Cauchy Integral Formula

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Cauchy Integral Formula Innite Differentiability Fundamental Theorem of Algebra Maximum Modulus Principle
The Cauchy Integral Formula
Bernd Schr oder
Bernd Schr oder Louisiana Tech University, College of Engineering and Science
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Introduction
1. One of the most important consequences of the Cauchy-Goursat
Integral Theorem is that the value of an analytic function at a
point can be obtained from the values of the analytic function on
a contour surrounding the point (as long as the function is
dened on a neighborhood of the contour and its inside).
2. The result itself is known as Cauchys Integral Theorem.
3. Among its consequences is, for example, the Fundamental
Theorem of Algebra, which says that every nonconstant complex
polynomial has at least one complex zero.
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Introduction
a contour surrounding the point
(as long as the function is
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Introduction
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Introduction
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Introduction
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Introduction
4. Once we have introduced series, another consequence is the fact
that every analytic function is locally equal to a power series.
This very powerful result is a cornerstone of complex analysis.
5. In this presentation we will at least be able to prove that analytic
functions have derivatives of any order.
6. ... and the above are only highlights of the consequences of
Cauchys Integral Theorem.
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Introduction
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Introduction
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Introduction
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Introduction
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Theorem.
Cauchys Integral Formula. Let C be a simple closed
positively oriented piecewise smooth curve, and let the function f be
analytic in a neighborhood of C and its interior. Then for every z
0
in
the interior of C we have that
f (z
0
) =
1
2i
C
f (z)
z z
0
dz.
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Theorem. Cauchys Integral Formula.
Let C be a simple closed
0
in
f (z
0
) =
1
2i
C
f (z)
z z
0
dz.
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Theorem. Cauchys Integral Formula. Let C be a simple closed
analytic in a neighborhood of C and its interior.
Then for every z
0
in
f (z
0
) =
1
2i
C
f (z)
z z
0
dz.
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Theorem. Cauchys Integral Formula. Let C be a simple closed
0
in
f (z
0
) =
1
2i
C
f (z)
z z
0
dz.
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Example.
Lets rst check out if the theorem works for f (z) = 1 and
the circle C(r, z
0
) of radius r around z
0
.
1
2i
C(r,z
0
)
1
z z
0
dz =
1
2i
2
0
1
(z
0
+re
it
) z
0
ire
it
dt
=
1
2i
2
0
1
re
it
ire
it
dt
=
1
2
2
0
dt = 1 = f (z
0
)
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Example. Lets rst check out if the theorem works for f (z) = 1 and
the circle C(r, z
0
0
.
1
2i
C(r,z
0
)
1
z z
0
dz =
1
2i
2
0
1
(z
0
+re
it
) z
0
ire
it
dt
=
1
2i
2
0
1
re
it
ire
it
dt
=
1
2
2
0
dt = 1 = f (z
0
)
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the circle C(r, z
0
0
.
1
2i
C(r,z
0
)
1
z z
0
dz
=
1
2i
2
0
1
(z
0
+re
it
) z
0
ire
it
dt
=
1
2i
2
0
1
re
it
ire
it
dt
=
1
2
2
0
dt = 1 = f (z
0
)
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the circle C(r, z
0
0
.
1
2i
C(r,z
0
)
1
z z
0
dz =
1
2i
2
0
1
(z
0
+re
it
) z
0
ire
it
dt
=
1
2i
2
0
1
re
it
ire
it
dt
=
1
2
2
0
dt = 1 = f (z
0
)
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the circle C(r, z
0
0
.
1
2i
C(r,z
0
)
1
z z
0
dz =
1
2i
2
0
1
(z
0
+re
it
) z
0
ire
it
dt
=
1
2i
2
0
1
re
it
ire
it
dt
=
1
2
2
0
dt = 1 = f (z
0
)
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the circle C(r, z
0
0
.
1
2i
C(r,z
0
)
1
z z
0
dz =
1
2i
2
0
1
(z
0
+re
it
) z
0
ire
it
dt
=
1
2i
2
0
1
re
it
ire
it
dt
=
1
2
2
0
dt
= 1 = f (z
0
)
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the circle C(r, z
0
0
.
1
2i
C(r,z
0
)
1
z z
0
dz =
1
2i
2
0
1
(z
0
+re
it
) z
0
ire
it
dt
=
1
2i
2
0
1
re
it
ire
it
dt
=
1
2
2
0
dt = 1
= f (z
0
)
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the circle C(r, z
0
0
.
1
2i
C(r,z
0
)
1
z z
0
dz =
1
2i
2
0
1
(z
0
+re
it
) z
0
ire
it
dt
=
1
2i
2
0
1
re
it
ire
it
dt
=
1
2
2
0
dt = 1 = f (z
0
)
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Proof of Cauchys Integral Formula.
D
,
`
-
-
-
C
C(r, z
0
)
,
,
,
,
C
f (z)
z z
0
dz =
C(r,z
0
)
f (z)
z z
0
dz.
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D
,
`
-
-
-
C
C(r, z
0
)
,
,
,
,
C
f (z)
z z
0
dz =
C(r,z
0
)
f (z)
z z
0
dz.
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D
,
`
-
-
-
C
C(r, z
0
)
,
,
,
,
C
f (z)
z z
0
dz =
C(r,z
0
)
f (z)
z z
0
dz.
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D
,
`
-
-
-
C
C(r, z
0
)
,
,
,
,
C
f (z)
z z
0
dz =
C(r,z
0
)
f (z)
z z
0
dz.
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D
,
`
-
-
-
C
C(r, z
0
)
,
,
,
,
C
f (z)
z z
0
dz =
C(r,z
0
)
f (z)
z z
0
dz.
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D
,
`
-
-
-
C
C(r, z
0
)
,
,
,
,
C
f (z)
z z
0
dz =
C(r,z
0
)
f (z)
z z
0
dz.
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D
,
`
-
-
-
C
C(r, z
0
)
,
,
,
,
C
f (z)
z z
0
dz =
C(r,z
0
)
f (z)
z z
0
dz.
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D
,
`
-
-
-
C
C(r, z
0
)
,
,
,
,
C
f (z)
z z
0
dz =
C(r,z
0
)
f (z)
z z
0
dz.
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D
,
`
-
-
-
C
C(r, z
0
)
,
,
,
,
C
f (z)
z z
0
dz =
C(r,z
0
)
f (z)
z z
0
dz.
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C
f (z)
z z
0
dz 2if (z
0
)
C(r,z
0
)
f (z)
z z
0
dz
C(r,z
0
)
f (z
0
)
z z
0
dz
C(r,z
0
)
f (z) f (z
0
)
z z
0
dz
C(r,z
0
)
f (z) f (z
0
)
z z
0
d|z| max
C(r,z
0
)
f (z) f (z
0
)
C(r,z
0
)
1
r
d|z|
= max
C(r,z
0
)
f (z) f (z
0
)
2r
1
r
= 2 max
C(r,z
0
)
f (z) f (z
0
)
and if we choose r small enough, we can make the last term arbitrarily
small. But that means that the original difference must be zero.
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C
f (z)
z z
0
dz 2if (z
0
)
C(r,z
0
)
f (z)
z z
0
dz
C(r,z
0
)
f (z
0
)
z z
0
dz
C(r,z
0
)
f (z) f (z
0
)
z z
0
dz
C(r,z
0
)
f (z) f (z
0
)
z z
0
d|z| max
C(r,z
0
)
f (z) f (z
0
)
C(r,z
0
)
1
r
d|z|
= max
C(r,z
0
)
f (z) f (z
0
)
2r
1
r
= 2 max
C(r,z
0
)
f (z) f (z
0
)
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C
f (z)
z z
0
dz 2if (z
0
)
C(r,z
0
)
f (z)
z z
0
dz
C(r,z
0
)
f (z
0
)
z z
0
dz
C(r,z
0
)
f (z) f (z
0
)
z z
0
dz
C(r,z
0
)
f (z) f (z
0
)
z z
0
d|z| max
C(r,z
0
)
f (z) f (z
0
)
C(r,z
0
)
1
r
d|z|
= max
C(r,z
0
)
f (z) f (z
0
)
2r
1
r
= 2 max
C(r,z
0
)
f (z) f (z
0
)
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C
f (z)
z z
0
dz 2if (z
0
)
C(r,z
0
)
f (z)
z z
0
dz
C(r,z
0
)
f (z
0
)
z z
0
dz
C(r,z
0
)
f (z) f (z
0
)
z z
0
dz
C(r,z
0
)
f (z) f (z
0
)
z z
0
d|z| max
C(r,z
0
)
f (z) f (z
0
)
C(r,z
0
)
1
r
d|z|
= max
C(r,z
0
)
f (z) f (z
0
)
2r
1
r
= 2 max
C(r,z
0
)
f (z) f (z
0
)
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C
f (z)
z z
0
dz 2if (z
0
)
C(r,z
0
)
f (z)
z z
0
dz
C(r,z
0
)
f (z
0
)
z z
0
dz
C(r,z
0
)
f (z) f (z
0
)
z z
0
dz
C(r,z
0
)
f (z) f (z
0
)
z z
0
d|z|
max
C(r,z
0
)
f (z) f (z
0
)
C(r,z
0
)
1
r
d|z|
= max
C(r,z
0
)
f (z) f (z
0
)
2r
1
r
= 2 max
C(r,z
0
)
f (z) f (z
0
)
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C
f (z)
z z
0
dz 2if (z
0
)
C(r,z
0
)
f (z)
z z
0
dz
C(r,z
0
)
f (z
0
)
z z
0
dz
C(r,z
0
)
f (z) f (z
0
)
z z
0
dz
C(r,z
0
)
f (z) f (z
0
)
z z
0
d|z| max
C(r,z
0
)
f (z) f (z
0
)
C(r,z
0
)
1
r
d|z|
= max
C(r,z
0
)
f (z) f (z
0
)
2r
1
r
= 2 max
C(r,z
0
)
f (z) f (z
0
)
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C
f (z)
z z
0
dz 2if (z
0
)
C(r,z
0
)
f (z)
z z
0
dz
C(r,z
0
)
f (z
0
)
z z
0
dz
C(r,z
0
)
f (z) f (z
0
)
z z
0
dz
C(r,z
0
)
f (z) f (z
0
)
z z
0
d|z| max
C(r,z
0
)
f (z) f (z
0
)
C(r,z
0
)
1
r
d|z|
= max
C(r,z
0
)
f (z) f (z
0
)
2r
1
r
= 2 max
C(r,z
0
)
f (z) f (z
0
)
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C
f (z)
z z
0
dz 2if (z
0
)
C(r,z
0
)
f (z)
z z
0
dz
C(r,z
0
)
f (z
0
)
z z
0
dz
C(r,z
0
)
f (z) f (z
0
)
z z
0
dz
C(r,z
0
)
f (z) f (z
0
)
z z
0
d|z| max
C(r,z
0
)
f (z) f (z
0
)
C(r,z
0
)
1
r
d|z|
= max
C(r,z
0
)
f (z) f (z
0
)
2r
1
r
= 2 max
C(r,z
0
)
f (z) f (z
0
)
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C
f (z)
z z
0
dz 2if (z
0
)
C(r,z
0
)
f (z)
z z
0
dz
C(r,z
0
)
f (z
0
)
z z
0
dz
C(r,z
0
)
f (z) f (z
0
)
z z
0
dz
C(r,z
0
)
f (z) f (z
0
)
z z
0
d|z| max
C(r,z
0
)
f (z) f (z
0
)
C(r,z
0
)
1
r
d|z|
= max
C(r,z
0
)
f (z) f (z
0
)
2r
1
r
= 2 max
C(r,z
0
)
f (z) f (z
0
)
small.
But that means that the original difference must be zero.
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C
f (z)
z z
0
dz 2if (z
0
)
C(r,z
0
)
f (z)
z z
0
dz
C(r,z
0
)
f (z
0
)
z z
0
dz
C(r,z
0
)
f (z) f (z
0
)
z z
0
dz
C(r,z
0
)
f (z) f (z
0
)
z z
0
d|z| max
C(r,z
0
)
f (z) f (z
0
)
C(r,z
0
)
1
r
d|z|
= max
C(r,z
0
)
f (z) f (z
0
)
2r
1
r
= 2 max
C(r,z
0
)
f (z) f (z
0
)
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C
f (z)
z z
0
dz 2if (z
0
)
C(r,z
0
)
f (z)
z z
0
dz
C(r,z
0
)
f (z
0
)
z z
0
dz
C(r,z
0
)
f (z) f (z
0
)
z z
0
dz
C(r,z
0
)
f (z) f (z
0
)
z z
0
d|z| max
C(r,z
0
)
f (z) f (z
0
)
C(r,z
0
)
1
r
d|z|
= max
C(r,z
0
)
f (z) f (z
0
)
2r
1
r
= 2 max
C(r,z
0
)
f (z) f (z
0
)
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Analyzing f (z
0
) =
1
2i
f (z)
z z
0
dz.
1. Note that the right side is a function of z
0
.
2. For z xed,
1
z z
0
is differentiable in z
0
.
3. So if we could move the derivative into the integral, we could get
a formula for f
.
4. And, anticipating that the new integrand will involve
1
(z z
0
)
2
,
there is no reason to think that the process should stop there.
5. So for analytic functions, being once differentiable should imply
that we have derivatives of any order.
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Analyzing f (z
0
) =
1
2i
f (z)
z z
0
dz.
0
.
2. For z xed,
1
z z
0
0
.
a formula for f
.
1
(z z
0
)
2
,
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Analyzing f (z
0
) =
1
2i
f (z)
z z
0
dz.
0
.
2. For z xed,
1
z z
0
0
.
a formula for f
.
1
(z z
0
)
2
,
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Analyzing f (z
0
) =
1
2i
f (z)
z z
0
dz.
0
.
2. For z xed,
1
z z
0
0
.
a formula for f
.
1
(z z
0
)
2
,
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Analyzing f (z
0
) =
1
2i
f (z)
z z
0
dz.
0
.
2. For z xed,
1
z z
0
0
.
a formula for f
.
1
(z z
0
)
2
,
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Analyzing f (z
0
) =
1
2i
f (z)
z z
0
dz.
0
.
2. For z xed,
1
z z
0
0
.
a formula for f
.
1
(z z
0
)
2
,
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Warning.
The next result (as motivated on the preceding panel) does
not work for functions of a real variable. Consider
f (x) =
x
2
; for x > 0,
x
2
; for x 0.
Its derivative is 2|x|, which is not
differentiable at 0.
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Warning. The next result (as motivated on the preceding panel) does
not work for functions of a real variable.
Consider
f (x) =
x
2
; for x > 0,
x
2
; for x 0.
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f (x) =
x
2
; for x > 0,
x
2
; for x 0.
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f (x) =
x
2
; for x > 0,
x
2
; for x 0.
Its derivative is 2|x|
, which is not
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f (x) =
x
2
; for x > 0,
x
2
; for x 0.
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Theorem.
Cauchys Integral Formula (extended). Let C be a simple
closed positively oriented piecewise smooth curve, and let the
function f be analytic in a neighborhood of C and its interior. Then
for every z
0
in the interior of C and every natural number n we have
that f is n-times differentiable at z
0
and its derivative is
f
(n)
(z
0
) =
n!
2i
C
f (z)
(z z
0
)
n+1
dz.
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Theorem. Cauchys Integral Formula
(extended). Let C be a simple
for every z
0
0
f
(n)
(z
0
) =
n!
2i
C
f (z)
(z z
0
)
n+1
dz.
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Theorem. Cauchys Integral Formula (extended).
Let C be a simple
for every z
0
0
f
(n)
(z
0
) =
n!
2i
C
f (z)
(z z
0
)
n+1
dz.
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Theorem. Cauchys Integral Formula (extended). Let C be a simple
function f be analytic in a neighborhood of C and its interior.
Then
for every z
0
0
f
(n)
(z
0
) =
n!
2i
C
f (z)
(z z
0
)
n+1
dz.
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Theorem. Cauchys Integral Formula (extended). Let C be a simple
for every z
0
0
f
(n)
(z
0
) =
n!
2i
C
f (z)
(z z
0
)
n+1
dz.
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Proof.
Induction on n.
Base step, n = 0. This is Cauchys Integral Formula.
Induction step, n (n+1).
lim
wz
0
f
(n)
(w) f
(n)
(z
0
)
wz
0
= lim
wz
0
1
wz
0
n!
2i
C
f (z)
(z w)
n+1
dz
n!
2i
C
f (z)
(z z
0
)
n+1
dz
= lim
wz
0
n!
2i
1
wz
0
C
f (z)
(z w)
n+1
f (z)
(z z
0
)
n+1
dz
= lim
wz
0
n!
2i
C(z
0
,r)
f (z)
1
(zw)
n+1
1
(zz
0
)
n+1
wz
0
dz
=
n!
2i
C(z
0
,r)
f (z)((n+1))
1
(z z
0
)
n+2
(1) dz
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Proof. Induction on n.
lim
wz
0
f
(n)
(w) f
(n)
(z
0
)
wz
0
= lim
wz
0
1
wz
0
n!
2i
C
f (z)
(z w)
n+1
dz
n!
2i
C
f (z)
(z z
0
)
n+1
dz
= lim
wz
0
n!
2i
1
wz
0
C
f (z)
(z w)
n+1
f (z)
(z z
0
)
n+1
dz
= lim
wz
0
n!
2i
C(z
0
,r)
f (z)
1
(zw)
n+1
1
(zz
0
)
n+1
wz
0
dz
=
n!
2i
C(z
0
,r)
f (z)((n+1))
1
(z z
0
)
n+2
(1) dz
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Base step, n = 0.
This is Cauchys Integral Formula.
lim
wz
0
f
(n)
(w) f
(n)
(z
0
)
wz
0
= lim
wz
0
1
wz
0
n!
2i
C
f (z)
(z w)
n+1
dz
n!
2i
C
f (z)
(z z
0
)
n+1
dz
= lim
wz
0
n!
2i
1
wz
0
C
f (z)
(z w)
n+1
f (z)
(z z
0
)
n+1
dz
= lim
wz
0
n!
2i
C(z
0
,r)
f (z)
1
(zw)
n+1
1
(zz
0
)
n+1
wz
0
dz
=
n!
2i
C(z
0
,r)
f (z)((n+1))
1
(z z
0
)
n+2
(1) dz
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lim
wz
0
f
(n)
(w) f
(n)
(z
0
)
wz
0
= lim
wz
0
1
wz
0
n!
2i
C
f (z)
(z w)
n+1
dz
n!
2i
C
f (z)
(z z
0
)
n+1
dz
= lim
wz
0
n!
2i
1
wz
0
C
f (z)
(z w)
n+1
f (z)
(z z
0
)
n+1
dz
= lim
wz
0
n!
2i
C(z
0
,r)
f (z)
1
(zw)
n+1
1
(zz
0
)
n+1
wz
0
dz
=
n!
2i
C(z
0
,r)
f (z)((n+1))
1
(z z
0
)
n+2
(1) dz
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lim
wz
0
f
(n)
(w) f
(n)
(z
0
)
wz
0
= lim
wz
0
1
wz
0
n!
2i
C
f (z)
(z w)
n+1
dz
n!
2i
C
f (z)
(z z
0
)
n+1
dz
= lim
wz
0
n!
2i
1
wz
0
C
f (z)
(z w)
n+1
f (z)
(z z
0
)
n+1
dz
= lim
wz
0
n!
2i
C(z
0
,r)
f (z)
1
(zw)
n+1
1
(zz
0
)
n+1
wz
0
dz
=
n!
2i
C(z
0
,r)
f (z)((n+1))
1
(z z
0
)
n+2
(1) dz
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lim
wz
0
f
(n)
(w) f
(n)
(z
0
)
wz
0
= lim
wz
0
1
wz
0
n!
2i
C
f (z)
(z w)
n+1
dz
n!
2i
C
f (z)
(z z
0
)
n+1
dz
= lim
wz
0
n!
2i
1
wz
0
C
f (z)
(z w)
n+1
f (z)
(z z
0
)
n+1
dz
= lim
wz
0
n!
2i
C(z
0
,r)
f (z)
1
(zw)
n+1
1
(zz
0
)
n+1
wz
0
dz
=
n!
2i
C(z
0
,r)
f (z)((n+1))
1
(z z
0
)
n+2
(1) dz
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lim
wz
0
f
(n)
(w) f
(n)
(z
0
)
wz
0
= lim
wz
0
1
wz
0
n!
2i
C
f (z)
(z w)
n+1
dz
n!
2i
C
f (z)
(z z
0
)
n+1
dz
= lim
wz
0
n!
2i
1
wz
0
C
f (z)
(z w)
n+1
f (z)
(z z
0
)
n+1
dz
= lim
wz
0
n!
2i
C(z
0
,r)
f (z)
1
(zw)
n+1
1
(zz
0
)
n+1
wz
0
dz
=
n!
2i
C(z
0
,r)
f (z)((n+1))
1
(z z
0
)
n+2
(1) dz
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lim
wz
0
f
(n)
(w) f
(n)
(z
0
)
wz
0
= lim
wz
0
1
wz
0
n!
2i
C
f (z)
(z w)
n+1
dz
n!
2i
C
f (z)
(z z
0
)
n+1
dz
= lim
wz
0
n!
2i
1
wz
0
C
f (z)
(z w)
n+1
f (z)
(z z
0
)
n+1
dz
= lim
wz
0
n!
2i
C(z
0
,r)
f (z)
1
(zw)
n+1
1
(zz
0
)
n+1
wz
0
dz
=
n!
2i
C(z
0
,r)
f (z)((n+1))
1
(z z
0
)
n+2
(1) dz
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lim
wz
0
f
(n)
(w) f
(n)
(z
0
)
wz
0
= lim
wz
0
1
wz
0
n!
2i
C
f (z)
(z w)
n+1
dz
n!
2i
C
f (z)
(z z
0
)
n+1
dz
= lim
wz
0
n!
2i
1
wz
0
C
f (z)
(z w)
n+1
f (z)
(z z
0
)
n+1
dz
= lim
wz
0
n!
2i
C(z
0
,r)
f (z)
1
(zw)
n+1
1
(zz
0
)
n+1
wz
0
dz
=
n!
2i
C(z
0
,r)
f (z)((n+1))
1
(z z
0
)
n+2
(1) dz
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lim
wz
0
f
(n)
(w) f
(n)
(z
0
)
wz
0
= lim
wz
0
1
wz
0
n!
2i
C
f (z)
(z w)
n+1
dz
n!
2i
C
f (z)
(z z
0
)
n+1
dz
= lim
wz
0
n!
2i
1
wz
0
C
f (z)
(z w)
n+1
f (z)
(z z
0
)
n+1
dz
= lim
wz
0
n!
2i
C(z
0
,r)
f (z)
1
(zw)
n+1
1
(zz
0
)
n+1
wz
0
dz
=
n!
2i
C(z
0
,r)
f (z)((n+1))
1
(z z
0
)
n+2
(1) dz
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n!
2i
C(z
0
,r)
f (z)((n+1))
1
(z z
0
)
n+2
(1) dz
=
(n+1)!
2i
C(z
0
,r)
f (z)
(z z
0
)
n+2
dz
=
(n+1)!
2i
C
f (z)
(z z
0
)
n+2
dz
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n!
2i
C(z
0
,r)
f (z)((n+1))
1
(z z
0
)
n+2
(1) dz
=
(n+1)!
2i
C(z
0
,r)
f (z)
(z z
0
)
n+2
dz
=
(n+1)!
2i
C
f (z)
(z z
0
)
n+2
dz
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n!
2i
C(z
0
,r)
f (z)((n+1))
1
(z z
0
)
n+2
(1) dz
=
(n+1)!
2i
C(z
0
,r)
f (z)
(z z
0
)
n+2
dz
=
(n+1)!
2i
C
f (z)
(z z
0
)
n+2
dz
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n!
2i
C(z
0
,r)
f (z)((n+1))
1
(z z
0
)
n+2
(1) dz
=
(n+1)!
2i
C(z
0
,r)
f (z)
(z z
0
)
n+2
dz
=
(n+1)!
2i
C
f (z)
(z z
0
)
n+2
dz
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Corollary.
Let f be an analytic function on an open domain. Then all
derivatives of f are analytic on this domain, too. Moreover, the
component functions (the real and imaginary parts) have continuous
partial derivatives of all orders throughout the domain.
Proof. By the preceding result, we see that f has derivatives of all
orders. That means all derivatives are differentiable and thus all
derivatives are analytic on the domain. Therefore real and imaginary
part have (by repeated application of the Cauchy-Riemann equations)
continuous partial derivatives of all orders throughout the domain.
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Corollary. Let f be an analytic function on an open domain.
Then all
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Corollary. Let f be an analytic function on an open domain. Then all
derivatives of f are analytic on this domain, too.
Moreover, the
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Proof.
By the preceding result, we see that f has derivatives of all
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orders.
That means all derivatives are differentiable and thus all
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orders. That means all derivatives are differentiable
and thus all
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derivatives are analytic on the domain.
Therefore real and imaginary
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part have
(by repeated application of the Cauchy-Riemann equations)
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Theorem.
Moreras Theorem. Let f be a continuous complex
function on an open set so that for every simple closed curve C
contained in the open set we have
C
f (z) dz = 0. Then f is analytic in
the open set.
Proof. By theorem from an earlier presentation, f has an
antiderivative F. By the preceding theorem, all derivatives of F
(including f ) are analytic.
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Theorem. Moreras Theorem.
Let f be a continuous complex
C
the open set.
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Theorem. Moreras Theorem. Let f be a continuous complex
C
f (z) dz = 0.
Then f is analytic in
the open set.
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C
the open set.
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C
the open set.
Proof.
By theorem from an earlier presentation, f has an
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C
the open set.
antiderivative F.
By the preceding theorem, all derivatives of F
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C
the open set.
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C
the open set.
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C
the open set.
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Theorem. Cauchys Inequality.
Let f be analytic on a circle C
R
(z
0
)
of radius R centered at z
0
and in the circles interior. If |f | is bounded
by M
R
on the circle, then for all n we have
f
(n)
(z
0
)

n!M
R
R
n
.
Proof.
f
(n)
(z
0
)
n!
2i
C
R
(z
0
)
f (z)
(z z
0
)
n+1
dz
n!
2
C
R
(z
0
)
f (z)
(z z
0
)
n+1
d|z|
n!
2
C
R
(z
0
)
M
R
R
n+1
d|z|
n!
2
2R
M
R
R
n+1
=
n!M
R
R
n
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Theorem. Cauchys Inequality. Let f be analytic on a circle C
R
(z
0
)
0
and in the circles interior.
If |f | is bounded
by M
R
f
(n)
(z
0
)

n!M
R
R
n
.
Proof.
f
(n)
(z
0
)
n!
2i
C
R
(z
0
)
f (z)
(z z
0
)
n+1
dz
n!
2
C
R
(z
0
)
f (z)
(z z
0
)
n+1
d|z|
n!
2
C
R
(z
0
)
M
R
R
n+1
d|z|
n!
2
2R
M
R
R
n+1
=
n!M
R
R
n
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R
(z
0
)
0
by M
R
f
(n)
(z
0
)

n!M
R
R
n
.
Proof.
f
(n)
(z
0
)
n!
2i
C
R
(z
0
)
f (z)
(z z
0
)
n+1
dz
n!
2
C
R
(z
0
)
f (z)
(z z
0
)
n+1
d|z|
n!
2
C
R
(z
0
)
M
R
R
n+1
d|z|
n!
2
2R
M
R
R
n+1
=
n!M
R
R
n
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R
(z
0
)
0
by M
R
f
(n)
(z
0
)

n!M
R
R
n
.
Proof.
f
(n)
(z
0
)
n!
2i
C
R
(z
0
)
f (z)
(z z
0
)
n+1
dz
n!
2
C
R
(z
0
)
f (z)
(z z
0
)
n+1
d|z|
n!
2
C
R
(z
0
)
M
R
R
n+1
d|z|
n!
2
2R
M
R
R
n+1
=
n!M
R
R
n
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R
(z
0
)
0
by M
R
f
(n)
(z
0
)

n!M
R
R
n
.
Proof.
f
(n)
(z
0
)
n!
2i
C
R
(z
0
)
f (z)
(z z
0
)
n+1
dz
n!
2
C
R
(z
0
)
f (z)
(z z
0
)
n+1
d|z|
n!
2
C
R
(z
0
)
M
R
R
n+1
d|z|
n!
2
2R
M
R
R
n+1
=
n!M
R
R
n
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R
(z
0
)
0
by M
R
f
(n)
(z
0
)

n!M
R
R
n
.
Proof.
f
(n)
(z
0
)
n!
2i
C
R
(z
0
)
f (z)
(z z
0
)
n+1
dz
n!
2
C
R
(z
0
)
f (z)
(z z
0
)
n+1
d|z|
n!
2
C
R
(z
0
)
M
R
R
n+1
d|z|
n!
2
2R
M
R
R
n+1
=
n!M
R
R
n
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R
(z
0
)
0
by M
R
f
(n)
(z
0
)

n!M
R
R
n
.
Proof.
f
(n)
(z
0
)
n!
2i
C
R
(z
0
)
f (z)
(z z
0
)
n+1
dz
n!
2
C
R
(z
0
)
f (z)
(z z
0
)
n+1
d|z|
n!
2
C
R
(z
0
)
M
R
R
n+1
d|z|
n!
2
2R
M
R
R
n+1
=
n!M
R
R
n
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R
(z
0
)
0
by M
R
f
(n)
(z
0
)

n!M
R
R
n
.
Proof.
f
(n)
(z
0
)
n!
2i
C
R
(z
0
)
f (z)
(z z
0
)
n+1
dz
n!
2
C
R
(z
0
)
f (z)
(z z
0
)
n+1
d|z|
n!
2
C
R
(z
0
)
M
R
R
n+1
d|z|
n!
2
2R
M
R
R
n+1
=
n!M
R
R
n
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R
(z
0
)
0
by M
R
f
(n)
(z
0
)

n!M
R
R
n
.
Proof.
f
(n)
(z
0
)
n!
2i
C
R
(z
0
)
f (z)
(z z
0
)
n+1
dz
n!
2
C
R
(z
0
)
f (z)
(z z
0
)
n+1
d|z|
n!
2
C
R
(z
0
)
M
R
R
n+1
d|z|
n!
2
2R
M
R
R
n+1
=
n!M
R
R
n
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R
(z
0
)
0
by M
R
f
(n)
(z
0
)

n!M
R
R
n
.
Proof.
f
(n)
(z
0
)
n!
2i
C
R
(z
0
)
f (z)
(z z
0
)
n+1
dz
n!
2
C
R
(z
0
)
f (z)
(z z
0
)
n+1
d|z|
n!
2
C
R
(z
0
)
M
R
R
n+1
d|z|
n!
2
2R
M
R
R
n+1
=
n!M
R
R
n
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Theorem.
Liouvilles Theorem. Let f be an entire function. (That is,
f is analytic in C.) If f is bounded, then f is constant.
Proof. Let |f | be bounded by B. Let R > 0 be arbitrary. By Cauchys
Inequality with n = 1, for every z
0
in C we have
(z
0
)

B
R
0 (R ).
Because R was arbitrary, we infer that f
(z
0
) = 0. Because z
0
was
arbitrary, we have f
= 0. But f
= 0 implies that f is constant.

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Theorem. Liouvilles Theorem.
Let f be an entire function. (That is,
0
in C we have
(z
0
)

B
R
0 (R ).
(z
0
) = 0. Because z
0
was
= 0. But f

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Theorem. Liouvilles Theorem. Let f be an entire function.
(That is,
0
in C we have
(z
0
)

B
R
0 (R ).
(z
0
) = 0. Because z
0
was
= 0. But f

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Theorem. Liouvilles Theorem. Let f be an entire function. (That is,
f is analytic in C.)
If f is bounded, then f is constant.
0
in C we have
(z
0
)

B
R
0 (R ).
(z
0
) = 0. Because z
0
was
= 0. But f

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0
in C we have
(z
0
)

B
R
0 (R ).
(z
0
) = 0. Because z
0
was
= 0. But f

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Proof.
Let |f | be bounded by B. Let R > 0 be arbitrary. By Cauchys
0
in C we have
(z
0
)

B
R
0 (R ).
(z
0
) = 0. Because z
0
was
= 0. But f

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Proof. Let |f | be bounded by B.
Let R > 0 be arbitrary. By Cauchys
0
in C we have
(z
0
)

B
R
0 (R ).
(z
0
) = 0. Because z
0
was
= 0. But f

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Proof. Let |f | be bounded by B. Let R > 0 be arbitrary.
By Cauchys
0
in C we have
(z
0
)

B
R
0 (R ).
(z
0
) = 0. Because z
0
was
= 0. But f

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0
in C we have
(z
0
)
B
R
0 (R ).
(z
0
) = 0. Because z
0
was
= 0. But f

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0
in C we have
(z
0
)

B
R
0 (R ).
(z
0
) = 0. Because z
0
was
= 0. But f

logo1
0
in C we have
(z
0
)

B
R
0 (R ).
(z
0
) = 0. Because z
0
was
= 0. But f

logo1
0
in C we have
(z
0
)

B
R
0 (R ).
(z
0
) = 0.
Because z
0
was
= 0. But f

logo1
0
in C we have
(z
0
)

B
R
0 (R ).
(z
0
) = 0. Because z
0
was
= 0.
But f

logo1
0
in C we have
(z
0
)

B
R
0 (R ).
(z
0
) = 0. Because z
0
was
= 0. But f

logo1
0
in C we have
(z
0
)

B
R
0 (R ).
(z
0
) = 0. Because z
0
was
= 0. But f

logo1
Theorem.
Fundamental Theorem of Algebra. Every nonconstant
complex polynomial has at least one complex zero.
Proof. Let p be a complex polynomial without zeros. Then
1
p
is
analytic in the complex plane. We claim that
1
p
is bounded on C. To
see this claim, rst note that lim
z
1
p(z)
= 0, because lim
z
p(z) =.
Thus
1
p
is bounded outside a circle C(R, 0) for sufciently large R.
But the only way
1
p
can be unbounded inside C(R, 0) is for the
denominator p(z) to go to zero somewhere, which was excluded by
hypothesis. Thus
1
p
is bounded on C.
Now by Liouvilles Theorem we infer that
1
p
is constant. Hence p is
constant.
logo1
Theorem. Fundamental Theorem of Algebra.
Every nonconstant
1
p
is
1
p
is bounded on C. To
z
1
p(z)
= 0, because lim
z
p(z) =.
Thus
1
p
But the only way
1
p
hypothesis. Thus
1
p
is bounded on C.
1
p
constant.
logo1
Theorem. Fundamental Theorem of Algebra. Every nonconstant
1
p
is
1
p
is bounded on C. To
z
1
p(z)
= 0, because lim
z
p(z) =.
Thus
1
p
But the only way
1
p
hypothesis. Thus
1
p
is bounded on C.
1
p
constant.
logo1
Proof.
Let p be a complex polynomial without zeros. Then
1
p
is
1
p
is bounded on C. To
z
1
p(z)
= 0, because lim
z
p(z) =.
Thus
1
p
But the only way
1
p
hypothesis. Thus
1
p
is bounded on C.
1
p
constant.
logo1
Proof. Let p be a complex polynomial without zeros.
Then
1
p
is
1
p
is bounded on C. To
z
1
p(z)
= 0, because lim
z
p(z) =.
Thus
1
p
But the only way
1
p
hypothesis. Thus
1
p
is bounded on C.
1
p
constant.
logo1
1
p
is
analytic in the complex plane.
We claim that
1
p
is bounded on C. To
z
1
p(z)
= 0, because lim
z
p(z) =.
Thus
1
p
But the only way
1
p
hypothesis. Thus
1
p
is bounded on C.
1
p
constant.
logo1
1
p
is
1
p
is bounded on C.
To
z
1
p(z)
= 0, because lim
z
p(z) =.
Thus
1
p
But the only way
1
p
hypothesis. Thus
1
p
is bounded on C.
1
p
constant.
logo1
1
p
is
1
p
is bounded on C. To
z
1
p(z)
= 0
, because lim
z
p(z) =.
Thus
1
p
But the only way
1
p
hypothesis. Thus
1
p
is bounded on C.
1
p
constant.
logo1
1
p
is
1
p
is bounded on C. To
z
1
p(z)
= 0, because lim
z
p(z) =.
Thus
1
p
But the only way
1
p
hypothesis. Thus
1
p
is bounded on C.
1
p
constant.
logo1
1
p
is
1
p
is bounded on C. To
z
1
p(z)
= 0, because lim
z
p(z) =.
Thus
1
p
But the only way
1
p
hypothesis. Thus
1
p
is bounded on C.
1
p
constant.
logo1
1
p
is
1
p
is bounded on C. To
z
1
p(z)
= 0, because lim
z
p(z) =.
Thus
1
p
But the only way
1
p
denominator p(z) to go to zero somewhere
, which was excluded by
hypothesis. Thus
1
p
is bounded on C.
1
p
constant.
logo1
1
p
is
1
p
is bounded on C. To
z
1
p(z)
= 0, because lim
z
p(z) =.
Thus
1
p
But the only way
1
p
hypothesis.
Thus
1
p
is bounded on C.
1
p
constant.
logo1
1
p
is
1
p
is bounded on C. To
z
1
p(z)
= 0, because lim
z
p(z) =.
Thus
1
p
But the only way
1
p
hypothesis. Thus
1
p
is bounded on C.
1
p
constant.
logo1
1
p
is
1
p
is bounded on C. To
z
1
p(z)
= 0, because lim
z
p(z) =.
Thus
1
p
But the only way
1
p
hypothesis. Thus
1
p
is bounded on C.
1
p
is constant.
Hence p is
constant.
logo1
1
p
is
1
p
is bounded on C. To
z
1
p(z)
= 0, because lim
z
p(z) =.
Thus
1
p
But the only way
1
p
hypothesis. Thus
1
p
is bounded on C.
1
p
constant.
logo1
1
p
is
1
p
is bounded on C. To
z
1
p(z)
= 0, because lim
z
p(z) =.
Thus
1
p
But the only way
1
p
hypothesis. Thus
1
p
is bounded on C.
1
p
constant.
logo1
Lemma.
If f is analytic in some neighborhood |z z
0
| < and
|f (z)| |f (z
0
)| for all z in that neighborhood, then in fact f (z) = f (z
0
)
for all z in that neighborhood.
logo1
Lemma. If f is analytic in some neighborhood |z z
0
| < and
|f (z)| |f (z
0
)| for all z in that neighborhood
, then in fact f (z) = f (z
0
)
logo1
Lemma. If f is analytic in some neighborhood |z z
0
| < and
|f (z)| |f (z
0
)| for all z in that neighborhood, then in fact f (z) = f (z
0
)
logo1
Proof.
By Cauchys Formula, for all circles C(z
0
, r) with r < we
have that
f (z
0
)
1
2i
C(z
0
,r)
f (z)
z z
0
dz
1
2
C(z
0
,r)
f (z)
z z
0
d|z|
1
2
C(z
0
,r)
f (z
0
)
r
d|z| =
f (z
0
)
and the latter integral will be strictly smaller than
f (z
0
)
if there is
even a single point z on C(z
0
, r) where
f (z)
<
f (z
0
)
. Thus for all

r < and all |z z
0
| = r we must have
f (z)
f (z
0
)
. But if |f | is
constant for |z z
0
| < , then so is f .
logo1
Proof. By Cauchys Formula, for all circles C(z
0
, r) with r < we
have that
f (z
0
)
1
2i
C(z
0
,r)
f (z)
z z
0
dz
1
2
C(z
0
,r)
f (z)
z z
0
d|z|
1
2
C(z
0
,r)
f (z
0
)
r
d|z| =
f (z
0
)
f (z
0
)
if there is
0
, r) where
f (z)
<
f (z
0
)
. Thus for all

r < and all |z z
0
| = r we must have
f (z)
f (z
0
)
. But if |f | is
constant for |z z
0
logo1
0
, r) with r < we
have that
f (z
0
)
1
2i
C(z
0
,r)
f (z)
z z
0
dz
1
2
C(z
0
,r)
f (z)
z z
0
d|z|
1
2
C(z
0
,r)
f (z
0
)
r
d|z| =
f (z
0
)
f (z
0
)
if there is
0
, r) where
f (z)
<
f (z
0
)
. Thus for all

r < and all |z z
0
| = r we must have
f (z)
f (z
0
)
. But if |f | is
constant for |z z
0
logo1
0
, r) with r < we
have that
f (z
0
)
1
2i
C(z
0
,r)
f (z)
z z
0
dz
1
2
C(z
0
,r)
f (z)
z z
0
d|z|
1
2
C(z
0
,r)
f (z
0
)
r
d|z|
=
f (z
0
)
f (z
0
)
if there is
0
, r) where
f (z)
<
f (z
0
)
. Thus for all

r < and all |z z
0
| = r we must have
f (z)
f (z
0
)
. But if |f | is
constant for |z z
0
logo1
0
, r) with r < we
have that
f (z
0
)
1
2i
C(z
0
,r)
f (z)
z z
0
dz
1
2
C(z
0
,r)
f (z)
z z
0
d|z|
1
2
C(z
0
,r)
f (z
0
)
r
d|z| =
f (z
0
)
f (z
0
)
if there is
0
, r) where
f (z)
<
f (z
0
)
. Thus for all

r < and all |z z
0
| = r we must have
f (z)
f (z
0
)
. But if |f | is
constant for |z z
0
logo1
0
, r) with r < we
have that
f (z
0
)
1
2i
C(z
0
,r)
f (z)
z z
0
dz
1
2
C(z
0
,r)
f (z)
z z
0
d|z|
1
2
C(z
0
,r)
f (z
0
)
r
d|z| =
f (z
0
)
f (z
0
)
if there is
0
, r) where
f (z)
<
f (z
0
)
.
Thus for all
r < and all |z z
0
| = r we must have
f (z)
f (z
0
)
. But if |f | is
constant for |z z
0
logo1
0
, r) with r < we
have that
f (z
0
)
1
2i
C(z
0
,r)
f (z)
z z
0
dz
1
2
C(z
0
,r)
f (z)
z z
0
d|z|
1
2
C(z
0
,r)
f (z
0
)
r
d|z| =
f (z
0
)
f (z
0
)
if there is
0
, r) where
f (z)
<
f (z
0
)
. Thus for all

r < and all |z z
0
| = r we must have
f (z)
f (z
0
)
.
But if |f | is
constant for |z z
0
logo1
0
, r) with r < we
have that
f (z
0
)
1
2i
C(z
0
,r)
f (z)
z z
0
dz
1
2
C(z
0
,r)
f (z)
z z
0
d|z|
1
2
C(z
0
,r)
f (z
0
)
r
d|z| =
f (z
0
)
f (z
0
)
if there is
0
, r) where
f (z)
<
f (z
0
)
. Thus for all

r < and all |z z
0
| = r we must have
f (z)
f (z
0
)
. But if |f | is
constant for |z z
0
logo1
0
, r) with r < we
have that
f (z
0
)
1
2i
C(z
0
,r)
f (z)
z z
0
dz
1
2
C(z
0
,r)
f (z)
z z
0
d|z|
1
2
C(z
0
,r)
f (z
0
)
r
d|z| =
f (z
0
)
f (z
0
)
if there is
0
, r) where
f (z)
<
f (z
0
)
. Thus for all

r < and all |z z
0
| = r we must have
f (z)
f (z
0
)
. But if |f | is
constant for |z z
0
logo1
Theorem.
Maximum Modulus Principle. Let f be analytic and not
constant on an open domain. Then f does not assume a maximum
value on the domain. That is, there is no z
0
in the domain so that
|f (z)| |f (z
0
)| for all z in the domain.
Proof. Suppose for a contradiction that such a z
0
does exist. By the
preceding lemma, f would be constant on a disk around z
0
. Moreover,
we could choose the radius of the disk arbitrarily large, as long as it
stays inside the domain. Now let z
1
be in the domain. Then there is an
arc C from z
0
to z
1
and the arc has a positive (minimum) distance
from the boundary of the domain. Now there is a disk of maximum
radius around z
0
on which f is equal to f (z
0
). Thus the point on C that
is in this disk and closest to z
1
(on the arc C) has the same properties
as z
0
. Continue with a disk of maximum radius around this new point.
Repeat until we have that f (z
1
) = f (z
0
). This would prove that f is
constant, a contradiction.
logo1
Theorem. Maximum Modulus Principle.
Let f be analytic and not
0
|f (z)| |f (z
0
0
does exist. By the
0
. Moreover,
1
arc C from z
0
to z
1
radius around z
0
0
1
as z
0
1
) = f (z
0
logo1
Theorem. Maximum Modulus Principle. Let f be analytic and not
constant on an open domain.
Then f does not assume a maximum
0
|f (z)| |f (z
0
0
does exist. By the
0
. Moreover,
1
arc C from z
0
to z
1
radius around z
0
0
1
as z
0
1
) = f (z
0
logo1
value on the domain.
That is, there is no z
0
|f (z)| |f (z
0
0
does exist. By the
0
. Moreover,
1
arc C from z
0
to z
1
radius around z
0
0
1
as z
0
1
) = f (z
0
logo1
0
|f (z)| |f (z
0
0
does exist. By the
0
. Moreover,
1
arc C from z
0
to z
1
radius around z
0
0
1
as z
0
1
) = f (z
0
logo1
0
|f (z)| |f (z
0
Proof.
Suppose for a contradiction that such a z
0
does exist. By the
0
. Moreover,
1
arc C from z
0
to z
1
radius around z
0
0
1
as z
0
1
) = f (z
0
logo1
0
|f (z)| |f (z
0
0
does exist.
By the
0
. Moreover,
1
arc C from z
0
to z
1
radius around z
0
0
1
as z
0
1
) = f (z
0
logo1
0
|f (z)| |f (z
0
0
does exist. By the
0
.
Moreover,
1
arc C from z
0
to z
1
radius around z
0
0
1
as z
0
1
) = f (z
0
logo1
0
|f (z)| |f (z
0
0
does exist. By the
0
. Moreover,
stays inside the domain.
Now let z
1
arc C from z
0
to z
1
radius around z
0
0
1
as z
0
1
) = f (z
0
logo1
0
|f (z)| |f (z
0
0
does exist. By the
0
. Moreover,
1
be in the domain.
Then there is an
arc C from z
0
to z
1
radius around z
0
0
1
as z
0
1
) = f (z
0
logo1
0
|f (z)| |f (z
0
0
does exist. By the
0
. Moreover,
1
arc C from z
0
to z
1
from the boundary of the domain.
Now there is a disk of maximum
radius around z
0
0
1
as z
0
1
) = f (z
0
logo1
0
|f (z)| |f (z
0
0
does exist. By the
0
. Moreover,
1
arc C from z
0
to z
1
radius around z
0
0
).
Thus the point on C that
1
as z
0
1
) = f (z
0
logo1
0
|f (z)| |f (z
0
0
does exist. By the
0
. Moreover,
1
arc C from z
0
to z
1
radius around z
0
0
1
as z
0
.
Continue with a disk of maximum radius around this new point.
1
) = f (z
0
logo1
0
|f (z)| |f (z
0
0
does exist. By the
0
. Moreover,
1
arc C from z
0
to z
1
radius around z
0
0
1
as z
0
1
) = f (z
0
logo1
0
|f (z)| |f (z
0
0
does exist. By the
0
. Moreover,
1
arc C from z
0
to z
1
radius around z
0
0
1
as z
0
1
) = f (z
0
).
This would prove that f is
logo1
0
|f (z)| |f (z
0
0
does exist. By the
0
. Moreover,
1
arc C from z
0
to z
1
radius around z
0
0
1
as z
0
1
) = f (z
0
logo1
0
|f (z)| |f (z
0
0
does exist. By the
0
. Moreover,
1
arc C from z
0
to z
1
radius around z
0
0
1
as z
0
1
) = f (z
0
logo1
Visualization
g
z
0
g
z
1
C
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logo1
Visualization
g
z
0
g
z
1
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logo1
Visualization
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z
0
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Visualization
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z
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logo1
Visualization
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z
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Visualization
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z
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logo1
Visualization
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z
0
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1
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logo1
Visualization
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z
0
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Visualization
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z
0
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Visualization
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0
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Visualization
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z
0
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Visualization
g
z
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Visualization
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z
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Visualization
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Corollary.
Let f be continuous on a closed and bounded region and
let it be analytic and nonconstant in the interior of the region. Then
the largest value of |f | will be assumed at some point on the boundary
of the region and it will not be reached in the interior.
Proof. Direct consequence of the fact that continuous functions will
assume a maximum on closed and bounded regions and the Maximum
Modulus Principle.
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Corollary. Let f be continuous on a closed and bounded region and
let it be analytic and nonconstant in the interior of the region.
Then
Modulus Principle.
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Modulus Principle.
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Proof.
Direct consequence of the fact that continuous functions will
Modulus Principle.
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Modulus Principle.
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Modulus Principle.

Cauchy Integral Formula

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= 0 implies that f is constant.

= 0 implies that f is constant.

= 0 implies that f is constant.

= 0 implies that f is constant.

= 0 implies that f is constant.

= 0 implies that f is constant.

= 0 implies that f is constant.

= 0 implies that f is constant.

= 0 implies that f is constant.

= 0 implies that f is constant.

= 0 implies that f is constant.

= 0 implies that f is constant.

= 0 implies that f is constant.

= 0 implies that f is constant.

= 0 implies that f is constant.

and the latter integral will be strictly smaller than

. Thus for all

and the latter integral will be strictly smaller than

. Thus for all

and the latter integral will be strictly smaller than

. Thus for all

and the latter integral will be strictly smaller than

. Thus for all

and the latter integral will be strictly smaller than

. Thus for all

and the latter integral will be strictly smaller than

and the latter integral will be strictly smaller than

. Thus for all

and the latter integral will be strictly smaller than

. Thus for all

and the latter integral will be strictly smaller than

. Thus for all

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