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© Copy Right: Rai University
28 11.556
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
Objective
In this lesson, you will learn who to design your researchproject.Research design is the important step in any research project.It ensures the systematic and timely completion of your project.After completion of this lesson you will be able to-1.Design plan for collection of data2.Design plan for measurement3.Design plan for the analysis of data
Meaning of Research Design
Research design is the plan, structure and strategy of investigationconceived so as to obtain answers to research questions and tocontrol variance. (Kerlinger)A research is the specification of methods and procedures foracquiring the information needed. It is the overall operationalpattern or framework of the project that stipulates whatinformation is to be collected from which sources by whatproceedures. (Green and Tull).The decisions regarding what, where, when, how much, by whatmeans concerning a research project constitute a research design.“A research design is the arrangement of conditions for collectionand analysis of data in a manner that aims to combine relevance tothe research purpose with economy in procedure”.In fact, the research design is the conceptual structure within whichresearch is conducted; it constitutes the blueprint for the collection,measurement and analysis of data. As such the design includes anoutline of what the researcher will do from writing the hypothesisand its operational implications to the final analysis of data. Moreexplicitly, the design decisions happen to be in respect of:
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What is the study about?
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Why is the study being made?
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Where will the study be carried out?
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What type of data is required?
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Where can the required data be found?
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What periods of time will the study include?
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What will be the sample design?
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What techniques of data collection will be used?
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How will the data be analysed?
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In what style will the report be prepared?Keeping in view the above stated design decisions, we may splitthe Overall research design into the following parts.
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·Sampling Design which deals with the method of selectingitems It be observed for the given study;
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Observational design which relates to the conditions underwhich the observations are to be made;
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Statistical design which concerns with the question of howmany items are to be observed and how the information anddata gathered are to be analysed;
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Operational design which deals with the techniques bywhich the procedures specified in the sampling, statistical andobservational designs can be carried out.We can state the important features of a research design as under:Essentials of research Designs
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The design is an activity-and-time-based plan
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The design is always based on the research question
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The design guides the selection of sources and types of information
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The design is a frame work for specifying the relationshipsamong the study’s variables
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The design outlines procedure for every research activityNeed for Research Design (Why Research design is required?)Research design is needed because it facilitates the smooth sailingof the various research operations, thereby making research asefficient as possible yielding maximal information with minimalexpenditure of effort, time and money.For example, economical and attractive construction of house weneed a blueprint (or what is commonly called the map of thehouse) well thought out and prepared by an expert architect,similarly we need a research design or a plan in advance of datacollection and analysis for our research project.Research design stands for advance planning of the methods tobe adopted for collecting the relevant data and the techniques tobe used in their analysis.
Concepts in Research Design
Operational Definitions-
is a definition stated in trace of specifictesting criteria or operations.
Variable-
this is used as a synonym for construct or the propertybeing.
Independent
-A variable antecedents to dependent variable is calledindependent variable
Dependent
-If one variable depends upon or is a consequence of other variable, it is a dependent variable.
Proposition-
is a statement about concepts that may be judged astrue or false if it refers to observable phenomenon.When a proposition is formulated for empirical testing it is calleda
hypothesis
. The research hypothesis is a predictive statementthat relatives an independent variable to deepens variable.
Continuous Variable
- A variable which can assume any numericalvalue within a specific range. Value ever in decimal points e.g. age.
Discrete Variable
– A variable for which the individual valuesfall on the scale only no of children
LESSON 5:RESEARCH DESIGN & EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS
 
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RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
Independent VariableDependent Variable
Presumed causePresumed effectStimulusResponsePredicted from ……..Predicted to ………AntecedentConsequenceManipulatedMeasured outcome
Extraneous Variable
- Some independent variables are not relatedto purpose of study, but may affect dependent variables are turnedas extraneous variable.l.e. the researcher wants to test the hypothesis that there is arelationship between children’s gains in social studies achievementand self their self concepts.
Independent Variable
-Self concept dependent variable – socialstudies echo intelligence may also effect social studies achievementsince it is not related to purpose of studies, intravenous variable.
Control
-Minimize effect of extraneous independent variable. Inexperiment at researches, ‘control’ is used to refer to restrainexperimental conditions.
Confounded Relationship-
When the dependent variable is notfree from influence of extraneous variables(s), the relation b/windependent variable and dependent variable is said to beconfounded by an extraneous variable.
Experimental and non-experimental hypothesis testingresearch:
Research in which the independent variable ismanipulated its turned ‘experimental hypothesis-testing’ researchand a research in which an independent variable is not manipulatedis called-non–experimental hypotenuse-testing research.
Experimental & Control Group:
When a group is exposed tousual conditions, it is traced as ‘control gap’ but when the gap isexposed to some moral or special condition, it is termed as‘experimental gap’.
Treatment:
the different conditions under which experimentaland control gaps are put are usually refereed to as ‘treatments’.
Different Research Design
Different research designs can be conveniently described if wecategorize them as:1.Research design in case of exploratory research studies;2.Research design in case of descriptive and diagnostic researchstudies, and3.Research design in case of hypothesis-testing researchstudies.We take up each category separately
1:Research design in case of exploratory researchstudies
:As you know from previous lessons that,exploratory research studies are also termed as formulativeresearch studies. The main purpose of such studies is thatof formulating a problem for more precise investigation orof developing the working hypotheses from an operationalpoint of view.The major emphasis in such studies is on the discovery of ideasand insights. The research design appropriate for such studiesmust be flexible enough to provide opportunity for consideringdifferent aspects of a problem under study. Inbuilt flexibility inresearch design is needed because the research problem, broadlydefined initially, is transformed into one with more precise meaningin exploratory studies, which fact may necessitate changes in theresearch procedure for gathering relevant data.Generally, the following three methods in the context of researchdesign for such studies are talked about:a. the survey of concerning literature;b. the experience survey andc. the analysis of ‘insight-stimulating’.We let us discuss each of these methods -a.
Survey of concerning literature
-This method happens tobe the most simple and fruitful method of formulatingprecisely the research problem or developing hypothesis.Hypotheses stated by earlier works may be reviewed and theirusefulness be evaluated as a basis for further research.It may also be considered whether the already stated hypothesessuggest new hypothesis. In this way the researcher should reviewand build upon the work already done by others, but in caseswhere hypotheses have not yet been formulated, his task is toreview the available material for deriving the relevant hypothesesfrom it. Besides, the bibliographical survey of studies, alreadymade in one’s area of interest may as well be made by the researcherfor precisely formulating the problem.He should also make an attempt to apply concepts and theoriesdeveloped in different research contexts to the area in which he ishimself working. Sometimes the works of creative writers alsoprovide a fertile ground for hypothesis-formulation and as suchmay be looked into by the researcher.
b.Experience survey
means the survey of people who havehad practical experience with the problem to be studied. Theobject of such a survey is to obtain insight into therelationships between variables and new ideas relating to theresearch problem. For such a survey people who arecompetent and can contribute new ideas may be carefullyselected as respondents to ensure a representation of different types of experience.The investigator may then interview the respondents so selected.The researcher must prepare an interview schedule for thesystematic questioning of informants. But the Interview mustensure flexibility in the sense that the respondents should beallowed to raise issues and questions that the investigator has notpreviously considered.Generally, the experience-collecting interview is likely to be longand may last for few hours. Hence, it is often considered desirableto send a copy of the questions to be discussed to the respondentswell in advance.Thus, an experience survey may enable the research to defineproblem more concisely and help in the formulation of the researchhypothesis. This survey may as well provide information aboutthe practical possibilities for doing different types of research.
c.Analysis of ‘insight-stimulating
’-It is also a fruitfulmethod for suggest hypothesis for research. It is particularlysuitable in areas where there is little experience to serve as aguide. This method consists of the intensive study of selected instances of the phenomenon in which one is
 
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RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
interested. For this purpose the existing records, if any, maybe examined, the unstructured interviewing may take place,or some other approach may be adopted. Attitude of theinvestigator, the intensity of the study and the ability of theresearcher to draw together diverse information into aunified interpretation are the main features, which make thismethod an appropriate procedure for evoking insights.Now, what sort of examples is to be selected and studied?There is no clear-cut answer to it. Experience indicates that forparticular problems certain types of instances are more appropriatethan others. One can mention few examples of ‘insight-stimulating’ cases such as the reactions of strangers, the reactionsof marginal individuals, the study of individuals who are intransition from one stage to another, the reactions of individualsfrom different social strata and the like.Thus, in an exploratory or formulative research study which merelyleads to insights or hypotheses, whatever method or researchdesign outlined above is adopted, the only thing essential is thatit must continue to remain flexible so that many different facetsof a problem may be considered as and when they arise and cometo the notice of the researcher.
2.Research design in case of descriptive and diagnosticresearch studies
: Now another type of research studies are -Descriptive research studies, those studies which areconcerned with describing the characteristics of a particularindividual, or of a group whereas diagnostic research studiesdetermine the frequency with which something occurs or itsassociation with something else.The studies concerning whether certain variables are associated areexamples, diagnostic research studies, As against this, studiesconcerned with specific predication, with narration of facts andcharacteristics concerning individuals or group or situation are allexamples of descriptive research studies.
Most of The Group or Search Comes Under this Category
From the point of view of the research design, the descriptive aswell as diagnostic studies share common requirement, and assuch we may group together these two types of research studies.In descriptive as well as in diagnostic studies, the researcher mustbe able to define clearly, what he wants to measure and must findadequate methods for measuring it along with a clear cut definitionof population he wants to study. Since the aim is to obtaincomplete and accurate information the said studies, the procedureto be used must be carefully planned.The research design must make enough provision for protectionagainst bias and must maximize reliability, with due concern forthe economical completion of research study.The design in such studies must be rigid and not flexible andmust focus attention on the following:a. Formulating the objective of the studyb. Designing the methods of data collectionc. Selecting the sample (how much material will be needed?)d. Collecting the data (where can the required data be found andwith what time period should the data be related?)e. Processing and analysing the data.f. Reporting the findings.3. Research design in case of hypothesis-testing research studies:Hypothesis-testing research studies (generally known asexperimental studies) are those where the researcher tests thehypotheses of causal relationships between variables.Such studies require procedures that will not only reduce bias andincrease reliability, but will permit drawing inferences about causality.Usually experiments meet this requirement. Hence, when we talk of research design in such studies, we often mean the design of experiments. Professor R.A. Fisher’s name is associated withexperimental designs. The study of experimental designs has itsorigin in agricultural research. Professor Fisher found that bydividing agricultural fields or plots into different blocks and thenby conducting experiments in each of these blocks, whateverinformation is collected and inferences drawn from them, happensto be more reliable.This fact inspired him to develop certain experimental designs fortesting hypotheses concerning scientific investigations. Today, theexperimental designs are being used in research relating tophenomena of several disciplines. Now let us discuss the basicprinciples of experimental designs.
Basic Principles of Experimental Designs
There are three principles of experimental designs:1. Principle of Replication;2. Principle of Randomization3. Principle of Local ControlNow let us discuss each one of these experimental design
Principle of Replication
In this design, the experiment should be repeated more thanonce. Thus, each treatment is applied in many experimental unitsinstead of one. By doing so the statistical accuracy of theexperiments is increased. For example, suppose we are to examinethe effect of two varieties of rice.For this purpose we may divide the field into two parts and growone variety in one part and the other variety in the other part. Wecan then compare the yield of the two parts and draw conclusionon that basis. But if we are to apply the principle of replication tothis experiment, then we first divide the field into several parts,grow one variety in half of these parts and the other variety in theremaining parts. We can then collect the data of yield of the twovarieties and draw conclusion by comparing the same.The result so obtained will be more reliable in comparison to theconclusion we draw without applying the principle of replication.The entire experiment can even be repeated several times for betterresults.Conceptually replication does not present any difficulty, butcomputationally it does. For example, if, an experiment requiringa two-way analysis of variance is replicated, it will then require athree-way analysis of variance since replication itself may be asource of variation in the data. However, it should be rememberedthat replication is introduced in order to increase the precision of a study; that is to say, to increase the accuracy with which the maineffects and interactions can be estimated.
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