that are apparerally not expected except, as described ently distributed throughout the austenbelow, under conditions of high restraint ite matrix as well as within the Ni5Gd or where macrosegregation is persistent. intermetallic. Figure 17 shows light optical photomiFigure 15 shows light optical photomicrographs of an isolated region of a GTA crographs of an autogeneous electron weld that contained a crack. Inspection of beam weld made on the N06455-Gd alloy the cracked region at slightly higher magin the as-polished and etched conditions. nification (Fig. 17B) shows that a relaThe weld exhibits columnar grains that tively large amount of the g/Ni5Gd congrow epitaxially from the base metal, and stituent exists at the edge of the crack. The this grain morphology is typically oblarge amount of g/Ni5Gd in this area can served in fusion welds. No solidification
be attributed to macrosegregation from the original ingot, and this form of cracking should be easily avoided when macrosegregation in the original ingot is prevented by a secondary refining step such as vacuum arc remelting. Figure 18 shows the Varestraint hot cracking results for the N06455-Gd and Ni-Cr-Gd alloys. Results are shown for the total and maximum crack length. As a basis for comparison, Fig. 19 shows Varestraint hot cracking results for the stainless steel alloys (Ref. 1). The results for the stainless steel alloys were acquired as a function of Gd concentration at a fixed strain level of 3.5%. The stainless steel samples were 0.25 in. thick while the Nibased samples were 0.125 in. thick. The Varestraint welding parameters were identical for each alloy system. The weld size produced on the stainless steel samples was similar to the welds produced on the Ni-based samples. Although direct comparisons cannot be made between the results for the stainless steels and Nibased alloys due to differences in sample size, the very large difference in maximum and total crack length values clearly shows the significant level of improvement in weldability for the Ni-based alloys. In terms of maximum crack length (MCL), the stainless steel alloys with comparable Gd levels (1.9 wt-%) exhibited MCL values near 5 mm, which is significantly higher than that of the Ni-based alloys of 1 to 1.2 mm. Similar results were obtained when total crack length (TCL) was used as the cracking susceptibility indicator. The TCL value for the stainless steel alloy with 1.9 wt-% Gd was 50 mm, which is significantly higher than the TCL value of 5.7 to 7.5 mm for the Ni-based alloys.
Discussion
The results of this research show that the solidification behavior and resultant hot ductility and weldability of Gd-
WELDING RESEARCH
Fig. 17 Light optical photomicrographs of an isolated region of the GTA weld in Alloy N06455-Gd that contained a crack.
Fig. 18 Varestraint hot cracking results for the Ni-Cr-Gd and N06455-Gd alloys. Results are shown for the following: A Maximum crack length; B total crack length.
enriched austenitic alloys depends strongly on the matrix composition. In particular, stainless-steel-type matrix compositions form a low-temperature (Fe,Ni,Cr)3Gd-type intermetallic by a peritectic reaction. This undesirable reaction sequence and concomitantly large melting temperature range can be avoided by the use of austenitic alloys with a Nibased matrix. The DTA results from the Ni-based alloys indicated that, in the absence of undercooling, solidification initiates at the liquidus temperature (in the range of ~13701420C depending on alloy composition) by the formation of primary g-austenite. Essentially no Gd is dissolved in the austenite matrix. Thus, as solidification proceeds, the liquid becomes increasingly enriched in Gd until the Liquid g + Ni5Gd eutectic-type reaction is reached, at which point solidification is terminated by the eutectic reaction. This
reaction sequence and temperature range is generally similar to that expected in the binary Ni-Gd system. Simple binary NiGd alloys with less than about 13 wt-% Gd exhibit a similar two-step solidification sequence consisting of primary austenite formation followed by a terminal eutectic involving the Ni17Gd2 intermetallic at 1275C (Ref. 2). By comparison, the multicomponent Ni-Cr-Mo-Gd alloys terminate solidification in the range of 12601290C by a terminal eutectic-type reaction involving the Ni5Gd intermetallic. Thus, although the secondary phase within the terminal eutectic constituent is different in each case, the terminal reaction temperatures are very similar. The Gleeble hot ductility test results confirm that the reduced melting temperature range provides improved hot workability (relative to the Gd-stainless alloys) at temperatures above ~1000C. As
shown in Fig. 12, the hot ductility of the alloys over the temperature range of 900 1200C can be roughly grouped into highest ductility (N06455-Gd and Ni-Cr-Gd), intermediate ductility (N06059-Gd), and lowest ductility (N06022-Gd). Qualitatively, this response can be rationalized in terms of the concentrations of major alloying elements (Cr, Mo, Fe, W) and gadolinide volume fraction (Gd level) (Table 2). The Ni-Cr-Gd alloy has the lowest substitutional alloying element level, while the N06455-Gd alloy has an appreciably lower Gd concentration (and intermetallic volume fraction) than the other alloys. Conversely, the N06022-Gd alloy has both the highest alloying element level and highest intermetallic volume fraction, while the N06059-Gd alloy is intermediate by these measures. At temperatures below 900C, the fracture process initiates by localized cracking in the brittle Ni5Gd WELDING JOURNAL 327 -S
WELDING RESEARCH
A B
Fig. 19 Varestraint hot cracking results for the stainless steel alloys. Results are shown as a function of Gd concentration at a fixed strain level of 3.5%. A Maximum crack lengths; B total crack lengths.
phase, while ductility at the higher temperature (~1250C) appears to be limited by liquation of the Ni5Gd phase. In any case, all the alloys were successfully reduced to plate by hot rolling at temperatures near 1150C. For these working conditions, the Ni5Gd intermetallic constituent appears to be relatively soft and ductile, and an elongated pancakelike morphology is developed. This morphology is likely not optimal from a mechanical properties perspective, but no attempt was made in the current investigation to optimize either the hot working procedures or the resultant microstructure. Such efforts are, however, ongoing. The significant improvement in solidification cracking resistance of the Nibased alloys compared to the Gd-modified stainless steel alloys can also be attributed to the large reduction in solidification temperature range. The N06455Gd and Ni-Cr-Gd alloys exhibit a solidification temperature range of 110C and 131C, respectively. In comparison, the Gd-stainless steel alloys exhibited a solidification temperature range of 360400C. For a given set of welding parameters (i.e., temperature gradient), the size of the crack-susceptible two-phase solid + liquid region behind the fully molten weld pool increases as the solidification temperature range increases. Thus, the distance a solidification crack can propagate in the two-phase region also increases, resulting in higher MCL and TCL values (i.e., higher cracking susceptibility). Note that the cracking susceptibility is also dependent on the volume fraction of the terminal liquid, but the comparisons between the Gd-stainless alloys and the GdNi alloys were made at similar Gd levels 328 -S DECEMBER 2004
(and thus similar volume fractions of terminal constituents). Comparisons can also be made to commercial Ni-based alloys in which a history of weldability has been established through practical applications. For example, Alloys IN718 and IN625 tested with equivalent size samples and welding parameters at strain level of 2.5% exhibit MCL values of ~1.6 and 1.2 mm, respectively (Ref. 5). These MCL values are comparable to those observed here, and these commercial alloys are known to be readily weldable in typical applications where the level of restraint is not large. Thus, based on the solidification temperature range and Varestraint data acquired here, the Ni-based alloys are expected to be readily weldable under most applications where the level of restraint is not very high. Preliminary conformation of this was provided in the electron beam and GTA welds that were generally crack free. The isolated region of cracking observed in one GTA weld was confined to a region where a local increase in the amount of the g/Ni5Gd constituent (relative to the nominal g/Ni5Gd content) existed due to macrosegregation. The g/Ni5Gd constituent was present as liquid just prior to the end of solidification. In places where the liquid exists in large quantities, it can promote solidification cracking by interfering with the formation of solid/solid boundaries across cells and grains. This continuous grain boundary/intercellular liquid film cannot support solidification shrinkage strains at the terminal stages of solidification, and hot tears form as a result. It is considered that solidification cracking in this alloy should not be a major problem when macrosegregation has been reduced by an intermediate processing
step such as vacuum arc remelting. It should be noted that ongoing work, which includes more extensive welding trials and weld schedule development, has not encountered any difficulties with HAZ cracking in narrow gap cold wire feed GTA butt joint welds. Work is in progress to evaluate this issue in more detail and will be presented in a future article.
Conclusions
The influence of Gd additions on the solidification behavior, hot ductility, and weldability of Ni-based alloys has been investigated. The following conclusions can be drawn from this research. 1. The addition of 6 wt-% Gd to a nominal 20Ni-14Cr-2Mo stainless-steel-type alloy results in a primary austenite solidification mode and formation of a Gd-rich interdendritic constituent at ~1130C. The resulting solidification temperature range of this high-Ni stainless steel is still rather large (300C) and not significantly different than that previously observed in Type 316L stainless steel alloys with Gd additions (360 to 400C). 2. The Ni-based alloys with ~2 wt-% Gd initiated solidification by primary austenite and terminated solidification by a Liquid g + Ni5Gd eutectic-type reaction at ~1270C. The solidification temperature range of these alloys (100 to 130C) is significantly smaller compared to that of Gd-enriched 316L-type stainless steels that terminate solidification by a peritectic reaction at ~1060C. 3. The higher temperature eutectic reaction that occurs in the Ni-based alloys is accompanied by significant improvements in hot ductility and solidification cracking
WELDING RESEARCH
resistance. These alloys therefore show considerable potential in terms of primary processing by conventional ingot metallurgy and hot working, and secondary fabrication by fusion welding.
Acknowledgments
tional Spent Nuclear Fuel Program. Sandia is a multiprogram laboratory operated by Sandia Corporation, a Lockheed Martin company, for the U.S. Department of Energy under Contract DE-AC0494AL8500.
References 1. DuPont, J. N., Robino, C. V., Michael, J. R., Mizia, R. E., and Williams, D. B. 2004. Physical and welding metallurgy of Gd-enriched austenitic alloys for spent nuclear fuel applications, Part I: Stainless steel alloys. Welding Journal 83(11): 289-s to 300-s. 2. Binary Alloy Phase Diagrams, Vol. 3. 1992. Materials Park, Ohio: ASM International. 3. Robino, C. V., DuPont, J. N., Mizia, R. E.,
This work was supported by the U.S. Department of Energy, Assistant Secretary for Environmental Management, under DOE Idaho Operations Office Contract No. DE-AC07-99ID13727. This work was performed at Lehigh University, Sandia National Laboratories, and Idaho National Engineering and Environmental Laboratory through support from the Na-
Michael, J. R., Williams, D. B., and Shaber, E. 2003. Development of Gd-enriched alloys for spent nuclear fuel applications Part I: Preliminary characterization of small scale Gdenriched stainless steels. Journal of Materials Engineering and Performance 12(2): 206214. 4. Loaiza, D. J., Sanchez, R., Wachs, G., and Mizia, R. E. 2003. Critical experiment analysis of a neutron absorbing nickel-chromiummolybdenum-gadolinium alloy being considered for the disposal of spent nuclear fuel. Journal of Nuclear Materials Management 32(1). 5. DuPont, J. N., Robino, C. V., and Marder, A. R. 1998. Solidification and weldability of Nbbearing superalloys, Welding Journal 77(10): 417-s to 431-s.
WELDING RESEARCH
Numerical Simulation of Transient 3-D Surface Deformation of a Completely Penetrated GTA Weld
An analytical model that explores the dynamic behavior of a weld pool will help in the development of a sensor that detects complete joint penetration in gas tungsten arc welding
BY C. S. WU, P. C. ZHAO, AND Y. M. ZHANG
ABSTRACT. By establishing the correlation between transient behavior of a weld pool surface deformation and workpiece penetration, and quantitatively analyzing the surface deformation at the top and bottom surfaces at the moment the pool penetrates and their dynamic responses to welding process parameters will provide basic data for the development of topside vision-based penetration control in gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW). A transient numerical model was developed to investigate the dynamic behavior of a completely penetrated GTAW joint. A complete and comprehensive scheme was used in which many factors, such as moving arc, 3-D fluid and heat flow fields, transient state, completely penetrated weld, and surface deformation at both the top and bottom surfaces were considered. The transient development of 3-D surface deformation and shape of a weld pool during the period from partial penetration to complete penetration is predicted. The simulated results showed that the ratio curves of the maximum depression to the length and width at the top surface of the weld pool at different times clearly indicated basic information on penetration. Therefore, the relation of the ratios vs. time can be used as an indicator to judge whether the joint is penetrated.
Introduction
Gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW) is the most used arc welding process for critical and accurate joining. For this process, 100% complete joint penetration must be ensured without melt-through or overpenetration (Ref. 1). To this end, autoC. S. WU and P. C. ZHAO are with Institute of Materials Joining, Shandong University, Jinan, China, wucs@sdu.edu.cn. Y. M. ZHANG is with Center for Manufacturing and Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Ky.
mated sensing and control of the GTAW process must be realized (Ref. 2). In practice, the backside weld bead width is usually employed to determine the extent of penetration. Although the backside bead width can be sensed by a backside sensor, there are limitations of access and coordinating the motion between the torch and sensor, and it is often necessary that the sensor be attached to and moved with the torch to form a weld-face or topside sensor. However, the invisibility of the backside and the strong arc light radiation together cause tremendous difficulties for such sensors. To find a feasible sensor for automated control, various methods have been studied, including pool oscillation (Ref. 3), ultrasound (Ref. 4), and an infrared sensor (Ref. 5). Although significant progress has been made, practical applications are still restricted. Weld pool behavior contains enough information on penetration. The pool surface is deformed because of the plasma impingement. Previous researchers have found that the resultant depression of the weld pool surface correlates to the penetration depth of the weld pool (Refs. 68), but there is a lack of quantitative analysis of such a correlation. Establishing the correlation between dynamic behavior of weld pool surface deformation and the penetration information, while quantitatively analyzing the surface deformation at the top and bottom surfaces when the joint
is penetrated and their dynamic response to welding process parameters will provide much basic data for the realization of a topside vision-based penetration control for the GTAW process. Thus, numerical simulation of the surface deformation and its dynamic behavior to the GTAW process is of great significance for designing the process control algorithm. Although there have been significant advances in the numerical simulation of the GTAW process (Refs. 924), little attention has been paid to the transient dynamics of the 3-D weld pool surface deformation at both the topside and backside of a fully penetrated weld pool and its correlation to the extent of penetration. Previous studies have shown that the pool depression has a direct effect on the penetration (Refs. 68). In fact, the weld pool surfaces at both the front and back are depressed when there is complete penetration, and the amplitude of such depression could be a reflection of the extent of penetration (Refs. 25, 26). For dynamic control, quantitative analysis is required to reveal how the process variables (weld pool geometry and surface depression) change with the welding parameters (welding current and velocity). In this paper, a numerical model is developed to describe the transient behavior of a 3-D GTA weld pool with complete penetration and surface deformation, and the quantitative relationship between the pool surface depression at the front side and the extent of penetration.
KEY WORDS Weld Pool Surface Deformation Penetration Correlation Numerical Simulation
Formulation
In order to describe the development of weld pool shape, surface deformation, thermal field, and fluid flow field, a GTAW arc is considered to be impinging on the workpiece along the z direction and it moves in the x direction at a constant speed u0. A moving (x, y, z) coordinate sys-
WELDING RESEARCH
tem is so chosen that its origin is located at the intersection between the arc centerline and the workpiece surface. For such a three-dimensional transient problem, the governing equations include the energy, momentum, and continuity equations. Because of the surface deformations at both topside and backside of the weld pool, some new boundaries appeared at both top and bottom surfaces, and their positions changed with time. Therefore, the calculation domain is no longer a regular rectangular one, which causes some boundary conditions to be difficult to deal with. To represent the irregular boundaries, a coordinate transformation is adopted. The independent variable in transformed space (z*) is related to the vertical coordinate in physical space (z) according to z* =
Table 1 Other Thermophysical Properties and Parameters Used in the Calculation Property or Parameter Melting point Ambient temperature Density Latent heat of vaporization Gravitational acceleration Surface radiation emissivity Magnetic permeability Surface tension Temperature coefficient of surface tension Thermal expansion coefficient Current density distribution parameter Heat flux distribution parameter Arc power efficiency Plate thickness Symbol Tm T r Lb g e mm g g/T b sj sq h H Value 1763 K 293 K 7200 kg m3 73.43 105 J kg1 9.8 m s2 0.4 1.66 106 H m1 1.0 N m1 1.12 104 N m1K1 104 1.5 mm 2.25 mm 0.65 3 mm
s =
( ) B( x , y ,t) - F ( x , y ,t)
z - F x , y ,t
(1)
where F(x,y,t) and B(x,y,t) are functions that define the upper and lower surfaces of the weld pool, respectively. The transformation maps the irregularly shaped regions into rectangular computational domains in which the two curvilinear surfaces are stationary during any given time interval, and are defined by z* = 0 and z* = 1. Then, the governing equations describing the fluid flow and heat transfer phenomena in a weld pool are expressed as: r r V V + z * = 0 * (2) z r r r r V + r Vl * V = Fb r t r r p z * + m 2 p + s V + Cv z * (3) T r + Vt *T = s k s T + kCT r cp t (4)
r r r i+ j +S k x y z * r m wl = V z * - 2 z * r r k wt = V z * 2 z* rc p
(J B )
m
=
z
mmI 2
4p 2 Hr 2
2
2 1 - exp - r 1 - z 2s 2 H j
(16)
(10)
(11) (12)
(13)
where b is the volume expansion coefficient, g is the acceleration of gravity, T is the ambient temperature, and the electromagnetic force J Bm is calculated based on Wus analytical solutions (Refs. 12 and 15) expressed as follows: r r J Bm =
where mm is the magnetic permeability, I is the welding current, sj is the effective radius of the current distribution in Gaussian form, H is the thickness of the workpiece, and r = x2 + y2. When the workpiece is not completely penetrated, the weld pool has only one free surface F(x,y,t), which is deformed under the combined action of arc pressure, hydrostatic force, and surface tension. If the workpiece is completely penetrated, the weld pool has two free surfaces, i.e., the upper surface F(x,y,t) and the lower surface B(x,y,t). Under the condition of partial penetration, the shape of weld pool surface F(x,y,t) can be described by the following equation: F5 pa - rgF + C1 = g Fs
where V is the fluid velocity vector with the components (u, v, w) in x, y, and z directions, Vl is the fluid velocity vector with the components (u, v, wl) in x, y, and z directions, Vt is the fluid velocity vector with the components (u, v, wt) in x, y, and z directions, r is the density, cp is the specific heat, p is the pressure, m is the viscosity, k is the thermal conductivity, and other symbols are defined as follows: r r r = i+ j+ k x y z (5) r r r i+ j+ k * = x y z * (6)
r2 exp 2s 2 4p 2 s 2 jr j 2 2 1 - exp - r 1 - z x 2s 2 H r j r r J Bm =
mmI
(17)
where pa is the plasma arc pressure, C1 the Langrangian constant, g the surface tension, and Fs = z F(x,y,t) = 0. The arc pressure pa can be described by (Ref. 27) (14) Parc =
m m IJ
4p (18)
m I2 r2 - m exp 2s 2 4p 2s 2 jr j 2 2 1 - exp - r 1 - z y 2s 2 H r j
where J is the current density at the workpiece surface, which can be assumed to be in Gaussian distribution (Ref. 28) J r = (15)
()
r2 exp 2s 2 2ps 2 j j I
(19)
WELDING RESEARCH
Table 2 Comparison of the Maximum Depression at Top Surface Predicted Weld Depression width (mm) (mm) Top 5.4 side Bottom 1.9 side 0.14 0.27 Measured Weld Depression width (mm) (mm) 6.5 1.7 0.12 0.30
Fig. 1 The surface deformation vs. time (workpiece, SS304; thickness, 3 mm; 100 A; 14 V; 125 mm/min).
Equation 17 should satisfy with the constraint condition (20) where St is the area of fusion zone at the workpieces upper surface (z = 0), i.e., the domain of F(x,y,t) at the plane z = 0. The Langrangian constant C1 can be determined by using Equation 20. If the workpiece is completely penetrated, the upper surface F(x,y,t) and the lower surface B(x,y,t) of the weld pool can be expressed as Fs pa - rgF + C 2 = g Fs (21) B s rg B - F + C2 = g B s (22)
ST
(26) (27)
F dxdy = 0
( x - u t) 0 , q ( x , y) = pa(6bhEI +b )
0 arc 1 2
For the symmetric plane (y = 0), r V T =0, =0 y y (34) In the solid, r V=0 (35) The boundary conditions for Equations 19, 21, and 22 are written as: For the domain outside the melting zone, F = 0, B = 0 (36)
3 x - u0 t exp 2 b1
2 exp - 3 y 2 a
(28)
For the points at the melting zone boundary on the oxz-plane, B =0, =0 x x For the initial conditions: t = 0, T(x,y,z,0) = T , F(x,y,0) = 0, B(x,y,0) = 0 F (37)
when,
( x - u t) < 0 , q ( x , y) = pa(b + b )
0 arc
6hEI
1
where Bs = z B(x,y,t) = 0, and C2 is the Langranian constant, to make Equations 21 and 22 satisfactory with the constraint condition
3 x - u0 t exp 2 b2
2 exp - 3 y 2 a
(38)
Methods of Solution
(29) (30) (31) The governing equations and boundary conditions are solved by means of the finite difference technique. The scheme of differences has a high degree of nonlinearity, as the characteristic values for the material are taken as temperaturedependent. Coupling occurs between and within the relevant aspects of the problem. Thus, a special iterative procedure is necessitated. The program first calculates the temperature field in the solid workpiece. Once the melt zone emerges, the whole domain is divided into two regions, i.e., the fluid flow zone in the weld pool and the solid zone outside the pool. The calculations of fluid flow and heat transfer inside the pool and the conductive heat transfer outside the pool are conducted simultaneously. Then, the shape of the weld pool surface is calculated according to the pressure and energy equilibrium conditions. The liquid-solid boundary is determined by the enthalpy at the melting point. Based
ST
Fdxdy - Bdxdy = 0
SB
(23)
where SB is the area of the fusion zone at the workpieces lower surface (z = H), i.e., the domain of B(x,y,t) at the plane z = H. In transient state, the weld pool geometry changes with time t, so the domains ST and SB also vary with time. In this way, the variations of F(x,y,t) and B(x,y,t) with time t are described. The boundary conditions for solving the governing Equations 24 are as follows: For the free surface of weld pool,
where a(b1 + b2) = 12s2q, a = 1.87sq , b1 = 2.51sq, b2 = 3.91sq, h the arc power efficiency, E the arc voltage, and sq the distribution parameter of arc heat flux. In this research, hcr is the combined heat transfer coefficient for the convection and radiation boundary, T is the ambient temperature, Lb is the latent heat of evaporation, and mer is the evaporation mass rate. For a metal such as steel, hcr and mev can be written as (Refs. 29, 30) hcr = 24.1 104 eT1.61 log(mev) = A B/T 0.5logT (32) (33)
m m
u z z
*
=-
g T T x g T T y (25) (24)
v z *
z * z
=-
where e is the emissivity of the workpiece surface, and A and B are constants (A = 8.641, B = 18836).
WELDING RESEARCH
A B
Fig. 2 The transient development of weld pool surface deformation (workpiece, SS304; thickness, 3 mm; 100 A; 14 V; 125 mm/min). A Deformation at top surface (side view, enlarged in z direction); B deformation at bottom surface (side view, enlarged in z direction); C deformation at top surface (front view, enlarged in z direction); D deformation at bottom surface (front view, enlarged in z direction).
on the deformed pool surface, the fluid flow and temperature fields are recalculated. Then, the configuration of the weld pool surface and geometry is adjusted, and a repeated calculation procedure commences. Once the workpiece is completely penetrated, the appropriate equilibrium conditions of pressure are applied to determine the shape of the weld pool and its surface deformation at both topside and bottom side. The fluid flow and heat transfer within the pool are recalculated, and the pool geometry is modified. Iterations are performed until the selected convergence criterion is satisfied. The overall algorithm consists of individual procedures which are performed iteratively. The iterative calculations for the transient problems are carried out. At each time step, all physical subprocesses are solved numerically until the convergence criterion is met, and then time is incremented and the calculation procedure is repeated. The additional source term method is utilized to transform both energy and momentum boundary conditions into discrete forms, and the discrete governing equations in body-fitted coordinates are established. Nonuniform grids are used with finer spacing inside the weld pool and coarser away from it to improve the simulation accuracy and speed up the convergence. Various subprocess problems are calculated separately and improved by turns during the whole iterative procedure. In this way, the strongly coupling problems are solved effectively and successfully.
Results
Numerical simulations are performed for GTAW on stainless steel 304. A half workpiece with a welding domain of 200 50 3 mm are divided into the mesh of 352 60 10 grid points. For the 304 material, the specific heat cp, dynamic viscosity , and thermal conductivity k are temperature dependent, which can be expressed as follows (Ref. 31):
10.717 + 0.014955T T 780 K -1 -1 12.076 + 0.013213T W m K 780 K T 1672 K k= 217.12 - 0.1094T 1672 K T 1727 K 1727 T 8.278 + 0.0115T
(39)
37.203 - 0.0176T 1713 K T 1743 K -3 -1 -1 20.354 - 0.008T 10 kg m s 1743 K T 1763 K m= 34.849 - 0.0162T 1763 K T 1853 K 1853 K T 1873 K 13.129 - 0.0045T
(40)
438.95 + 0.198T T 773 K -1 773 K T 873 K 137.93 + 0.59T J kg Cp = 871.25 - 0.25T 873 K T 973 K 973 K T 555.2 + 0.0775T
(41)
Other thermophysical properties and parameters used in the calculation are summarized in Table 1. The development of the weld pool includes the following stages: weld pool forming after the arc ignition, the pool expanding, and the pool reaching quasi-
steady state. The welding conditions were as follows: 1) Test piece was 304 stainless steel with 250 mm length, 60 mm width, and 3 mm thickness. 2) The welding current was 100 A. 3) The arc voltage was 14 V. 4) The welding speed was 125 mm/min. The figures and tables denote conditions as workpiece, SS304; thickness, 3 mm; 100 A; 14 V; and 125 mm/s. For the welding conditions used, the weld pool emerges at t = 0.82 s, then expands continuously, gets fully penetrated at t = 3.54 s, and reaches the quasi-steady state at t = 4.24 s. Figure 1 shows the transient development of the pool surface deformation, i.e., the maximum values of the depression at both sides and the hump at the topside vs. time. After the weld pool is formed at t = 0.82 s, the pool surface deformation is produced. As the pool volume expands with increasing time, the extent of the pool surface deformation gets bigger, and both maximum depression and hump at topside increase with time. The test plate is completely penetrated t = 3.54 s. In the mean time, the bottom surface of the weld pool starts to deform, so the whole weld pool is depressed. Then, the hump at topside decreases, while the depressions at both sides rise at a higher rate. When the thermal process reaches the quasi-steady state at t = 4.24 s, the weld pool geometry keeps constant, the hump at the topside becomes zero, and the depressions of the weld pool at both sides attain their maxi-
WELDING RESEARCH
A B
Fig. 3 The ratios of Ddmax/W and Ddmax/L vs. time (workpiece, SS304; thickness, 3 mm; 100 A; 14 V; 125 mm/min). A The ratio of the maximum depression to the pool width; B the ratio of the maximum depression to the pool length.
mum and do not vary anymore with time. It can be seen that the increasing rate of the pool surface depressions is quite different before and after the pool is completely penetrated. Figure 2 illustrates the transient development of weld pool surface deformation at both the top and bottom sides of the weld pool. In this figure, A and B are the longitudinal sections (side view), while C and D are the transverse cross sections (front view). Compared to the top surface of the weld pool, the bottom surface gets depressed more seriously and quickly. The maximum depression at the bottom surface increases from 0 mm at t = 3.54 s (the moment when the pool is just completely penetrated) to 0.26 mm at t = 4.24 s (the instant when the quasi-steady state is reached). The increasing rate is 0.371 mm/s. As shown in Fig. 2D, there is a minor oscillation of the pool surface deformation at the bottom side after the weld pool geometry reaches quasisteady state. But the amplitude of such oscillation is so low that the bottom surface contours at t = 4.2 s and t = 4.4 s are nearly identical with each other. For the top surface depression, the increasing rates of maximum depression are 0.031 mm/s before complete penetration (from 0 mm at t = 0.82 s to 0.098 mm at t = 4.0 s) and 0.117 mm/s after complete penetration (from 0.098 mm at t = 4.0 s to 0.126 mm at t = 4.24 s), respectively. Since the variation rate of the top surface depression of the weld pool has a marked increase after the pool is completely penetrated, it can be taken as an indicator to judge whether the plate is penetrated or not. On the other hand, the pool length and width at the topside are also changed after complete penetration is achieved. To quantitatively describe the correlation of the topside surface depression with the extent of penetration, two characteristic variables are used to reflect the variation of the whole weld pool geometry, i.e., the ratio of the maximum de-
pression Ddmax to the pool width W (Ddmax/W), and the ratio of Ddmax to the pool length L (Ddmax/L). Figure 3 shows the ratios of Ddmax/W and Ddmax/L vs. time. The three-segment curves of such ratios reflect the information on the penetration. During the expanding of the nonpenetrated weld pool, the values of Ddmax/W and Ddmax/L rise slowly with time. At the moment the weld pool is fully penetrated (t = 3.54 s), the rising rates of Ddmax/W and Ddmax/L are suddenly increased, i.e., the slopes of two curves increase in a marked way. The first kink point on the curves corresponds to the moment when the weld pool gets fully penetrated. When the quasi-steady state is obtained at t = 4.24 s, the weld pool geometry is in a relatively stable condition, Ddmax/W and Ddmax/L are nearly constant, so the curves are just straight lines after 4.24 s. The second kink point on the curves corresponds to the moment when the weld pool reaches the quasi-steady state. Because the depression of the weld pool surface at the topside has the characteristics mentioned above, it can be employed as an indicator of weld penetration extent. In practice, the topside sensor can be developed to measure the weld pool surface depression for weld penetration control. Experimental measurements are made to verify the model. After welding, a macrograph of a weld cross section is made to measure the weld dimension. Table 2 is the comparison between the predicted and experimental weld depressions on a weld cross section. They are in agreement with each other.
emerges at t = 0.82 s, then it expands continuously, gets fully penetrated at t = 3.54 s, and reaches the quasi-steady state at t = 4.24 s, for the welding conditions used (workpiece, SS304; thickness, 3 mm; 100 A; 14 V; 125 mm/s). 2) For the top surface depression, the increasing rates of maximum depression are 0.031 mm/s before complete penetration (from 0 mm at t = 0.82 s to 0.098 mm at t = 4.0 s) and 0.117 mm/s after complete penetration (from 0.098 mm at t = 4.0 s to 0.126 mm at t = 4.24 s), respectively. Compared to the top surface of the weld pool, the bottom surface gets depressed more seriously and quickly, with the maximum depression of 0.26 mm and the increasing rate of 0.371 mm/s. 3) The variation rate of the ratios of the maximum pool surface depression at the topside to the pool width, and to the pool length, can be described if the plate is completely penetrated. The simulation results lay a foundation for topside sensor-based process control of the GTAW process.
Acknowledgments
The authors are grateful for the financial support for this project from United States National Science Foundation under Grant No. DMI-0114982, and The National Natural Science Foundation of China under Grant No. 50475131. They would like to thank T. T. Feng, M. X. Zhang, and J. K. Hu for their help in experiments, and H. G. Wang for his help in graph drawing.
References 1. Swaim, W. 1998. Gas tungsten arc welding made easy. Welding Journal 77(9): 5152. 2. Zhang, Y. M., Kovacevic, R., and Lin., L. 1996. Adaptive control of full penetration GTA welding. IEEE Trans. on Control Systems Technology 4(4): 394403.
Conclusions
1) A 3-D transient numerical model is developed for investigating the dynamic behavior of the weld pool geometry, surface deformation, heat transfer, and fluid flow in a full-joint penetrated GTA weld pool. Based on the model, the weld pool
WELDING RESEARCH
3. Xiao, Y. X., and Ouden, G. den 1993. Weld pool oscillation during GTA welding of mild steel. Welding Journal 72(8): 428-s to 434-s. 4. Carlson, N. M., and Johnson, J. A. 1988. Ultrasonic sensing of weld pool penetration. Welding Journal 67(11): 239-s to 246-s. 5. Wikle, H. C., Kottilingam, S., Zee, R. H., and Chen, B. A. 2001. Infrared sensing techniques for penetration depth control of the submerged arc welding process. Journal of Materials Processing Technology, 113: 228233. 6. Friedman, E. 1978. Analysis of weld puddle distortion and its effect on penetration. Welding Journal 57(6): 161-s to 166-s. 7. Lin, M. L., and Eagar, T. W. 1985. Influence of arc pressure on weld pool geometry. Welding Journal 64(6): 163-s to 169-s. 8. Rokhlin, S. I., and Guu, A. C. 1993. A study of arc force, pool depression, and weld penetration during gas tungsten arc welding. Welding Journal 72(8): 381-s to 390-s. 9. Oreper, G. M., and Szekely, J. 1984. Heatand fluid-flow phenomena in weld pools. Journal of Fluid Mechanics, 147(10): 5379. 10. Oreper, G. M., Szekely, J., and Eagar, T. W. 1986. The role of transient convection in the melting and solidification in arc weldpools. Metall. Trans. B, 17: 735744. 11. Kou, S., and Wang, Y. H. 1986. Computer simulation of convection in moving arc weld pools. Metall. Trans. A, 17 (12): 22712277. 12. Tsao, K. C., and Wu, C. S. 1988. Fluid flow and heat transfer in GMA weld pools. Welding Journal 67(3): 70-s to 75-s. 13. Zacharia, T., David, S. A., Vitek, J. M., and Debroy, T. 1989. Weld pool development during GTA and laser beam welding of type 304 stainless steel, part I theoretical analysis. Welding Journal 68: 499-s to 509-s. 14. Zacharia, T., Eraslan, A. H., Aidun, D. K., and David, S. A. 1989. Three-dimensional transient model for arc welding process. Metall. Trans. B, 20(10): 645659. 15. Wu, C. S., and Tsao, K. C. 1990. Modelling the three-dimensional fluid flow and heat transfer in a moving weld pool. Engineering Computations 7(3): 241248. 16. Zacharia, T., David, S. A., Vitek, J. M., and Debroy, T. 1990. Modeling of interfacial phenomena in welding. Metall. Trans. B, 21(6): 600603. 17. Choo, R. T. C., Szekely, J., and Westhoff, R. C. 1991. Modeling of high-current arcs with emphasis on free surface phenomena in the weld pool. Welding Journal 69(9): 346-s to 361-s. 18. Choo, R. T. C., Szekely, J., and David, S. A. 1992. On the calculation of the free surface temperature of gas-tungsten-arc weld pools from first principles: part II modeling the weld pool and comparison with experiments. Metall. Trans. B, 23(6): 371384. 19. Wu, C. S., and Dorn, L. 1994. Computer simulation of fluid dynamics and heat transfer in full-penertrated TIG weld pools with surface depression. Computational Materials Science, 2: 341349. 20. Domey, J., Aidun, D. K., Ahmadi, G., Regel, L., and Wilcox, W. R. 1995. Numerical simulation of the effect of gravity on weld pool shape. Welding Journal 74(8): 263-s to 268-s. 21. Wu, C. S., and Zheng, W. 1997. Analysis of fluid flow and heat transfer in a moving pulsed TIG weld pool. International Journal for the Joining of Materials, 9: 166170. 22. Wu, C. S., Sun, J. S. 1998. Determining the distribution of the heat content of filler metal droplet transferred into GMA weld pools. Proc Instn Mech Engrs, Part B: Journal of Engineering Manufacture, Vol. 212B, 525531. 23. Ko, S. H., Choi, S. K., and Yoo, C. D. 2001. Effects of surface depression on pool convection and geometry in stationary GTAW. Welding Journal 80: 39-s to 45-s. 24. Wu, C. S., and Yan, F. 2004. Numerical simulation of transient development and diminution of weld pool in gas tungsten arc welding. Modeling and Simulation in Materials Science and Engineering, 12: 1320. 25. Kovacevic, R., and Zhang, Y. M. 1997. Real-time image processing for monitoring of free weld pool surface. ASME Journal of Manufacturing Science and Engineering, 119: 161169. 26. Saeed, G., and Zhang, Y. M. 2003. Mathematical formulation and simulation of specular reflection based measurement system for gas tungsten arc weld pool surface. Measurement Science and Technology, 14: 16711682. 27. Lin, M. L., and Eagar, T. W. 1986. Pressure produced by gas tungsten arcs. Metall. Trans. B, 17(9): 601607. 28. Tsai, N. S., and Eagar, T. W. 1985. Distribution of the heat and current fluxes in gas tungsten arcs. Metall. Trans. B, 16(4): 841846. 29. Goldak, J., Bibby, M., Moore, J., and Patel, B. 1986. Computer modeling of heat flow in welds. Metall. Trans., 17B: 587600. 30. Choi, M., and Greif, R. 1987. A study of heat transfer during welding with applications to pure metals or alloys and low or high boiling temperature materials. Numerical Heat Transfer, 11: 477489. 31. Wu, C. S. Computer simulation of threedimensional convection in traveling MIG weld pools. 1992. Engineering Computations, 9(5): 529537.
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WELDING RESEARCH
Introduction
Gas metal arc welding (GMAW) is widely applied in various industries because of its high productivity, flexibility, and low cost. It can be operated in semiautomatic and automatic modes and can be utilized particularly well in a highvolume production environment. In GMAW, there are three major modes of metal transfer from the electrode wire to the weld pool: globular transfer, spray transfer, and short-circuiting transfer. Short-circuit GMAW employs the lowest range of welding current, low voltage, and small wire diameters, thus producing low heat input and a small, fast-freezing weld pool. The low heat input minimizes distortion of the welded structure. Therefore, short-circuit GMAW is highly suited
Y. X. CHU, S. J. HU, and W. K. HOU are with the Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Michigan at Ann Arbor. P. C. WANG and S. P. MARIN are with Manufacturing Systems Research Lab, General Motors Corp.
WELDING RESEARCH
Fig. 1 The captured images of a metal transfer in short-circuit GMAW and the corresponding welding current and voltage.
such as travel speed, wire feed rate, and welding voltage, is discussed and established. Signatures of welding processes for weld quality are analyzed and identified. The time-frequency analysis is used to identify the stability of a process at a specific time (or point). A systematic study based on experimental data shows that the power spectral analysis and timefrequency analysis methods are efficient approaches for stability and quality analysis of the GMAW process. This paper is organized as follows: the next section describes the short-circuit GMAW process, while the subsequent section presents signature analysis methodology, results and discussion, and a final summary.
serves as a reference. A Hall sensor is used to measure the welding current. After signal conditioning, the current and voltage are sampled by a data acquisition system with the sample frequency 4.0 kHz. The data are transferred to and stored in the computer. While the computer starts collecting current and voltage signals, a trigger signal is sent to a high-speed video camera to take images of the shortcircuiting transfer process in a synchronous way. Thus, the real image description of a short-circuiting transfer process, as shown in Fig. 1, can be observed to correspond with the periodic changes with current and voltage signals.
preted as a measure of the frequency distribution of the mean square value of the data. For the sequence of a sampled signal with a finite interval N, x(n), n=0,1,, N1, the power spectral density is the discrete Fourier transformation of the autocorrelation function as follows (Ref. 10):
Pxx f =
()
N -1
k = N +1
rxx (k )e - j2pfk
(1)
where f is the frequency, rxx(k) is the autocorrelation function of a signal x(n) given by rxx k =
()
1 N
N - k -1 n= 0
x n x n+ k , (2)
( )( )
k = 0,1,L , N - 1.
It can also be viewed in terms of direct Fourier transformation of the original data by
Pxx
()
1 N -1 f = x k e - j 2 pkf N k =0
()
(3)
The function Pxx(f) defined in Equation 1 is equivalent to the corresponding function defined in Equation 3. Thus, spectral density functions can be estimated either through finite Fourier transformations of the correlations functions, or through finite Fourier transformations of the original time history signals.
WELDING RESEARCH
how the frequency content of a signal is changed in time. There are several ways to theoretically describe the spectra of time varying signals, including the short-time Fourier transformation, the generalized spectrum, the evolutionary spectrum, the instantaneous autospectrum, and physical spectrum. The wavelet waveform can also be used to analyze nonstationary signals. The short-time Fourier transformation method is one of the simplest and most commonly used time-frequency representations and is employed in this study to analyze the time-frequency properties of the welding signals. A brief description of this method follows. The basic idea is to first select, by means of a window function, a small piece of the signal about a time of interest. A standard Fourier analysis of this windowed signal is then used to infer frequency content at the selected time. We illustrate as follows: Consider x(t) a time-varying signal, h(t) a window function. Let t be the time of interest and t the running time, then the window function h(t) can be designed to emphasize the times around the time of interest tt. Multiplying the signal x(t) by the window function h(tt), centered on the time of interest tt obtains the weighted signal xh t - t = x t h t - t .
Fig. 3 Power spectral density analysis for different wire feed rates (bare steel): A 50 in./min; B 70 in./min; C 90 in./min; D 110 in./min; E 130 in./min; and F 150 in./min. Welding speed = 0.51 m/min, voltage = 15 V , and CTWD = 13.97 mm (0.55 in.).
( ) ()( )
- xh (t )e
(4)
Considering this signal as a function of t and taking the spectrum of it yields the short-time Fourier transform (Ref. 11)
S f ,t = =
( )
1 2p 1 2p
- j 2 pft
dt dt (5)
- j 2 pft
where f is the frequency. Then the power spectrum (also called the spectrogram) of the modified signal becomes G f ,t = S f ,t = 1 2p
( ) ( )
2 - j 2 pft
dt .
(6)
Fig. 4 Power spectral density analyses for different wire feed rates (galvanized steel): A 70 in./min; B 90 in./min; C 110 in./min; D 130 in./min; E 150 in./min; and F 170 in./min. Welding speed=0.25 m/min (10 in./min), voltage=15 V , and CTWD=13.97 mm (0.55 in.).
The short-time Fourier transformation is the prototype of a time-frequency distribution and an extremely powerful tool in many areas. The advantage of the shorttime Fourier transformation is that it has an easily understandable interpretation, as described above, and gives a good timefrequency representation for many signals.
WELDING RESEARCH
Fig. 5 Relationship between the short-circuiting frequency and wire feed rates: A bare steel; and B galvanized steel.
The commonly used windows include rectangular, triangular, Hanning, Hamming, and Blackman windows. In this study, a Hanning window was chosen and it worked well for the welding signal analysis. The mathematical formula defining the Hanning window (Ref. 11) is as follows:
Table 1 Welding Parameters and Consumables Used in the Study Wire Type Wire Diameter in. (mm) 0.035 (0.9) Feed Voltage Welding Electrode Rate (volt) Speed CTWD in./min in./min in. (mm) (m/min) (m/min) 50190 15 5~30 0.55 (1.274.83) (0.127~0.765) (13.97) Gun Shielding Angle Gas Flow Rate (ft3/h) 30
ER70S-6
90 deg
75%Ar +25%CO2
()
( )
For the sequence of a sampled signal, the discrete form of the short-time Fourier transformation is used. The signal processing and algorithm implementation were done with the signal processing toolbox of Matlab.
eling cart was employed to move the welding torch according to a preset welding speed. ER70S-6 was chosen as the welding filler metal. The contact tip-to-workpiece distance (CTWD) was 13.97 mm (0.55 in). Bare and galvanized steels with gauges of 0.063 in. (1.6 mm) were used in the welding trials. Bead-on-plate welds were made with GMAW using various welding parameters. Table 1 lists the welding parameters and welding consumables used in this study. The welding voltage and current signals were collected by the data acquisition system during the experiments. Photographs of the weld surfaces were taken and weld specimens were cut to measure
the weld bead geometry, and to check internal weld quality, porosity, and weld penetration. The weld surface quality was evaluated based on three criteria: uniformity of the weld bead width, smoothness of the weld surface, and amount of the spatter. Based on the evaluation result of the weld surface and the examination outcome of the weld cross section, a weld quality judgment was given to each weld. With the welding voltages and current signals, a low-pass filter is designed and applied to filter measurement noise and induced noise. In the discussion that follows, we describe the analysis of various welding signals using the methods described above.
WELDING RESEARCH
The welding process with a unique frequency (Figs. 3D and 3E) corresponds to uniform welds and good weld surface quality. A systematic analysis based on experimental data shows that the short-circuiting frequency is a determining factor on the stability of welding processes. A series of experiments for galvanized steel was also conducted. The analysis results show that when the wire feed rate is 110 in./min (2.79 m/min), the dominant short-circuiting frequency of the process stays constant during the whole welding process and reaches the maximum, as shown in Fig. 4C. Similarly, as the wire feed rate increases from 70 to 170 in./min (1.78 to 4.32 m/min), the weld quality changes from poor to good, then to poor again. The best weld quality is obtained at a wire feed rate of around 110 in./min (2.79 m/min). A very interesting phenomenon is that there is a low-frequency component with very high energy when the wire feed rate is larger than 130 in./min (3.3 m/min) for galvanized steel. This can be explained by the fact that there is always a periodic long arc period after several normal short-circuiting periods. Once this phenomenon had occurred, there was much spatter during welding, which can be observed from the welds pictured in Fig. 4. A further study will be conducted for detailed explanation and analysis. Figures 5A and B illustrate the relationship between the dominant short-circuiting frequency and the wire feed rate at different welding speeds for bare and galvanized steel, respectively. As can be seen, there is the maximal frequency around 105 Hz corresponding to different welding speeds for the bare steel. The maximal frequency has a slight right shift, but not much change when the welding speed increases. There is no significant change of the short-circuiting frequency for the galvanized steel and bare steel welding. The above analysis results show that most uniform welds can be obtained under a unique short-circuiting frequency reaching maximum value. Furthermore, keeping a constant short-circuiting frequency is a necessary condition to obtain a stable welding process and good weld quality. With this method, it is easy to test the various welding conditions and identify whether a welding process is stable or not. Based on the stability analysis, an operational range resulting in stable welding processes can be suggested. Figure 6 shows the relationship between the short-circuiting frequencies and the welding voltages while other welding parameters are kept constant at a wire feed rate of 110 in./min (2.79 m/min), welding speed of 20 in./min (0.51 m/min), and CTWD of 0.55 in. (13.97 mm). From the figures, it can be seen that the short-
Fig. 8 Time-frequency spectrum analyses for various wire feed rates under a welding speed of 30 in./min (for bare steel): A 50 in./min; B 70 in./min; C 90 in./min; D 110 in./min; E 130 in./min; and F 150 in./min.
short-circuiting frequency (Hz); the y-axis is the power (or energy) density magnitude. As can be seen in Fig. 3, the maximal spectral peak varies when the wire feed rate changes from 50 to 150 in./min (1.27 to 4.83 m/min). The corresponding dominant frequency increases when the wire feed rate increases from 50 to 130 in./min (1.27 to 3.30 m/min). However, while the wire feed rate continues to increase, the dominant frequency decreases. This imFig. 9 Frequency-wire feed rate spectral graph of the welding plies that there exists a wire process for a welding speed of 20 in./min (for bare steel). feed rate at which the shortcircuiting frequency reaches the maximum. At 130 Power Spectral Density Analysis in./min (3.30 m/min) wire feed rate in this set of experiments, the weld bead is obBy computing the power spectral denserved to be the most uniform and exhibits sity of welding currents (Equations 1 or 3), the best surface quality. The different an analysis of welding experiments was magnitudes in the power spectral density carried out. Figures 3 and 4 show the mean that the signals consist of different power spectral density analysis results of frequency components with comparable the welding current at different wire feed energy. The multifrequencies, as shown in rates for bare steel and galvanized steel, Figs. 3A, 3B, 3C, and 3F, correspond to respectively. In the figures, the x-axis is the nonuniform welds and significant spatter.
WELDING RESEARCH
circuiting frequency varies as the welding voltage changes. Especially when the voltage increases to 15 V, the frequency starts decreasing. As the welding voltage increases beyond this, the short-circuiting frequency decreases and weld surface quality becomes poor. In other words, under these experimental conditions, the short-circuiting frequency reaches a maximum around a welding voltage of 15 V, where the welding process is most stable, and the best weld quality is obtained. Figure 7 illustrates the relationship between the short-circuiting frequency and CTWD when other welding parameters keep constant at a wire feed rate of 110 in./min (2.79 m/min), welding speed of 20 in./min (0.51 m/min), and welding voltage of 15 and 17 V, respectively. As shown in Figure 7, the short-circuiting frequency does not have much change; it becomes slightly smaller as CTWD increases. But the weld surface quality becomes poor. Similarly, there is a maximum shortcircuiting frequency at which the welding process is most stable. With the same CTWD, the short-circuiting frequency under a welding voltage of 15 V is higher than under a welding voltage of 17 V. Compared with the CTWD and the welding voltage, the CTWD has less influence on the short-circuiting frequency and weld surface quality. However, it does affect the weld bead geometry and ignition of welding arc. The higher the CTWDs are, the shallower the penetrations.
Time-Frequency Analysis
Fig. 10 Time-frequency analyses of welding currents with oils on part of weld surfaces: A bare steel; B galvanized steel.
If a welding process is stable and with constant metal transfer frequency, then the power spectral density can be used for analysis by taking any piece of the signal from the long welding process. But if a welding process is not stable or there are surface disturbances, then the welding voltage or current may fluctuate and the short-circuiting frequencies of the signals cannot be kept constant. For these nonstationary signals we use the time-varying spectrogram analysis method described above to perform a time-frequency analysis for the welding current. In this section we apply time-frequency analysis to again study the effect of wire feed rate on process stability. In the following subsection, we apply the method to explore the effect of several types of surface disturbances on process stability. The experimental parameters were the same as used in the previous subsection. Figure 8 shows the time-frequency spectral graphs of the welding currents at six different wire feed rates at a constant welding voltage of 15 V, a constant CTWD of 0.55 in. (13.97 mm), and a welding speed of 30 in./min (0.76 m/min). In Fig. 8,
Fig. 11 Time-frequency analyses with various disturbances: A hole; B no shielding gas; C paint (bare steel); and D paint (galvanized steel).
WELDING RESEARCH
We examined the effect of oily surfaces, small holes, lack of shielding gas, and paint on the weld plate surface. With these disturbance conditions, two sets of experiments were conducted; one set for bare steel, the other for galvanized steel. The welding parameters kept constant were wire feed rate [110 in./min (2.79 m/min)], welding voltage (15 V), CTWD [0.55 in. (13.97 mm)], and arc welding speed [20 in./min (0.51 m/min)]. Also, a butt joint weld was carried out with two different materials, joining a bare steel sheet to a galvanized steel sheet. Figures 10A and B show the timefrequency analysis results of the welding current with dirty oil on the plate surfaces for bare steel and galvanized steel, respectively. As observed from the appearance of the weld bead, this influenced the weld surface quality. The bead width and reinforcement become smaller than normal on the oily parts. As shown in Fig. 10A, at the first part, the welding process was operated under the normal condition; the dominant frequency is at mean 106.4 Hz, standard deviation (STD) 5.87 Hz. When going to the part with oil, the shortcircuiting process was abnormal and the dominant frequencies at the peak powers vary dramatically with mean 60.2 Hz and STD 38.1 Hz. Thus, this results in the nonuniform weld. Figure 10B shows similar analysis results for galvanized steel, except that the mean value of the short-circuiting frequency was 60 Hz for galvanized steel, instead of 105 Hz for bare steel. Figures 11AD show the timefrequency analysis results for four kinds of disturbances: a small hole on the weld plate, lack of shielding gas, and some paints on plate surfaces, respectively. As shown in Fig. 11A, when the welding path passes a small hole, the welding current drops sharply and the short-circuiting frequency at that time decreases signifiantly. Shielding gas is used to prevent oxidation and contamination of weld joints. The weld surface quality is sensitive to the lack of shielding gas. The weld surfaces of both the bare steel and the galvanized steel exhibit significant porosity when the shielding gas was insufficient or lost. The reinforcement and bead width are smaller than normal welds. The short-circuiting process during that period is not dominated by one frequency, but multifrequency components, as seen in Fig. 11B. This implies an unstable process. When some paint was put on the surfaces of both bare and galvanized sheet steels, the experimental results show that the weld bead geometries and surface quality changed at the painted area, which reflects the change of the welding voltage and current. The bead width and weld penetration
Fig. 12 Time-frequency analysis of welding current with the butt joint for two materials of bare and galvanized steels with different thicknesses: A time-frequency spectra; B dominant frequency at peak powers; and C welded specimen.
the x-axis is time; y-axis is the shortcircuiting frequency (Hz); and z-axis is the magnitude of the time-varying power spectrum function. From these graphs, it can be seen how the short-circuiting frequencies vary during a welding process and under different welding parameters. As shown in Fig. 8, when the wire feed rate is 50 in./min (1.27 m/min), no periodic components and frequency components can be identified during certain time periods due to the irregular short-circuiting processes. No continuous weld was formed, only some weld spots. When the wire feed rate increases to 70 in./min (1.78 m/min), the frequency components distribution along the time axis is clearly shown in Fig. 8B. This figure shows that the spectrum of welding current contains a wide range of short-circuiting frequency components with comparable energy of signals. This means that the spectrum of welding current consists of different shortcircuiting frequencies and the welding process was not stable. Based on the observation from Figs. 3, 8, and 9, the nonuniform weld surface is consistent with the signal analysis results. When the wire feed rate increases to 110 in./min (2.79 m/min) (Fig. 8D), the short-circuiting frequency stays almost constant during the whole welding process. This is a stable welding process and thus results in a very uniform weld surface. The analysis results show that the wire feed rate from 100 to 120
in./min (2.54 to 3.05 m/min) is a good range for obtaining stable welding processes for bare steel with a thickness of 0.06 in. (1.52 mm) under the welding voltage of 15 V, the CTWD of 0.55 in. (13.97 mm), and welding speeds from 5 to 30 in./min (0.127 to 0.762 m/min). Therefore, with the time-frequency analysis, it is easy to identify which welding process is stable, whether a process remains stable during a long welding process, and the variation of the short-circuiting frequency. In Fig. 9, seven normalized timefrequency spectral results are combined together to intuitively compare the frequency components of signals under different wire feed rates (WFR), in the x-axis corresponding to 50, 70, 90, 110, 130, 150, and 170 in./min (1.27, 1.78, 2.29, 2.79, 3.30, 3.81, and 4.31 m/min), respectively. As can be seen in the figure, while the wire feed rate varies from 50 to 150 in./min (1.27 to 3.81 m/min), the obvious change of the dominant frequency can be observed. The figure demonstrates the stable regions [110130 in./min (2.79~3.30 m/min)] of the welding processes at the designed welding conditions.
Time-Frequency Analysis for Welding with Disturbances
Various welding conditions were created for bead-on-plate welds by setting some disturbances on the plate surfaces.
WELDING RESEARCH
at the painted area are narrower and shallower than those made at nominal conditions. As shown in the time-frequency analysis result of Fig. 11C, the mean of the short-circuiting frequency has changed, decreasing to 57.8 Hz on the painted surface from 97.5 Hz under the normal condition. For the galvanized steel, the welding current suddenly jumps from its normal value at the first boundary between the painted area and the unpainted area, and then returns to normal on the painted surface. But at the secondary boundary end edge between the painted area and the unpainted area, the welding current has a second jump. At these two boundaries, the weld beads have serious defects, very nonuniform, almost no reinforcement. The time-frequency analysis also shows the frequency change at the two boundaries in Figs. 11C and D. Finally, we examined the joining of two sheets with different coatings. Bare steel and galvanized steel were welded together using a butt joint method. Figure 12C shows the picture of the weld. The first part of the weld is uniform and of good quality, but the second part of the weld shows defects due to the deviation of the root opening between the two parts caused by heat deformation after welding of the first part. The short-circuiting frequency at the first part is about 40 Hz, but at the second part, the short-circuiting frequency dropped and varied dramatically. The change of the frequency represents the weld surface quality change. and time-frequency analysis methods. The relationship between the short-circuiting frequency, welding stability, weld quality, and other welding parameters, such as the travel speed, the wire feed rate, and the welding voltage, was investigated based on experimental data analysis. A systematic analysis shows that the short-circuiting frequency is a determining factor on the stability of welding processes. A series of experiments was carried out for validation of the analysis results. The characteristic difference between welding processes for bare steel and galvanized steel were studied and compared. Based on the frequency signature analysis, a stable welding process and uniform weld beads can be obtained when the short-circuiting frequency remains stable and reaches its maximum. The analyses show that the time-frequency analysis method for welding signals is an effective approach for identifying the stability of processes and weld surface quality. This method is also very useful in tuning or refining a welding procedure to obtain the greatest level of stability. The study on the short-circuiting frequency of the metal transfer process is important in understanding the effect of welding parameters on short-circuiting processes and weld stability in GMAW.
Acknowledgments cuit gas metal arc welding. Welding Journal 78(4): 137-s to 141-s. 2. Adolfsson, S., Bahrami, G., Bolmsio, G., and Claesson, I. 1999. On-line quality monitoring in short-circuit gas metal arc welding, Welding Journal 78(2): 59-s to 73-s. 3. Quinn T. P. M., Smith, C., McCowan, C. N., Blachowiak, E., and Madjgan, R. B. 1999. Arc sensing for defects in constant-voltage gas metal arc welding. Welding Journal 78(9): 322-s to 328-s. 4. Subramaniam, S., White, D. R., Jones, J. E., and Lyons, D. W. 1999. Experimental approach to selection of pulsing parameters in pulsed GMAW. Welding Journal 78(5): 166-s to 172-s. 5. Blumschein-E. 1997. Fast detection of essential changes in GMAW processes. Seventh International Conference on Computer Technology in Welding (NIST SP 923). Washington, D.C.: NIST, pp. 474485. 6. Norrish, J. 1994. Process stability assessment and metal transfer control for robotic gas metal arc welding, 10th ISPE/IFAC International Conference on CAD/CAM, Robotics and Factories of the Future CARs & FOF94. Information Technology for Modern Manufacturing. Conference Proceedings, pp. 33641. 7. Cook, G. E., Maxwell, J. E., Barnett, R. J., and Thompson F. M. 1994. Statistical weld process monitoring and interpretation. Proc. of 1994 IEEE Industry Applications Society Annual Meeting, Vol. 3, Denver, Colo., pp. 182835. 8. Sanders, L., West, M., and Norrish, J. 1998. Real-time irregularity detection in gas metal arc welding. Proceedings of the 8th International Conference on Computer Technology in Welding, pp. 6276. 9. Wezenbeek, H. C. 1992. A system for measurement and control of weld pool geometry in automatic arc welding. Ph.D. dissertation, Technische University, Eindhoven, Netherlands. 10. Hayes, M. H. 1996. Statistical Digital Signal Processing and Modeling. New York, N.Y.: John Wiley & Sons. 11. Carmona, R., Hwang, W.-L., and Torresani, B. 1998. Practical Time-Frequency Analysis. Academic Press.
Summary
This paper focuses on the signature analysis of the short-circuiting frequency of GMAW processes for weld surface quality by using power spectral density
This research was sponsored by the General Motors Collaborative Research Laboratory at the University of Michigan. The Lincoln Electric Co. is also acknowledged for providing welding machines.
References 1. Hermans M. J. M., and Den Ouden, G. 1999. Process behavior and stability in short cir-
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