Data Collection Method

Sources of Data
Primary sources
Primary data refer to information obtained firsthand by the researcher on the variables of interest for the specific purposes of the study

Secondary sources
Secondary data refer to information gathered from sources already existing

Primary Sources of Data

Individuals Focus groups
Aimed at obtaining respondents impressions, interpretations, and opinions. Provides only qualitative and not quantitative information Can not be considered to be truly representative Focus groups are used for (1) exploratory studies, (2) making generalizations based on the information gathered by them, and (3) conducting sample surveys Videoconferencing

Primary Sources of Data Contd)

Panels
Whereas focus groups meet for a one-time group session, panels meet more than once. Static or dynamic Typically used when several aspects of a product are to be studied from time to time

Unobtrusive Measures
Originate from a primary source that does not involve people

Secondary Sources
Advantage of seeking secondary data sources is savings in time and costs of acquiring information. Drawbacks: obsolete, not meeting the specific needs of a particular situation or setting

Data Collection Methods

Observation Survey:
Questionnaires Interviews

Unobtrusive Methods

Observation
Nonparticipant and participant observer Structured and unstructured

Observation
Watching Listening Touching Smelling Reading

Evaluation of Behavioral Observation

Strengths Securing information that is otherwise unavailable Avoiding participant filtering/ forgetting Securing environmental context Optimizing naturalness Weaknesses Enduring long periods Incurring higher expenses Having lower reliability of inferences Quantifying data Keeping large records

Interviewing
Unstructured interviews
Interviewer does not enter the interview setting with a planned sequences of questions to be asked of the respondent The objective: to bring some preliminary issues to the surface so that the researcher can determine what variables need further indepth investigation

Interviewing (Contd)
Structured interviews
Those conducted when it is known at the outset what information is needed. The interviewer has a list of predetermined questions to be asked of the respondents

Advantages of the Telephone Survey

Lower costs than personal interview Expanded geographic coverage Use of few interviewers Reduced interviewer bias Fast completion time Better access to some participants Random dialing possible CATI possible

Disadvantages of the Telephone Survey

Lower response rate than personal interview Higher costs if interviewing geographically dispersed sample Interview length limited Unlisted phone numbers/ Call screening Some unavailable by phone Unit-nonresponse Lack of visuals

Personal Survey
Advantages
Good cooperation rates Interviewer can probe and explain Visual aids possible Illiterate participants can be reached Interviewer can prescreen CAPI possible

Disadvantages
High costs Need for highly trained interviewers Time consuming Labor-intensive Some unwilling to invite strangers into homes Interviewer bias possible

Sources of Error

Error Sources

Measurement Questions

Participant

Interviewer

Interviewing (Contd)
Can be minimized:
Establishing credibility and rapport, and motivating individuals to respond Questioning techniques: funneling, unbiased questions, clarifying issues, helping the respondents to think through issues, taking notes

Face-to-face Interviews
Advantages:
Adapt the questions as necessary, clarify doubts, and ensure that the responses are properly understood Pick up nonverbal cues from the respondent Any discomfort, stress, or problems that the respondent experiences can be detected

Disadvantages:
Geographical limitations Vast resources needed High costs Respondents might feel uneasy about the anonymity of their responses

Telephone Interviews Advantages:

A number of differently different people can be reached in a relatively short period of time It would eliminate any discomfort on respondents

Disadvantages:
Respondents could unilaterally terminate the interview without warning or explanation, by hanging up the phone. Researcher will not be able to read the nonverbal communication

Advantages of Self-Administered Questionnaires

Allows contact with inaccessible participants Incentives increase response rates Lowest-cost option Geographic coverage Minimal staff required Perceived as anonymous Allows participants time for reflection Allows for complex questions Rapid data collection possible Visuals possible Multiple sampling frames possible

Disadvantages of Self-Administered Questionnaires

Low response rates in some modes No interviewer intervention Cannot be too long Cannot be too complex Requires accurate list Skewed responses by extremists Participant anxiety possible Directions necessary Need for lowdistraction environment Computer security

Questionnaires (Contd)
Guidelines for questionnaires design
Principles of wording
Content and the purpose of the questions Language and wording of the questionnaires Type and form of questions Sequencing of questions

Classification data or personal information

Questionnaires (Contd)
Pretesting of Structured Questions
To ensure that the questions are understood by the respondents There are no problems with the wording or measurement

Improving Response Rates

Advance notification Reminders Return directions and devices Monetary incentives Deadlines Promise of anonymity Appeal for participation