CORRELATIONAL

RESEARCH
NAJAH NADIAH BT. ALIAS
M20082000089
RELATIONSHIP STUDIES

CORRELATIONAL
RESEARCH

PREDICTION STUDIES
 Correlational
Research
 The definition for correlational research is determination
whether and to what degree variables are related.

 The purpose of correlational research:

i) determine relationships between variables.

ii) to use the relationship to make predictions.

Variable found not to be highly related to achievement
will be dropped for further examination while variables
that highly related to achievement may be examined in
causal-comparative or experimental studies to
determine the nature relationship.

iii) to determine whether and how a set of variables are

related.
 Definition of
Correlational Research
 But, there is a limitation for this research, it cannot indicate
cause and effect for variables.

 The degree of relationship is expressed as a correlation

coefficient.

 If a relationship exist between two variables, it means that

scores within a certain range on one variable are associated
with scores within a certain range on the other variable.
Eg: there is a relationship between intelligence & academic
achievement; persons who scores highly on
intelligence tends to have high grade point averages.
The Major Steps Involved In
The Basic Correlational
Research Process
Problem selection

Participant & instrument selection

Design procedures

Data analysis & interpretation

 1. Problem selection
• Variables to be correlated are selected on the
basis of some rationale.

• the relationship to be investigated should be a

logical one, suggested by theory or derived
from experienced.

• having theoretical or experimental basis to

interpret the meaningful results.

• Avoid shotgun or fishing approach, both very

inefficient and difficult to interpret.
2. Participant & instrument

• Minimal sample size for correlational study is

30 participant.

• There are some factors that can influenced the

size of sample.

• The sample can be smaller ( but not less than

30) if the variables correlate with higher
validity & reliability.

• If validity & reliability are low, a larger sample

is needed.
 3. Design & Procedure
• Collect data on two or more variables for each
subject.

• Two or more scores are obtained for each

member of the sample.

• The paired scores are then correlated.

• The result is expressed as a correlation

coefficient.
 4. Data Analysis and
Interpretation
• A correlation coefficient indicates size and
direction of relationship.

• It is a decimal number ranging from -1.00 to 0.00

to +1.00

• A coefficient near +1.00 has high size and

positive direction
-eg: a person with high score on one variable is
likely to have a high score on the other variable.
An increase on one variable is associated with an
increase on the other variable
 4. Data Analysis and
Interpretation
• A coefficient near 0.00, the variables are not
related.

• A coefficient near -1.00 has a high size &

negative direction
- high score on one variable is likely to have a low
score on the other variable.

• Correlations near +1.00 and near -1.00 represent

the same size of relationship.

• The (+) and (-) represent different directions of

relationship
 Correlation Coefficient

-1.00 0.00 +1.00

strong negative no strong positive

relationship
A Positive Correlation

x
A Negative Correlation

x
No Correlation

x
No Correlation

x
 How to interpret correlation
coefficient?

i. Coefficient below ±0.35, low or not related.

 Coefficient between ±0.35 and±0.65
moderately related.
 Coefficient higher than ±0.65 highly related.
 Coefficient much below ±0.50 is generally
useless.
 Coefficient of ±0.60 or ±0.70 are usually
considered adequate for group prediction
purpose.
 Coefficient of ± 0.80 and above are adequate
for individual prediction purpose.
Examples of Scatter Plots
r=.90 r= -.90

r= -.75
r=.65

r=.35 r= -.50

r=.00 r= -.10
 Common Variance
 The area to which variables vary in a systematic
manner.
 Interpreted as the percentage of variance in the
criterion variable explained by the predictor
variable
 The squared correlation coefficient indicates the
amount of common or shared variation between
the variables. The higher the shared variation is,
the higher the correlation.
 Eg: a correlation coefficient of ±0.80 indicates
(0.80)2 or 64% of the variance in the criterion can
be explained by the predictor
 Statistical Significance?
 Statistical significance refers to:
-whether the obtained coefficient is really
different from zero
- and reflects a true relationship, not an
accidentally relationship.
 Statistical significance depends on the sample
size.
 Small samples require higher correlations for
significance
 Large samples require lower correlations for
significance
Circle Diagrams Illustrating Relationships
Among Variables
 RELATIONSHIP STUDIES
Purpose of relationship studies:

 Suggest subsequent examination using causal-comparative

and experimental studies to determine whether there is
causal connection between the variables.

 Control for variables related to the dependent variable in

experimental studies.

Step involved in conducting relationship study:

Data collection

Data analysis & interpretation

 Data Collection

 Identifies the variables to be correlated. Eg: If you were

interested in factors related to self-concept, you might
identify variables such as academic achievement & socio
economic status.

 Avoid the ‘shotgun’ approach

 Possibility of erroneous relationships

 Issues related to determining statistical significance.

 The population must be one for which data on each of the

identified variables can be collected.

 Compute the appropriate correlation coefficient.

 Data Analysis and
Interpretation
 There are many types of correlation,
distinguished mainly by the type of data that they
are being correlated.

 The most commonly used correlation is the

product moment correlation coefficient, Pearson
r- used when both variables are continuous (ratio
or interval data).

 The Spearman rho correlation is used when

ordinal data (ranks) are being correlated.
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 Although the Pearson r is more precise, but
Spearman rho is much easier to compute with a
small number of participants (less than 30).

 Phi coefficient use for variable that can only be

expressed in terms of a categorical dichotomy
such as gender (labelled 1-male; 2-female).

 If a relationship is suspected of being curvilinear,

then an eta correlationship is appropriate.
Types of Correlation
Coefficients
Coefficient Variable Variable

Pearson interval continuous (e.g.,

scores, ages)
Spearman rank-ordered rank-ordered

Biserial artificial continuous

dichotomy
Point True dichotomy continuous
biserial
Tetrachoric artificial artificial
dichotomy dichotomy
Phi true dichotomy true dichotomy
 Linear and Curvilinear
Relationships

 If a relationship is linear, then, plotting the scores of the

two variables will result in a straight line.

 If a relationship is curvilinear, an increase in one variable is

associated with corresponding increase in another variable
up to a point, then, further increase in the first variable
result in corresponding decreases in other variable.

Linear relationship Curvilinear relationship

 Factors That Influence
Correlations
1. Sample size:

The larger the sample size, more valid the

correlation.
Subgroup:
-The relationship between females & males may be
different.
- When subgroups are lumped together and correlated,
differential relationships may be obscured.
- It will reduce the size of samples (if you want to study
subgroup, select larger sample and use stratified samples
to ensure similar numbers in the subgroup)
 Factors That Influence
Correlations

2. Variation
The greater the variation in scores tend to give
a strong correlation and vise versa.

3. Attenuation
Correlation coefficients are lower when the
instruments being used have low reliability
A correction for attenuation is available, but
should not be used in prediction studies since
predictions must be made based on existing
measures.
 PREDICTION STUDIES
 If two variables are highly related, scores on one
variables can be used to predict scores on the
other variable.
 The purpose of prediction studies:
 Prediction studies are often conducted to
facilitate decision about individuals, or to aid in
the selection of individuals.
 Also conducted to test variables believed to be
good predictor.
 To determine the predictive validity of
measuring
continue…
 The variables used to predict is called predictor.

 The variables that is predicted is called criterion.

 More than one predictor variable can be used to

make predictions.

 If several predictor variables each correlate well

with a criterion, then a prediction based on a
combination of those variables will be more
accurate.
 Data Analysis and
Interpretation
 There are two types of prediction studies:
- single predictor variable studies
- multiple predictor studies

 Single prediction studies use one predictor and

one criterion.
Y = a + bX
Where Y = predictor criterion
X = an individual’s score on the
predictor variable
a = a constant calculated from the
scores of all participants
b = the coefficient indicating the
contribution of the predictor to the criterion
Data Analysis and
Interpretation
 Multiple prediction studies use multiple predictors
Y = a + bX1 + bX2 + … + bXn

Where Y = predictor criterion

Xn = an individual’s score on the predictor variable
a = a constant calculated from the scores of
all participants
b = the coefficient indicating the contribution of
the
predictor to the criterion
Data Analysis and
Interpretation
 Prediction studies often result as a
multiple regression equation.

 A multiple regression equation uses all

variables that individually predict the
criterion to make a more accurate
prediction.
Data Analysis and
Interpretation
 Factors that influence predictive studies:
- predictor & criterion variable are not
reliable
- the longer the length of time between
the measurement of the predictor &
criterion, the lower the production
accuracy is.

 Predicted scores should be interpreted as

intervals, not as single number.
 The Major Difference Between Data
Collection Procedures in Prediction Study
and Relationship Study

Relationship Study Prediction Study

 Relationship studies  Predictive studies involve

develop insight into the the predictive relationships
relationships between between or among
several variables. variables.

 Data on all variables are  Variables are measured

collected with a relatively some period of time before
short period of time. the criterion variable is
measured.
 Other Correlation Analyses
1. Discriminant Analysis
Quite similar to multiple regression but the
criterion variable is categorical, not continuous.
Typically used to predict group membership.

2. Path Analysis
Studies relationships and patterns among a
number of variables, yielding a diagram showing
the direct or indirect relationships between the
variables
 Other Correlation Analyses
3. Structural Equation Modeling
A sophisticated form of path analysis providing
greater theoretical validity and statistical
precision clarifying the direct or indirect
interrelationships among variables relative to a
given variable

4. Canonical Correlation
An extension of multiple regression analysis that
produces a correlation based on a group of
predictor variables and a group of criterion
variables
Other Correlation Analyses
5. Factor Analysis
A statistical method for making sense of a large
number of variables.
Approach: group a larger number of variables
into a smaller number of clusters; derive factors
by finding groups of variables that are highly
among each other, but lowly with other
variables; use factors as variables.