Physics of Dielectrics and DRAM

Physics of Dielectrics and DRAM
Thomas Schroeder
IHP Im Technologiepark 25 15236 Frankfurt (Oder) Germany

IHP Im Technologiepark 25 15236 Frankfurt (Oder) Germany www.ihp-microelectronics.com
Dielectrics
www.ihp-microelectronics.com
Description of a dielectric material Dielectric behavior in a nut shell: A dielectric material is a non-conducting substance whose bound charges are polarized under the influence of an externally applied electric field. The figure of merrit to describe the degree of polarization in a given material is the dielectric constant It is clear that the degree of polarization is related to the structure of the material. In consequence, dielectric behavior in electrostatic and alternating electric fields depends on static and dynamical properties of the structure. Dielectric behavior must be specified with respect to the time or frequency domain
Electrostatics: Basic experiment to get the central idea
Plate capacitor with oppositely charged plates and no material inserted. According to the surface charge density, a certain electric field E is created inside.
If dielectric material is inserted, polarized charges neutralizes some of the charges on the plates. In this way, one talks about free (unneutralized) and bound charges (neutralized) on the plates. As only free charges create electric field, a current must raise the free charge density and keep E constant.
If dielectric material is inserted and current source disconnectedm the polarized charges neutralize some of the free charges on the plates. In consequence, a constant D results in a decrease of the electric field between the plates.
Electrostatics: Macroscopic description of dielectrics Poisson Equation

electric field E
divD = free
Polarisation
Dielectric Displacement D
Electric Susceptibility
D = 0E + P
Polarisation
P = 0eE
Putting things together:
D = 0 (1 + e ) E = 0 r E
Result: dielectric displacement D is linearly related to the electric field and the dielectric constant is the linear coefficient of the relationship
Dielectric Constant
Electrostatics: Microscopic Approach and the local field Polarisation: Local electric field:
density of induced dipoles applied electric field polarisability
P = N a p = N a Eloc
Eloc = Ea + Edipole
The local electric field can be calculated according to the crystal structure by the method of Clausius and Mosotti. For example, for cubic structures the Clausius Mosotti equation reads:
Na r 1 = 3 0 r + 2
For example, to design a material with high dielectric constant: - ions with high polarisability - material with high density of induced dipoles
Microscopic Mechanism of dielectric polarisation and frequency dependence

Relaxation Space charge polarisation materials with space charge inhomogeneities (ceramics with conducting grains and insulating boundaries)
Different mechanism show different dynamic behavior in time domain. In consequence, adsorption occurs at different windows in frequency domain
Relaxation
Orientation polarization alignment of permanent dipoles in a material
Resonance Resonance
Ionic polarization mutual displacement of negative and positive sublattice in ionic crystals
Electronic polarization displacement of electron shell against positive nucleus

Dielectric Behaviour in alternating electric fields

In alternating electric fields, a frequency dependent phase shift occurs between applied electric field and displacement of charges in the material To express this mathematically, a complex extension of dielectric function and susceptibilty is introduced:
r = r + i r
'
ur
''
uu r
e = e + i e
'
''
r' + ir'' r = r' + i r''

ur
Figure of merrit for a dielectric material: the quality factor Q
r = r + i r
'
ur
r tan := ' r
''
''
r'' tan := ' r
Q :=
1 tan
A low quality factor states that a material heavily dissipates energy from the alternating electric field by adsorbing mechanisms
tan = (tan ) dipole + (tan )cond

Description of ionic and electronic resonance phenomena

friction Equation of motion acting force acting force
2 d u du * * 2 mi 2 + mi i u = qi Eloc + mi* 0, i dt dt
displacement from equilibrium
resonance frequency
restoring force
Case 1: Acting force is a dc field and switched off at a given moment
Restoring force pulls charges back in equilibrium position a) If friction force is negligible, we arrive at undamped oscillations b) If friction force is not negligible, we arrive at damped oscillation. (behavior similar to relaxation process with certain time constant)

resonance frequency
restoring force
Case 2: Acting force is an ac field Electric ac field:
Ansatz:
Result: Frequency dependent amplitude u of oscillations and dipole field:
uuu r i ( kr t ) Eloc = Eloc ,0 e r ur i ( kr t ) u = u0 e
ur (qi / mi* ) Eloc ,0 u0 = 2 0,i 2 + i i

uu r uu r pi = qiu0 ei ( kr t ) = i Eoc ,0 ei ( kr t )

resonance frequency
restoring force
qi i i ( ) = 2 2 mi ( 0,i 2 ) 2 + i2 2
2 ''
qi2 / mi* ' '' i ( ) = 2 = + ( ) i ( ) i i 2 0,i + i i 2 2 2 q i' ( ) = i 2 2 0,i 2 2 Reduces in the static case to: mi ( 0,i ) + i2 2 q
i ,s := i (0) =
' 2 2 mi2 0, i i
uu r
Case 2: Acting force is an ac field Frequency dependent complex polarisability for ionic and electronic mechanisms (f > 1011 Hz):
and i'' (0) = 0

restoring force resonance displacement from equilibrium frequency Case 2: Acting force is an ac field
With the frequency dependent complex polarisability and the Clausius-Mosotti equation, we get the frequency dependent complex dielectric function in the frequency range > 1011Hz :
' ' ( ) ( 0+ ) ' r r 0 r ( ) = r ( 0+ ) + 1 ( / 0 ) 2 + i / 02
ur
In the case of an ideal insulator with negligible magnetisation, the optical refractive index is given by Maxwell`s law
r ur n( ) = r ( )
Optical properties of matters: ectric properties under the influence of alternating electric fields with f > 1011 Hz
Description of relaxation phenomena: orientation and space charge contributions

Debye Relaxation Debye relaxation denotes a system with a single relaxation time t. Example: Medium with one type of oriented dipole which can be oriented by external field Such a system can be directly described by the general expression when the term of the restoring force is omitted:
' ' ( ) ( 0+ ) 0 r r r ( ) = r' ( 0+ ) + 1 ( / 0 ) 2 + i / 02
ur
We get:
' ' ' ( ) ( ) ' 0+ r r r ( ) = r' ( 0+ ) + r 0 = ( ) + 0+ r 1 + i / 02 1 + i
ur
The relaxation step describes the part of the permittivity due to a relaxation process:
r := r ( 0 ) r ( 0+ ) and := / 0
' ' '

Debye Relaxation The relaxation step describes the part of the permittivity due to a relaxation process:
r := r ( 0 ) r ( 0+ ) and := / 0
' ' '
For microelectronics this means: There is no high-k material without energy dissipating process. Find a material which is well behavin in the frequency range of interest ! The real and imaginary part of the dielectric function for Debye relaxation than read:
' r r' ( ) = r' ( 0+ ) + 2 2 1+ ' r '' r ( ) = 1 + 2 2

How to identify Debye relaxation ? 1) Thermal behaviour
= 0 eW0 / kBT
Certainly, this results in an exponential dependance of the relaxation frequency with temperature 2) Cole Cole diagram In case of true Debye behavior (only one relaxation time) plotting imaginary against real part forms a semi-circle This example should make clear that dielectric measurements are often interesting alternatives to study the structure and dynamics of materials. However, the microscopic origin is not easy to reveal !
relaxation step

Space Charge Polarisation Space charge or Maxwell Wagner polarisation occurs in dielectrics with inhomogeneous regions of different conductivity. For example: polycristalline materials with slightly conducting grains and highly insulting grain boundaries The trapped space charge in the grain oscillates in the applied ac electric field like a dipole. Therefore, space charge and classical orientation polarisation behave similar Equivalent Circuit Ceramics insulating boundaries conducting grains With the help of equivalent circuits the behavior of dielectric systems can be simulated and comparison with experiments made In microelectronics: electrical engineers and materials scientists are needed to describe such systems

Space Charge Polarisation For example: with the help of the equivalent circuit, the current response of the ceramic to a step voltage can be simulated Equivalent Circuit Current response to step voltage Step voltage
Dielectric displacement
D = 0 r ( 0+ ) E + 0 r E (1 e
' '
t /
)
Relaxation current
jR = D = 0 r' 1 Ee t /
DRAM
Random Access Memories
Definition: digital information storage devices are commenly grouped in random and sequential access devices
Random access devices: storage cells are organized in a matrix so that short access times are realized independent of the physical location of the data cell. Application: computer memory to store instructions and data for fast access
Sequential access devices: sequential cell architecture so that access time depends on physical location of the storage cell with respect to read/write head. Application: large and permanent mass storage devices like hard discs

History: first RAM were based on tiny, wire-threaded ferrite torroids arranged in a matrix set-up Two states of the remanent magnetization present the binary 0 and 1 Write operation: current pulse are passed through selected row and column. only at crossing point strong enough to switch magnetization Read operation: a 1 is written into the cell in case of 0 in the cell, change of magnetization induces current pulse in read line connected to a sense amplifier. Appearance or absence of this pulse read as 0 or 1.

Three important insights: Read operation: the read operation is destructive (destructive read out: DRO) and requires a subsequent write back operation
Write operation: n passive matrix, all cells exhibit part of the signal dvantage: high demand on threshold behavior of cells.
n active matrix, each cell is adressed individually by a switch transistor Disadvantage: higher complexity Storage capacity:
Each cell has two states In case of m Rows and n columns: 2 n+m bits Example: N + m = 20 1Mbit (M = 1024K and k=1024)
RAM families
random access memory (RAM): as discussed, used for data storage where quick access is needed
Static RAM (SRAM): interlocked state of logic gates
Dynamic RAM (DRAM): stored charge level in capacitor
read only memory (ROM): typically used for instruction storage Once-programmable ROM: used for instruction storage Mask-based ROM (programmed by supplier) PROM (once programmed by customer e-.g. metal connects are fused ) Re-programmable ROM: MOSFET`s with floating gate layer in gate dielectric EPROM (information deleted by UV light) EEPROM (information deleted by enhacned voltage; very succesfull is FLASH EEPROM with short Reprogramming times)
RAM families
random access memory (RAM): as discussed, used for data storage where quick access is needed
Static RAM (SRAM): interlocked state of logic gates
Dynamic RAM (DRAM): stored charge level in capacitor
read only memory (ROM): typically used for instruction storage Once-programmable ROM: used for instruction storage Mask-based ROM (programmed by supplier) PROM (once programmed by customer e-.g. metal connects are fused ) Re-programmable ROM: MOSFET`s with floating gate layer in gate dielectric EPROM (information deleted by UV light) EEPROM (information deleted by enhacned voltage; very succesfull is FLASH EEPROM with short Reprogramming times)
Scaling of Memory Cell

Moore`s law: exponential increase of Memory cells on chip Over the last 40 years (doubles each eigtheen months) Made possible by: 1) Reduction in feature size The DRAM success story
comparable simple matrix set-up makes DRAM the technology driver for dry etching and lithography 2) Cost effectiveness: tremendous improvement of fabrication productivity
Basic Operation of DRAM Cell

DRAM is a 1Tr 1 C Cell (active matrix array): 1) Transistor (Tr) Switch adressed by wordline (WL) 2) Capacitor (C) Charge storage element connected to Bitline (BL) Write Operation: switch is closed and voltage levels + VCC or 0 applied to capacitor via BL Read Operation: switch is closed and capacitor connected to BL which is on + VCC/2 capacitor charge QS redistributes over BL absence or presence of voltage change is sensed by sense amplifier and enhanced
Circuit Cleverness to ease reliability issues

The sense amplifier needs to see a certain charge level QSto read out the stored information: Case 1: imagine Vp is at VCC: By the read operation, capacitor is in one state completely discharged (1) and in the other state (0) extremely charged Disadvantage: Dielectric breakdown by high electric field Case 2: imagine Vp is at VCC//2: By the read operation, capacitor is in one state at +VCC/2 (1) and in the other state at -VCC/2 (0) Advantage: Dielectric experiences lower electric field
Challenges in Gb DRAM capacitors

Miniaturization reduces first of all area but the sense amplifier needs to see certain charge level QS for reliable read out
C s = 0 r
AS t phys
= 0 r , SiO2
AS teq
r , SiO with teq = t phys and r , SiO = 3.9. r

2 2
Approaches to keep CS high: 1) Thin out the SiO2 capacitor dielectric : leakage current limits this approach (leakage is very tough criterion for 1 GB DRAM capacitors) 2) Integrate high-k dielectric : => Teq tells how much thicker you can make it for same CS so that leakage is reduced 3) 3D - integration : => increase capacitor area again
3D Device Architectures
Trench Technology
very successful approach but one big disadvantage: Trench capacitor is prepared before switch transistor. As transistor needs RTO step (1000C / 10 to 30 sec), future high-k capacitor dielectrics needs to survive this cruel treatment => very tough materials selection criterion
3D Device Architectures
Stack Technology
The advantage is that the capacitor is formed after the transistor: => Easier materials selection for high-k dielectrics The disadvantage is the geometry of the disk technology: => Homogeneous coverage required to avoid dielectric breakdown
Materials science aspects

Voltage dependence of dielectric constant
AS 0 r (V )dV QS = C (V )dV = t VDD / 2 V"0"

V"1"
+VDD / 2
The charge difference between level 0 and 1 is the result of an integrated dielectric.
BaTiO3 has a high dielectric constant But is strongly bias dependent
Materials science aspects

Interface effects limit dielectric constant If interfaces have lower dielectric constant, these dead layers limit the achievable capacitance density. The materials system can be viewed as a series connection of three capacitors whose effective capacitance density is certainly Determined by the lower k value materials.
t ( t BI + tTI ) t BI tTI t C = = + + 0 r ,eff 0 r , BI 0 r , BST 0 r ,TI A

1
for t >> t BI , tTI
0 r , BST
A A t + + C BI C TI
A systematic electric study allows to deduce thickness of interfaces and their k values

Physics of Dielectrics and DRAM

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Physics of Dielectrics and DRAM

IHP Im Technologiepark 25 15236 Frankfurt (Oder) Germany