: ,

q * : =

p
.
q

:
7

.. 7 =

2753

.. 2,753 =

1000

.
,
= 5,23741741741741741
100.000 = 523741,741741741741
100 =

523,741741741741

:
100.000 100 = 523741,741741 523,741741
99.900 = 523118,00000

a=

523118
99.900

, ,
0 9
..

5 = 5,0000000
2,47 = 2,470000000
5 = 4,9999999
2,47 = 2,46999999 .

:
( ) .

,
:

p
, ,
q

q = 2 5 , .
, ,
, , .
:

1
= 0,142857 142857
7

3 3
3 52
75
75 75
= 2= 2 2=
= 2=
= 0,75
2
4 2
2 5
(2 5) 10 100

7 7 2 14
=
= = 1,4
5 5 2 10

11
11
11 5
55
55
= 2 = 2 2=
=
= 0,55 .
2
20 2 5 2 5
(2 5) 100

,

10.
: .
:

2 ,

2,

,
.

1.

2 .

2 . p q *

2=

p
. , ( p, q ) = 1 ,
q

, .
2=

q
2

p
( 2 ) =
q
2

2q 2 = p 2

(1)

p 2 ( )
p = 2 ,
p 2 = 42

(1)

2/ q 2 = 2 4/ 2
q 2 = 22
q 2
q , ,
p q p, q .

2 .

: ,
.
: f (x)
, f ( x) = f1 ( x) f 2 ( x)
f1 ( x) , f 2 ( x) ,
f1 ( x) = f 2 ( x) = .
, f (x)

( >0)

.
: f (x) n f ( ) = 0 .
f (x)

. ( ).
:
3 / 4 , p ( x) = 4 x 3

2 , q( x) = x 2 2

2 + 3 , ( x) = x 4 4 x 2 + 1

2 , f ( x) = x 3 2 .

: ,
.
:
1, =

p
,
q

Q ( x) = q x p ( p , q * )

2 2, p ( x) = x 2 2 ,

, ,

p 2 + q = 0 2 =

q
p

2 , .

, .
: .
: ,
1844 Liouville

5
+

limxk+1ex 0k+1e0 + xk+1ex =(k +1)! (i) .

+

:
2 (Liouville): v > 1 ,
, ,
:

p
1
p
.
, >
q Mq v
q
,

f ( x) = v x v + v 1 x v 1 + ... + a1 x + 0 , f ( ) = 0 .

: f ( x) = 0 .
. f (x)

f ( x) = x Q ( x) , x

f ( ) = Q( ) Q( ) = 0 ,

0
.

Q ( ) = 0 , . v 1 , ,
.

f (x) ,

f (x)

v 1 .
[ 1, + 1] , f (x)
f (x)
.
M 2 f ( x) M 1 x [ 1, + 1]
M = max{| M 1 | , | M 2 |} (1)

(1)

| M | M 2 f ( x) M 1 | M | | M | f ( x) | M |
| f ( x) | | M | x [ 1, + 1]

(2)

- ( )
M | M | . (2)
| f ( x) | M x [ 1, + 1] .

(3)

p
, q > 0
q

p
1

.
q
M qv

(4)
(4)

(4)

p
> 1.
q

p
1 ,
q

. (
[ 1, + 1] ).

p

q

,
p p
, , .
q q
p
p
, , , :
q
q
p
p
f ( ) f f f ( )
q= q
f ( ) =
p
p

q
q

p
f ( ) f
q
| f () | =

p
p
f ( ) f = | f () | ( f ( ) = 0 f (x) )
q
q
p
p
f = | f () |
q
q

(3)

p
p
f M
q
q
p
p
q v f q v M
q
q
p
p
q v f q v M .
q
q

(5)

p
f 0 .
q
(5) 0 .
p
q v f 1 (5)
q
qv M

p
p
1
1
v
.
q
q
q M

(6)

(6) ( n > 1 )
.
.
,

p
1
.
> v
q
q M
1
.
k!
k =1 10

3 (Liouville): =

: . v > N
v =

1
1
1
+ 2! + 3! +
1!
10 10
10

q = 10 v! p = 10 v!1! + 10 v!2! + 10 v!3! +

1
p
=
v!
q
10

+ 10 v! ( v 1)! + 1 .

:
0<

p
= v = 10 ( v +1)! + 10 ( v + 2)! + 10 ( v +3)! +
q

[
[1 + 2
[1 + 2

+ 10 ( v + k )! +

= 10 ( v +1)! 1 + 10 ( v + 2) + 10 ( v + 2)( v +3) +

< 10 ( v +1)!
< 10 ( v +1)!

( v+2)
1

+ 2 ( v + 2)( v +3) +

+ 2 3 +

+ 2k +

+ 10 ( v + 2)( v +3)
+ 2 ( v + 2 )( v +3)

(v+k )

(v+k )

= 10 ( v +1)! 2
< 10 v! 2

= 2 q v!
< 2 q v
< 2 qN .

p
< 2 q N .
q

, 2 ,

.
. , v < N
( N v > 1) .

p
M :
q

p
1
>
q
M q v

(1)

p
= v
q

p
< 2 q N .
q

(1) (2) :
1
1
2
< 2q N
< N
v
v
Mq
Mq
q
q N < 2Mq v
q N v < 2 M

(2)

(10 v! ) N v < 2 M v > N .

, , 2.

.
, , , ,
, .
, .
Liouville: ,
, p q (q > 1) :

p
1
< v .
q q

4: Liouville .
: Liouville , ,
.
v > 1 , .
2, M *
p
1
>
q
Mq v

(1)

2k 2v M .

(*)

p, q q > 0 .
k :

Liouville, p, q (q > 1)

(1) (2)

p
1
< k.
q q

(2)

1
1
>
Mq v > q k M > q k v 2 k v M .
k
v
(*)
q
Mq

Liouville .

10

A. Thue-C.L. Siegel-K.F. Roth:

v > 1 , p, q q > 0 ,

p
1
< k p, q,
q
q

k > 2 .
Cantor (1873): ,
.

,
, 0 (!)
Weierstrass: 1 , 2 ,..., v ,
1 , 2 ,..., v 0, 1 e 1 + 2 e 2 + ... + v e v 0 .
- Hilbert (1900): 0 1
, ?.
1934 Gelfand-Schneider
.. 2

.

=
n n 0 .

11

A. Baker (1966): 1 , 2 ,..., v 1 , 2 ,..., v n1 , n 2 ,..., n v

, 1 n1 + 2 n 2 + ... + v n v 0 .

12

e
5: e .
: Taylor e x :
ex = 1+

x x2
xv
+
+ ... +
+ ... .
1! 2!
v!

x = 1 :
1 1 1
1
e1 = e = 1 + + + + ... + + ...
1! 2! 3!
v!

1 1 1
1 1
1
1
e = 1 + + + + ... + +
+
+
+ ...
1! 2! 3!
v! (v + 1)! (v + 2)! (v + 3)!

1 1 1
1
e = 1 + + + + ... + + Rv .
1! 2! 3!
v!
: 0 < Rv <

(1)

2
.
(v + 1)!

. Rv > 0 , .

Rv =

1
1
1
+
+
+ ...
(v + 1)! (v + 2)! (v + 3)!

Rv =

1
1
1
+
+ ...
1+

(v + 1)! v + 2 (v + 2)(v + 3)

Rv <

1 1 1

1 + + 2 + ...

(v + 1)! 2 2

( ..
1 = 1 = 1 / 2 )

Rv <

2
.
(v + 1)!

e .
e=

, .

( v > v > 2 ) v . (1) :

e=

1
1
v!
v!
v!
= 1 + 1 + + ... + + Rv
= v!+v!+ + ... + + v! Rv

v!

v!
2!
2!

13

:
( v >
v! )

v! Rv . , v! Rv
(
).

v! Rv
2

2 0 < v!Rv < v!

0 < Rv <
(v + 1)!
(v + 1)!
0 < v!Rv <

2
2
< < 1.
v + 1 ( v>2 3

v! Rv 0 1, .
e .

14

-,
:
: f n ( x) =
i. 0 < f n ( x) <
ii. f n ( x) =

x n (1 x) n
, n (1) :
n!

1
, 0 < x < 1
n!

1 n
k n n+k
(1) x
n! k =0
k

iii. f n( m ) (0) = 0 m < n m > 2n

f n(m ) (0) = n m 2n

iv. f n ( x) = f n (1 x)
f n( m ) ( x) = ( 1) m f n( m ) (1 x)

(i) 0 < f n (x) <

f n(m ) (1) = , m.

1
x (0,1)
n!

0 < x <1
0 > x > 1
1 + 0 > 1 x > 1 1
1> 1 x > 0
-, :
/

< 1
n 1

0 n < x n (1 x) n < 1n

0 < x(1 x)

0 < x n (1 x) n < 1
0
x n (1 x) n 1
<
<
n!
n!
n!
0 < f n ( x) <

1
n!

15

(ii) f n (x) =

1 n
k n n+ k
( 1) x
n! k =0
k

:
f n ( x) =

1 n n n nk
1 n n
x 1 (1) k x k f n ( x) = (1) k x n + k
n! k =0 k
n! k =0 k

(iii) ,
( x p ) ( m ) = p ( p 1)( p 2)...( p m + 1) x p m .
, :
m = p ,
( x p ) ( m ) = p( p 1)( p 2)...2 1 x 0
( x p ) ( m ) = p!
m > p , ( x p ) ( m ) = 0
m < p x,
( x p ) ( m ) = p ( p 1)( p 2)...( p m + 1) x p m .
(ii), f n (x)
f n ( x) =

1
[c0 x n + c1 x n+1 + c 2 x n+ 2 + ... + cn x 2 n ]
n!

c0 , c1 , c2 ...c2 n .
:
m n,
x,
f n( m ) (0) =

1
[0 + 0 + ... + 0] = 0
n!

( m < n) .

m 2n ,
0
f n( m ) (0) = 0,

( m > 2n) .

m n 2n ,
:

16

f n( n ) ( x) =

1
[c0 n!+ x]
n!

f n( n+1) ( x) =

1
[0 + c1 (n + 1)!+ x]
n!

f n( n+ 2) ( x) =

1
[0 + 0 + c2 (n + 2)!+ x]
n!

f n( 2 n ) ( x) =

1
[0 + 0 + ...0 + c2 n (2n)!]
n!

, x = 0
f nn (0) =

1
c0 n!
n!

f nn+1 (0) =

1
c2 (n + 1)!
n!

f n( 2 n ) (0) =

1
c2 n (2n)!
n!

, .
(iv) , x, 1 x , :
(1 x) n [1 (1 x)]n (1 x) n x n
f n (1 x) =
=
= f n ( x) .
n!
n!
(
) :
f n(1) ( x) = f n(1) (1 x) (1 x) = (1)1 f n(1) (1 x)
f n( 2 ) ( x) = (1)1 f ( 2 ) (1 x) (1 x) = (1) 2 f ( 2 ) (1 x)

f n(3) ( x) = (1) 2 f ( 3) (1 x) (1 x) = (1) 3 f (3) (1 x)

f n( m ) ( x) = (1) m1 f ( m ) (1 x) (1 x) = (1) m f n( m ) (1 x)

x = 1 :
f n( m ) (1) = (1) m f n( m ) (0) = , m .
(iii)

....

17

: > 0 ,
n
n0 :
< n > n0
n!
: n | 2a | (*)
1 an
a n+1
a
an
.
=

<
(n + 1)! n + 1 n! (*) 2 n!
n0 | 2a | :
1 a n0
a n0 +1
<
(n0 + 1)! 2 n0 !
1 a n0 +1
1 a n0
a n0 + 2
<
< 2
(n0 + 2)! 2 (n0 + 1)! 2 n0 !
1 a n0
a n0 + k
.
<
(n0 + k )! 2 k n0 !

(1)

(1) k . (1) ,

2k 0
1 a n0

0.
k
n0
a = c t 2 n0 !
n0 !

(1), ,
. .
a n0 + k
0 k *
(n0 + k )!

an
0 n > n0
n!

an
0 n * .
n!

, > 0 , n0 > | 2a |
1 a n0
k0 : k
<
2 0 n0 !
k0 :

a n0
< 2 k0
n0 !

18

k0 :

a n0 1
< 2 k0
n0 !

, n0 n0 + k 0
an
< n > n0 + k 0 = n0 .
n!
: 2 , .
: . p, q :
2

p
p
p2
= 2 = 2 = 2 .
q
q
q
.
6: 2 .
: 2 . , b * :
2 =

a
.
b

G :

G ( x) = b n 2 n f n( 0 ) ( x) 2 n 2 f n( 2 ) ( x) + 2 n 4 f n( 4 ) ( x) ... + ( 1) n f n( 2 n ) ( x) .

(1)

(1),
:
a
b n 2 n 2 k = b n ( 2 ) n k = b n
b

nk

b n a nk
= a nk b k .
nk
b

, . (iii)
(iv)
f n(m ) (0)

f n(m ) (1) m .

, ,
G (0) G (1) .

G (x) :

G ( x) = b n 2 n f n( 2 ) ( x) 2 n 2 f n( 4 ) ( x) + ... + (1) n f n( 2 n + 2 ) ( x) .

(2)

(2) (1) f n( 2 n+ 2 ) ( x) = 0

19

2n . ( (iii)).
(1) 2
(2), :
G ( x) + 2 G ( x) = b n 2 n + 2 f n ( x)

a
G ( x) + G ( x) = b
b
2

n +1

G ( x) + 2 G ( x) = b n

f n ( x)

a n+1
f n ( n)
b n+1

G ( x) + 2 G ( x) = 2 a n f n ( x) .

(3)

H ( x) = G ( x) (x) G ( x) (x) .
H (x) :
H ( x) = [G ( x) x + x G ( x)] [G ( x)x-G ( x) x]

H ( x) = G ( x)x + x G ( x) G ( x)x + 2 G ( x)x

H ( x) = [G ( x) + 2 G ( x)]x ( (3))
H ( x) = 2 a n f n ( x) x
1

2 n
H ( x) dx = a f n ( x)xdx
1

H (1) H (0) = 2 a n f n ( x)xdx

0

(G (1) G (1) ) (G (0) 0 G (0) 0) = 2 a n f n ( x)xdx

0

/ [(G (1) + G (0)] = 2/ a n f n ( x)xdx

0

(G (1) + G (0) = a n f n ( x) xdx .

0

(4) , .
(i) :
0 < f n ( x) <

1
, 0 < x < 1
n!

a n
, 0 < x < 1
0 a x < a x f n ( x) <
n!
n

(4)

20

n
0dx < a f n ( x)xdx <

0 < a n f n ( x)xdx <

0

a n
dx
n!

a n
n!

(5)

(5) n .
, n0 ,
a n
< 1 n > n0 .
n!
(5), (4) 0 1,
.
2 .