Hydro Electric Power-Plant

Instrumentation
1
Dr. R. P. Maheshwari
Professor
Department of Electrical Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee
2
Topics covered in this module
Measurement techniques of level, flow, pressure and
temperature

Hydraulic heads and mechanical vibrations

Temperature scanners

Alarm annunciations
3
References
1. Industrial Instrumentation and Control by: S. K. Singh
(Tata McGraw Hill Publication, 3rd edition)

2. Power Plant Engineering by: B. L. Singhal (Tech-Max
Publications, 2010 edition)

3. Modern power Station Practice, Volume F: Control
and Instrumentation, British Electricity international
(Pergamon Press, 1990 / 2003 edition)
4
Units of Measure
System Length Force Mass Time Pressure
MKS Meter Newton Kg Sec N/M
2
=
Pascal
CGS CM Dyne Gram Sec D/CM
2

English Inch Pound Slug Sec PSI
5
Level Measurement
6
Level Measurement
Generally, there are two methods used in industries for measuring
liquid level.
(1) Direct methods




(2) Indirect methods
(i) Hook up type level indicator
(ii) Sight Glass
(iii) Float-type
(i) Hydrostatic pressure type
(ii) Electrical methods
7
Measurement
Measurement is the process of assigning numbers to quantities.
The process is so familiar that perhaps we often overlook its
fundamental characteristics.
Properties of Quantities
Quantities that we can measure have a number of properties.
For example, a quantity can be discrete or continuous.
8
Level Measurement with radar and Ultrasonic

Through Air
Radar
Guided Wave
Radar
Ultrasonic
9
Level Measurement

How it works


The time it takes for the instruments signal to
leave the antenna, travel to the product, and
return to the antenna is calculated into
distance.

The instrument is spanned according to the
distance the 100% and 0% points within the
vessel are from its reference point.

The measured distance can then be converted
into the end users desired engineering unit
and viewed on the head of the instrument or
remote display.
100%
0%
10
Level Measurement


How do process conditions affect the
reliability and accuracy of process level
transmitters ?

density (specific gravity)?
dielectric constant?
conductivity?
temperature?
pressure?
vacuum?
agitation?
vapors and condensation?
dust and build up?
internal structures?

Process conditions that affect specification of transmitters
11
Level Measurement

Radar Technology How it works


Radar is a time of flight measurement.

Microwave energy is transmitted by the
radar.

The microwave energy is reflected off the
product surface

The radar sensor receives the microwave
energy.

The time from transmitting to receiving the
microwave energy is measured.

The time is converted to a distance
measurement and then eventually a level.

12
Level Measurement

Function of an antenna
Signal focusing
reduction of the antenna ringing
optimization of the beam

Signal amplification
focusing of the emitted signal
amplification of the receipt signal

Signal orientation
point at the product surface
minimization of false echo reflections

13
Level Measurement

Radar level measurement

Top mounted
Solids and liquids applications
Non-contact

RADAR is virtually unaffected by the following
process conditions:

Temperature
Pressure and Vacuum
Conductivity
Dielectric Constant (dK)
Specific Gravity
Vapor, Steam, Dust or Air Movement
Build up (depends on radar design)

Radar Technology Why use it?
14
Level Measurement

Radar Technology - Choice of frequency
Radar wavelength = Speed of light / frequency
= c / f
Frequency 6.3 GHz
wavelength = 47.5 mm
Frequency 26 GHz
wavelength = 11.5 mm
High frequency:

shorter wavelength

narrower beam angle

more focused signal

ability to measure smaller vessels
with more flexible mounting
47.5mm
Low frequency:

longer wavelength

wider beam angle

less focused signal

ability to measure in vessels with
difficult application variables
15
Level Measurement

Frequency

Choosing a frequency depends on:

Mounting options
Customers 100% point
Vessel dimensions proximity of
connection to sidewall
The presence of foam
Agitated product surfaces
Vapor composition
Vessel internal structures
Dielectric constant (dK)
16
Level Measurement

Guided Wave
Radar
(TDR)



17
Level Measurement

Guided Wave Radar level measurement

Time of Flight
Top mounted
Solids and liquids applications
Contact Measurement

GUIDED WAVE RADAR is virtually unaffected by
the following process conditions:

Temperature
Pressure and Vacuum
Conductivity
Dielectric Constant (dK)
Specific Gravity
Vapor, Steam, or Dust Air Movement
Build up (depends on type of build up)
Foam
18
Level Measurement

Ultrasonic

19
Level Measurement


Ultrasonic level measurement

Time of Flight
Top mounted
Solids and liquids applications
Non-contact

ULTRASONIC is virtually unaffected by the
following process conditions:

Change is product density (spg)
Change in dielectric constant (dk)
20
Level Measurement

Ultrasonic Level Measurement How it works

Time of Flight Technology

Short ultrasonic impulses emitted from
transducer

Bursts are created from electrical energy
applied to piezeo electric crystal inside the
transducer

The transducer creates sound waves
(mechanical energy)

With longer measuring ranges a lower
frequency and higher amplitude are needed
to produce sound waves that can travel
farther

The longer the measuring range the
larger the transducer must be
21
Level Measurement

Ultrasonic Level Technology Advantages
Can be mounted in plastic stilling wells

Narrow beam angles minimize effect of
obstructions

Swivel flange available for applications with
angles of repose

Familiar technology throughout the industry,
therefore, often a trusted technology throughout
the industry

Cost-effective
22
Flow Measurement

Flow rate may vary from few drops per hour to thousands of gallons
per minute. Range abilities may vary from essentially 1:1 to 100:1 or
greater.
(i) Inferential type flow meters
(ii) Quantity flow meters
(iii) Mass flow meters
(i) Variable head or differential meters
(ii) Variable area meters
23
Flow Measurement

Typical types in industries
(i) Orifice Plates
(ii) Venturi Tubes
(iii) Flow Nozzles
(iv) Pitot Tubes
(v) Rotameters
(vi) Magnetic flow meters
(vii) Thermal flow meters
(viii) Vortex flow meters
24
Flow Measurement

Principles of Flow
Q = Pressure/Resistance
Laminar
Turbulent
25
Flow Measurement

Fluid flow steam line
Occurs at low velocities
All parts flowing in one direction parallel to walls
Change in cross section means change in direction of flow
Pressure drop flow velocity
26
Flow Measurement

Fluid flow - turbulent
Liquid behaves as independent entities
Pressure varies with Kinetic energy
Proportional To square of turbulent flow velocity
27

Flow Measurement Principle
P1
P2
Counter
pressure
sensor
flow
in
flow
out
l Electronic flow measurement principle
- laminar flow restrictions
create a pressure difference P
1

- flow is calculated from P
1

l Used with Oxygen, Side gas, Bypass, and
Agent flows



Laminar flow restriction
P
1
Ambient
pressure
P2
P1 = pressure difference
P2 = correction (off-set) to ambient
pressure
28
Flow Measurement
Orifice meters
29
Flow Measurement

Pressure differences
30
Flow Measurement
Diff. Pressure calculation
31
Flow Measurement

Venturi meter
32
Flow Measurement

33
Flow Measurement
Flow nozzle
34
Flow Measurement
Pitot tube
35
Flow Measurement

36
Flow Measurement

37
Pressure Measurement

Pressure Sensors
In any given plant, the number of pressure gauges used is probably larger
than all other instruments put together
Most liquid and all gaseous materials in the process
industries are contained within closed vessels. For the safety
of plant personnel and protection of the vessel, pressure in
the vessel is controlled. In addition, pressured is controlled
because it influences key process operations like vapor-liquid
equilibrium, chemical reaction rate, and fluid flow.
38
Pressure Measurement


Pressure = Force / Area

Pressure can be used inferentially to measure other variables such as
Flow and Level

Pressure plays a major role in determining the Boiling Point of Liquids

Fluids exerts pressure on the containing vessel equally and in all
directions
39
Pressure Measurement

How is pressure measured?
Absolute versus relative pressure
Manometry
Bourdon
Aneroid
Strain gauge

40
Pressure Measurement

Presiune
referinta
P
abs
= 0
T R P
abs
=
Absolute Pressure
41
Pressure Measurement

h g P
A h g A 0 A P
hg abs
hg abs
=
=
P=0
P
atm
h
h
A
P
atm
A
0
Well-type manometer
Barometer
42
Pressure Measurement

43
Pressure Measurement

1 2
P P P = A
P
1
P
2
Differential Pressure
atm 2
P P P = A
P
2
P
atm
44
Pressure Measurement

Types of Pressure
45
Pressure Measurement

Static and Dynamic Pressure
Dynamic pressure = Stagnation pressure (A) - Static pressure (B)
46
Pressure Measurement

Types of Pressure Transducers
Liquid Column manometers
Elastic tubes, diaphragms, membranes (equipped with
displacement or strain sensors)
Semiconductor elements (with implanted stress elements)
Piezoelectic elements (directly convert crystal lattice stress into
voltage)
47
Pressure Measurement

Differential Pressure
h g P P
A h g A P A P
1 2
1 2
=
=
P
2
h h
A
P
2
A
P
1
P
1
A
U tube manometer
48
Pressure Measurement

h g P P
A h g A P A P
1 2
1 2
=
=
P
2
h h
A
P
2
A
P
1
P
1
A
49

Inclined Manometer
r 1 2
r
r
1 2
1 2
h ) sin( g P P
) sin( h h
h
h
) sin(
h g P P
A h g A P A P
=
=
=
=
=
P
2
h
h
r
A
P
2
A
P
1
P
1
A
g
50
Pressure Measurement

Elastic elements
Changing pressure
change the shape of the
elastic element
Shape changing is
detected by a resistive or
position transducer
Tip C Spirala Tub
rasucit
Elicoidal
Tuburi
Bourdon
Capsula
Diafragme
P Absoluta
P Diferentiala
Plata
Ondulata
evacuat
Diferential sau absolut
Tub
51
Pressure Measurement

Elastic elements
Changing pressure change the
shape of the elastic element
Shape changing is detected by
a resistive or position
transducer
52
Pressure Measurement

Dial-type Manometer
Dial-type Manometer as a mini measurement system
53
Pressure Measurement

Diaphragm type manometers
To be able to detect pressure, we need to detect the
diaphragm deflection
54
Pressure Measurement

Bourdon
55
Pressure Measurement

Aneroid

56
Pressure Measurement

Strain gauges used with Diaphragm
57

Strain gage based pressure cell
When a strain gage, is used to
measure the deflection of an elastic
diaphragm or Bourdon tube it
becomes a component in pressure
transducer
Strain-gage transducers are used for
narrow-span pressure and for
differential pressure measurements.
Essentially, the strain gage is used to
measure the displacement of an
elastic diaphragm due to a
difference in pressure across the
diaphragm
If the low pressure side is a sealed
vacuum reference, the transmitter
will act as an absolute pressure
transmitter.
Strain gage transducers are available
for pressure ranges as low as 1300
MPa
58

Capacitance based pressure cell
Capacitance pressure transducers
were originally developed for use in
low vacuum research. This
capacitance change results from the
movement of a diaphragm element
(The diaphragm is usually metal or
metal-coated quartz and is exposed
to the process pressure on one side
and to the reference pressure on
the other. Depending on the type
Differential pressure transducers in
a variety of ranges and outputs of
pressure, the capacitive transducer
can be either an absolute, gauge, or
differential pressure transducer.
Capacitance pressure transducers
have a wide range ability, from high
vacuums in the micron range to 70
MPa.
59

Piezoresistive pressure sensors are sensitive to changes in temperature and
must be temperature compensated.
Piezoresistive pressure sensors can be used from about 21 KPa
to 100 MPa.
Resonant piezoelectric pressure sensors measure the variation in
resonant frequency of quartz crystals under an applied force. The
sensor can consist of a suspended beam that oscillates while isolated from
all other forces. The beam is maintained in oscillation at its resonant
frequency. Changes in the applied force result in resonant frequency
changes. The relationship between the applied pressure P and the
oscillation frequency is:
P = A(1-TO/T) - B(1-TO/T2)
where TO is the period of oscillation when the applied pressure is zero, T is
the period of oscillation when the applied pressure is P, and A and B are
calibration constants for the transducer.
These transducers can be used for absolute pressure measurements with
spans from 0-100 kPa to 0-6 MPa or for differential pressure measurements
with spans from 0-40 kPa to 0-275 kPa .
Piezoelectric sensors
60

61

These included the use of inductance, reluctance, and eddy currents.
Inductance is that property of an electric circuit that expresses the amount of
electromotive force (emf) induced by a given rate of change of current flow in
the circuit.
Reluctance is resistance to magnetic flow, the opposition offered by magnetic
substance to magnetic flux.
In these sensors, a change in pressure produces a movement, which in turn
changes the inductance or reluctance of an electric circuit.


Magnetic pressure transducers
62

Optical pressure transducers
Optical pressure transducers detect
the effects of minute motions due to
changes in process pressure and
generate a corresponding electronic
output signal.
A light emitting diode (LED) is used
as the light source, and a vane
blocks some of the light as it is
moved by the diaphragm. As the
process pressure moves the vane
between the source diode and the
measuring diode, the amount of
infrared light received changes.
Optical pressure transducers do not
require much maintenance.
They have excellent stability and are
designed for long-duration
measurements.
They are available with ranges from
35 kPa to 413 MPa and with 0.1%
full scale accuracy.
63
Temperature Measurement

Types of temperature sensors
RTD (Resistance Temperature Detector)

Thermistor

Thermocouple
64
Temperature Measurement

RTD, the basics
How it works:
Utilizes the fact that
resistance of a metal
changes with temperature.
Make up:
Traditionally made up of
platinum, nickel, iron or
copper wound around an
insulator.
Temperature range:
From about -196C to
482C.
Thin Film RTD
65
Temperature Measurement

RTD Advantages and Disadvantages
Advantages:
Stable
Very accurate
Change in resistance is
linear
Disadvantages:
Expensive
Current source
required
Small change in
resistance
Self heating
Less rugged than
thermocouples.
66

RTD
Resistivity of metals is a function of temperature.
Platinum often used since it can be used for a wide temperature
range and has excellent stability. Nickel or nickel alloys are used as
well, but they arent as accurate.
In several common configurations, the platinum wire is exposed
directly to air (called a bird-cage element), wound around a bobbin
and then sealed in molten glass, or threaded through a ceramic
cylinder.
Metal film RTDs are new. To make these, a platinum or metal-glass
slurry film is deposited onto a ceramic substrate. The substrate is
then etched with a laser. These RTDs are very small but arent as
stable (and hence accurate).
RTDs are more accurate but also larger and more expensive than
thermocouples.
67

RTD







From Nicholas & White, Traceable Temperatures.
Sheathing: stainless steel or iconel, glass, alumina, quartz
Metal sheath can cause contamination at high temperatures and are
best below 250C.
At very high temperatures, quartz and high-purity alumina are best to
prevent contamination.
68

RTD
Resistance Measurement
Several different bridge circuits are used to determine the
resistance. Bridge circuits help improve the accuracy of
the measurements significantly. Bridge output voltage is a
function of the RTD resistance.

69

RTD
Resistance/Temperature Conversion
Published equations relating bridge voltage to temperature can be
used.

For very accurate results, do your own calibration.
Several electronic calibrators are available.
The most accurate calibration that you can do easily yourself is to
use a constant temperature bath and NIST-traceable
thermometers. You then can make your own calibration curve
correlating temperature and voltage.
70

RTD
Potential Problems
RTDs are more fragile than thermocouples.

An external current must be supplied to the RTD. This current can
heat the RTD, altering the results. For situations with high heat
transfer coefficients, this error is small since the heat is dissipated to
air. For small diameter thermocouples and still air this error is the
largest. Use the largest RTD possible and smallest external current
possible to minimize this error.

Be careful about the way you set up your measurement device.
Attaching it can change the voltage.

When the platinum is connected to copper connectors, a voltage
difference will occur (as in thermocouples). This voltage must be
subtracted off.
71

Resistance/Temperature Conversion
Standard thermistors curves are not provided as much as
with thermocouples or RTDs. You often need a curve for a
specific batch of thermistors.

No 4-wire bridge is required as with an RTD.

DAQ systems can handle the non-linear curve fit easily.

Thermistors do not do well at high temperatures and
show instability with time (but for the best ones, this
instability is only a few millikelvin per year)

72
Temperature Measurement

Thermistor, the basics of
How it works:
Like the RTD a thermistor
uses the fact that
resistance of a metal
changes with temperature.
Make up:
Generally made up of
semiconductor materials
Temperature Range:
About -45C - 150C
Thermistor
73
Temperature Measurement

Thermistor Advantages and Disadvantages
Advantages:
Very sensitive (has the
largest output change
from input
temperature)
Quick response
More accurate than
RTD and
Thermocouples
Disadvantages:
Output is a non-linear
function
Limited temperature
range.
Require a current
source
Self heating
Fragile
74

Thermistor
Thermistors also measure the change in resistance with temperature.

Thermistors are very sensitive (up to 100 times more than RTDs and
1000 times more than thermocouples) and can detect very small
changes in temperature. They are also very fast.

Due to their speed, they are used for precision temperature control
and any time very small temperature differences must be detected.

They are made of ceramic semiconductor material (metal oxides).

The change in thermistor resistance with temperature is very non-
linear.
75

Thermistor Non-Linearity
76
Temperature Measurement

Thermocouple, some more basics
How it works:
Made up of two different
metals joined at one end
to produce a small voltage
at a given temperature.
Make up:
Made of up two different
metals. Ex: A type J is
made up of Iron and
Constantan.
Temperature Range
Type J: 0C to 750C
A few Thermocouples
77
Temperature Measurement
Thermocouple Advantages and Disadvantages
Advantages:
Self Powered (does
not require a current
or voltage source)
Rugged
Inexpensive
Simple
Disadvantages:
Extremely Low
Voltage output (mV)
Not very stable
Needs a reference
point

78
Temperature Measurement

49K
1K
1K
50K
1K
1K
50K
50K
-
V
in
+
+
-
+
-
+
-
+
V
out
-
+
-
Thermocouple
4.7F
7417
1 2
5V 15V
Fan
Relay
A Case Study
79
Temperature Measurement
Thermocouples
Seebeck effect
If two wires of dissimilar metals are joined at both
ends and one end is heated, current will flow.
If the circuit is broken, there will be an open circuit
voltage across the wires.
Voltage is a function of temperature and metal types.
For small DTs, the relationship with temperature is
linear

For larger DTs, non-linearities may occur.
80

Measuring the Thermocouple Voltage
If you attach the thermocouple directly to a voltmeter, you will have
problems.











You have just created another junction! Your displayed voltage will be
proportional to the difference between J
1
and J
2
(and hence T
1
and
T
2
). Note: It is a Type T thermocouple.
81

External Reference Junction
A solution is to put J
2
in an ice-bath; then you know T
2
,
and your output voltage will be proportional to T
1
-T
2
.

82

Other types of thermocouples
Many thermocouples dont have one copper wire. Shown
below is a Type J thermocouple.








If the two terminals arent at the same temperature, this
also creates an error.
83

Isothermal Block
The block is an electrical insulator but good heat
conductor. This way the voltages for J
3
and J
4
cancel out.
Thermocouple data acquisition set-ups include these
isothermal blocks.






If we eliminate the ice-bath, then the isothermal block
temperature is our reference temperature

( )
1 block
V T T o =
84

Software Compensation
How can one find the temperature of the block? Use a
thermister or RTD.
Once the temperature is known, the voltage associated
with that temperature can be subtracted off.
Then why use thermocouples at all?
Thermocouples are cheaper, smaller, more flexible and
rugged, and operate over a wider temperature range.
Most data acquisition systems have software
compensation built in. To use industrial automation
software, youll need to know if you have a thermister or
RTD.
85

Hardware Compensation
With hardware compensation, the temperature of the
isothermal block again is measured, and then a battery is
used to cancel out the voltage of the reference junction.

This is also called an electronic ice point reference. With
this reference, you can use a normal voltmeter instead of
a thermocouple reader. You need a separate ice-point
reference for every type of thermocouple.
86

Potential Problems
Poor bead construction
Weld changed material characteristics because the weld temp.
was too high.
Large solder bead with temperature gradient across it

Decalibration
If thermocouples are used for very high or cold temperatures,
wire properties can change due to diffusion of insulation or
atmosphere particles into the wire, cold-working, or annealing.
Inhomogeneities in the wire; these are especially bad in areas
with large temperature gradients; esp. common in iron. Metallic
sleeving can help reduce their effect on the final temperature
reading.
87

Shunt impedance
As temperature goes up, the resistance of many insulation types
goes down. At high enough temperatures, this creates a virtual
junction. This is especially problematic for small diameter wires.

Galvanic Action
The dyes in some insulations form an electrolyte in the water.
This creates a galvanic action with a resulting emf potentially
many times that of the thermocouple. Use an appropriate shield
for a wet environment. T Type thermocouples have less of a
problem with this.
Potential Problems
88

Shunt impedance
As temperature goes up, the resistance of many insulation types
goes down. At high enough temperatures, this creates a virtual
junction. This is especially problematic for small diameter wires.

Galvanic Action
The dyes in some insulations form an electrolyte in the water.
This creates a galvanic action with a resulting emf potentially
many times that of the thermocouple. Use an appropriate shield
for a wet environment. T Type thermocouples have less of a
problem with this.
Potential Problems
89

Conduction along the thermocouple wire
In areas of large temperature gradient, heat can be conducted
along the thermocouple wire, changing the bead temperature.
Small diameter wires conduct less of this heat.
T-type thermocouples have more of a problem with this than
most other types since one of the leads is made of copper which
has a high thermal conductivity.

Inaccurate ice-point
Potential Problems
90

Infrared Thermometry
Infrared thermometers measure the amount of radiation emitted by
an object.

Peak magnitude is often in the infrared region.

Surface emissivity must be known. This can add a lot of error.

Reflection from other objects can introduce error as well.

Surface whose temp youre measuring must fill the field of view of
your camera.
91

Benefits of Infrared Thermometry
Can be used for
Moving objects
Non-contact applications
where sensors would affect
results or be difficult to
insert or conditions are
hazardous
Large distances
Very high temperatures



92

Non-Electronic Temperature Gages
Crayons You can buy crayons with specified melting temperatures.
Mark the surface, and when the mark melts, you know the
temperature at that time.

Lacquers Special lacquers are available that change from dull to
glossy and transparent at a specified temperature. This is a type of
phase change.

Pellets These change phase like crayons and lacquers but are larger.
If the heating time is long, oxidation may obscure crayon marks.
Pellets are also used as thermal fuses; they can be placed so that
when they melt, they release a circuit breaker.

Temperature sensitive labels These are nice because you can peel
them off when finished and place them in a log book.
93

Liquid crystals They change color with temperature. If the
calibration is know, color can be determined very accurately using a
digital camera and appropriate image analysis software. This is used a
fair amount for research.

Naphthalene sublimation (to find h, not T) Make samples out of
naphthalene and measure their mass change over a specified time
period. Use the heat and mass transfer analogy to back out h.
94

Temperature Controllers
Consider the following when choosing a controller
Type of temperature sensor (thermocouples and RTDs are common)
Number and type of outputs required (for example, turn on a heater,
turn off a cooling system, sound an alarm)
Type of control algarithm (on/off, proportional, PID)

On/off controllers
These are the simplest controllers.
On above a certain setpoint, and off below a certain setpoint
On/off differential used to prevent continuous cycling on and off.
This type of controller cant be used for precise temperature control.
Often used for systems with a large thermal mass (where
temperatures take a long time to change) and for alarms.
95

Choice Between RTDs, Thermocouples, Thermisters
Cost thermocouples are cheapest by far, followed by RTDs

Accuracy RTDs or Thermisters

Sensitivity Thermisters

Speed Thermisters

Stability at high temperatures not thermisters

Size thermocouples and thermisters can be made quite small

Temperature range thermocouples have the highest range,
followed by RTDs

Ruggedness thermocouples are best if your system will be taking a
lot of abuse
96

Hydraulic Heads and Mechanical Vibration
Velocity Head
Velocity head =


g = gravitational constant = 32.2 ft/s
2

when V is 5 ft/s, V
2
/(2g) is only about 0.4 ft (usually negligible)

g
V
2
2
97

Elevation Head
Elevation head (gravitational head) = Z

Height of water above some arbitrary reference point (datum)

Water at a higher elevation has more potential energy than water at
a lower elevation

98

Pressure Head
Pressure = force per unit area (e.g., pounds per square inch)

Pressure head = pressure per unit weight of water

h = P /
h = pressure head , P = pressure
= weight of a unit volume of water

= 62.4 lb/ft
3
= 0.433 psi/ft

1/ = 2.31ft/psi

h = 2.31*P (P is in psi; h in ft)
99

Calculate P at the Bottom of a Column of Water
When depth of 2 ft is considered
V = 2 ft
3
W = 2 ft
3
* 62.4 lb/ft
3
= 124.8 lb
A = 144 in
2

P = W/A = 124.8lb / 144 in
2



= 0.866 lb/in
2

If depth is 1ft then
V = 1 ft
3
W = 62.4lb

P = 62.4lb/144in
2
= 0.433lb/in
2
100

Calculate P at the Bottom of a Column of Water
V = 2 ft
3

W = 124.8 lb
A = 2ft
2
= 288 in
2

P = 124.8lb / 288in
2

= 0.433 lb/in
2
The area of a pond or tank does not affect pressure.
Pressure is a function of water depth only.
101

Manometer Rising up From a Pipeline
Pressure, P = lb/ft
2

= specific weight of
water, (62.4 lb/ft
3)
102
hydraulic head, H =

Bernoullis equation (conservation of energy)

H
1
= H
2
+ h
L
H
1
= hydraulic head at point 1 in a system
H
2
= hydraulic head at point 2 in a system
h
L
= head loss during flow from point 1 to
point 2 (h
L
is due to friction loss)

h Z
g
V
+ +
2
2
103

Components of Hydraulic Head for Pipeline With Various Orientations
104

Components of Hydraulic Head for Pipeline With Various Orientations Contd
105

Components of Hydraulic Head for Pipeline With Various Orientations Contd
106

Friction Loss
Description:
energy loss due to flow resistance as a fluid moves in a
pipeline
Factors affecting
flow rate
pipe diameter
pipe length
pipe roughness
type of fluid
107

Ways of Calculating Friction Loss

Tables
for a given pipe material, pipe diameter, and flow rate,
look up values for friction loss in feet per hundred feet
of pipe

SDR = standard dimension ratio
= pipe diameter wall thickness
108

What is Vibration?
Scientific Definition
Engineering Definition
Any motion that repeats itself after an interval of
time
Deals with the relationship between forces and
oscillatory motion of mechanical systems
109

Basic Concepts
Every object has:
Frequencies at which it likes to vibrate
Characteristic geometries of vibration


Natural
Frequencies
1 2 4 3 4


Mode
Shapes
1 2 4 4 4 3 4 4 4
110

Every object has:
Frequencies at which it likes to vibrate
Characteristic geometries of vibration
111

Modeling Vibration
The Ingredients:
1. Inertia (stores kinetic energy)
2. Elasticity (stores potential energy)
1
Realistic Addition:
3. Energy Dissipation

112
The Ingredients:
1. Inertia (stores kinetic energy)
2. Elasticity (stores potential
energy)
1
Realistic Addition:
3. Energy Dissipation

2
113

The Ingredients:
1. Inertia (stores kinetic energy)
2. Elasticity (stores potential
energy)
1
Realistic Addition:
3. Energy Dissipation

3
2
114

The Ingredients:
1. Inertia (stores kinetic energy)
2. Elasticity (stores potential
energy)
2 3
1
Realistic Addition:
3. Energy Dissipation

115

Modeling Vibration
The Ingredients:
1. Mass, m
2. Stiffness, k
k c
m
Realistic Addition:
3. Damping, c

x
116

How is this
model useful? k c
m
x
117

Basic Concepts
A vibration of large amplitude
Occurs when an object is forced near its natural
frequency

Resonance
118

Resonance
A vibration of large amplitude
Occurs when an object is forced near its
natural frequency

m
c k
x
t e
M
e
Object Model
119

Vibration Absorbers
Used to eliminate vibration of an object
Object
Vibration
Absorber
(that vibrates too
much)

(absorbs
vibration)
120

Used to eliminate vibration of an object
Object
Vibration
Absorber
(that vibrates too
much)
Choose these to
eliminate motion
of object.

121

Vibration Absorbers
122

Temperature Scanners
SEAL
Transmitter Receiver
Ultrasonic Signal
Pouch seal or package
material is placed between
ultrasonic transmitter and
receiver
123

Ultrasonic Signal
Ultrasonic waves propagate
through single or multiple layers of
well bonded materials.

Transition through different
mediums causes reflection of sound
waves and reduces/eliminates signal
strength.
124

Ultrasonic signal is transmitted along the X-axis through seal and signal is
recorded.
Signal measurement correlates to color
gauge, creating high resolution image of
seal structure and quality.
125

Opto Acoustic Image
The colored gauge represents the scan signal measurement.

Pink is low signal, green is normal signal (good seal), purple is high
signal.

Total 6000 grades of color are used.
126

Scanning Modes
C-Scan produces an
Opto-Acoustic image
and summary data
L-Scan produces a
graph of the signal
and summary data.
127

Pass Fail Criteria and Data Integrity
Pass Fail limits are set for the
average, minimum, maximum,
and standard deviation of the
signal measurements,
All results are recorded using
the systems data log.

128

Offline Analytical Equipment
129

C-Scan Analytical Tools
C-Scan window statistics
Modified L-Scan
10 mm
135 mm
128 mm
6 mm
3.5 mm
130

105 C HDPE 105 C HDPE 105 C HDPE 105 C HDPE 105 C HDPE
128 C HDPE 128 C HDPE 128 C HDPE 128 C HDPE 128 C HDPE
108 C TYVEK 108 C TYVEK 108 C TYVEK 108 C TYVEK 108 C TYVEK
134 C TYVEK 134 C TYVEK 134 C TYVEK 134 C TYVEK 134 C TYVEK
131

Sound patterns of alert signals shall be significantly different
from the temporal patterns of alarm signals.

Alarm signals shall conform to the temporal pattern defined
in the International Standard ISO 8201 (T3 signal)

Audibility of alarm systems
Alarm annunciators
132

Lower wiring costs
Conven
tional
Fire
Panel
Conventional Addressable VS
MS-9050UD
133

Single SLC Simplifies System Design
HVAC
Elevator Control
134

Intelligent Detectors
Rotary switches for setting
address 00-99
Easy to set in field with
screwdriver
No programming tools
required
Easy to identify address

135

Class B wiring incorporates end of line devices. (2 conductor
circuit)

Class A wiring does not incorporate end of line devices. (4
conductor circuit)

T tap splices can not be used on either wiring method.
Conventional Wiring
136

Class B Wiring
137

Class A Wiring
138
The signal circuits in the suites can be feed from a Class B or
Class A signal circuit isolators located outside the suite or;

Each suite can be feed from a separate signal circuit without
the need for a signal circuit isolator.
139

140

141

CPU
E
O
L
Sa Ha Ha
DATA COMMUNICATION LINK
ADDRESSABLE INPUT DEVICES
BELLS OUTPUT DEVICES
Addressable System
142

143

144

145

146

147

Thank you
148