Carbonate environments

Environments made by organisms

Intended learning outcomes

Describe the typical components of carbonate rocks, and types of carbonate deposit, and relate them to environment of deposition Use Dunhams and Folks classification of carbonates and be able to discuss their pros and cons Be able to place carbonate rocks in Wilsons scheme Be able to describe the controls on reefs as a special carbonate environment Give examples of fossil reefs and how they differ from modern ones

Carbonate environments very different from siliciclastic ones!

Palaeoecology of carbonates
Different from clastic environments because organisms themselves make most of the sediment and thus control its grain size and distribution.Carbonate deposition is less related to hydrodynamic regime than for clastics

Taphonomic feedback
Biogenic carbonate controlled by organisms, so taphonomic feedback very important

Grain types
Non-skeletal -oncoids, ooids, grain aggregates, peloids

peloids

ooids

oncoids

Skeletal grains
Usually dominant: range from huge corals to complete shells to fragments

Carbonate mud
Generated by bioerosion; also by disintegration of calcareous algae (Halimeda, Penicillus), and by coccoliths

coccoliths

Halimeda

Penicillus

Skeletal associations

Two main assemblages found in modern carbonates: Chlorozoan and Foramol

Foramol association
Temperate waters: benthic forams, molluscs, barnacles, bryozoans, calcareous red algae

Chlorozoan assemblage
Warm water - most of foramol components, lacks barnacles and has fewer bryozoans. Includes hermatypic corals and calcareous green algae Chloralgal variation has mostly green algae, found in very saline conditions

Controls on associations

Bryozoans

Scleractinian Corals (Modern), Framebuilders.

Bioeroders
Rasping gastropods

Bivalve borings

Urchin borings Parrot Fish, Prolific mud producer (Pellets) Rasp at corals

Homotrema Rubrum: Foraminifera

Minor encruster. Likes indirect lighting. Mobile.

Non-skeletal grains
Three associations:
1 Non-skeletal elements absent 2 Only pellets present 3 Ooids and other aggregates present, with or without pellets.

Non-skeletal grains
Association 3 found only with Chlorozoan assemblage: Association 2 sits in both Foramol and Chlorozoan Rest of Foramol has no non-skeletal grains (Association 1)

Overall distribution
Overall, Chlorozoan association only found within 30 deg. of the equator minimum temperature of 14-15 dg. C seems to be required.

Climate
Skeletal grains are dependent on climate (temperature and salinity). Chlorazoan assemblage: Warm shallow seas ( always over 15 C) and normal salinity, corals and calcareous green algae are common. Chloralgal assemblage: Restricted seas where salinities are higher, only green algae flourish. Foramol assemblage: Temperate carbonates, cooler waters, with benthic foraminifera and molluscs. Ooids are most common in the Chlorazoan and Chloralgal assemblages.

Conditions
Photosynthetics organisms typically flourish in the upper 10-15m of the sea, most calcareous organisms are found here. Hermaltypic corals are dependent on symbiotic algae. They like clear water (nutrient starved- too many nutrients and the water gets clouded with algae), with little to no sediment input. They prefer strong currents. On the other hand, most other benthic marine organisms prefer quiet waters.

Flux of calcium carbonate from surface waters of the ocean (g CaCO3 m-2 yr-1). Global flux data provided in this map in addition to productivity data from sea surface-, sediment trapand benthic/plankton ratio measurements can be employed to calculate an average global production rate of approximately 3.5 g/m2/yr-1 for planktic foraminifera.

Tidal effects
In macrotidal and mesotidal environments, tides are the main mechanism for carbonate sediment transport. In microtidal shelves and seas, waves and storms will be the major energy producer. This is depth dependant of course, which gives a nice gradually deepening profile on a carbonate ramp as energy decreases.

Modern distribution of carbonates and reefs

Carbonate classification

Folks scheme

Dunhams classification

Carbonate Factory (Tucker & Wright, 1990)

Organisms and Sediment Producers

Standard Wilson facies belts

Shallow Marine Carbonate Sediments

Areas of abundant shallow marine carbonate sedimentation are carbonate platforms Platforms may occur on the continental shelf from the shoreline to the edge of the shelf. They may cover large portions of epeiric seas. Different types of platforms are recognizable by their morphology.

Carbonate Platforms
Carbonate Ramp: gently sloping, with water depth gradually increasing (~1 Slope). Epeiric platform: similar to ramp. Rimmed shelves: Reef or carbonate bank on outer margin. Isolated platform: Shallow water sedimentation surrounded by deep water. Drowned platform: relative sea level rise, and carbonate production cant keep up. Transition to deep water sedimentation.

Fiji, High Tide

Distribution of Facies: Carbonate Ramp

Tidal influenced: Shorelines have coarser material in tidal channels and carbonate muds on tidal flats. Beach barrier with a lagoon behind it may develop. Wave dominated: Shoreline may have beach ridge. Lagoon may also develop here. Agitated shallow nearshore (unprotected by reef), produces skeletal debris and ooid sand shoals. These can produce migrating subaqueous dune bedforms (10s cm-metre scale), (grainstone/packstone), and crossbedding.

More on ramps
Below FWB reworking is reduced. Storms transport bioclastics to prduces wackestone, packstone, and grainstone. +/- HCS. +/- patch reefs, mud-mounds. Below SWB, redeposited mudstone and wackestone. +/- turbidite. Distally steepened ramps (merges into a steeper slope at the margin) and homoclinal ramps (gentle continuation of slope- little reworking by mass flows)

Distribution of Facies: Rimmed Carbonate shelves

Distinct break in slope from shallower inner shelf to outer zone. This point is very high energy, receiving the full force of wave and storm energy. (Hermatypic corals here, away from muddy input) These form barrier reefs. (can also have oolitic/ skeletal buildups here). Behind barrier is the shelf lagoon. Low energy. Closed lagoon-limited circulation. Lime mud. +/- hypersaline= restricted fauna. +/- Sabkha. Open lagoon- subject to tides and waves. Higher energy (shoals, lenses grain/packstone) Coarse facies are commonest on the side of lagoon nearest to reef as material is reworked from the reed into the lagoon.

a) b)

Coastal facies are low energy tidal flats (usually), beach barriers can develop if enough energy.

Epeiric Platform Facies

Tidal and storm processes may be expected (latter more prevalent on smaller bodies of water less tidal influence). Currents in broad shallow seas = ooid shoals, creates low relief islands. Tidal flat migration = progradation. Cyclical.

Isolated Platforms
ie: Atolls, also the Bahamas Distribution of facies dependant on prevailing winds. No terrigenous input at all.

Reef facies
High energy. Wave impact direct. Nutrient rich water upwelling from deep water of continental slope. No terrigenous input (too much nutrients, and mud interferes with reef builders) Means that it is not close to a tidal delta, or that any terrigenous input has been filtered through mangrove swamp (ie) Reef core- framework of coral. (boundstone, some framestone) Forereef- carbonate breccia, bioclastic rudstone/grainstone. (broken in storms) Backreef- sheltered a bit. Site of deposition. Gradation from rudstone to grainstone. Broken reef, ooids formed in agitation, shells etc.

Reefs
Much defined. Organic framework,raised relief, resistance to waves ,trophic zone, tropical and warm water. Obviously, only modern reefs can fulfill all these requirements! Highly self-regulated (and thus vulnerable) environments.

Reef composition
Framework, consists of:
Closely packed in situ accumulations of rigid macro-organisms (eg corals, stromatoporoids etc), bound together by Secondary framework of encrusting organisms such as bryozoans, coralline algae, forams and sheet-like corals; Infilling sediment trapped (baffled) by the framework. Modern reefs are only 10% frame!

Reef environments

Environments of Different growth forms

Environmental Associations with Different Dunhams Classifications

Grainstone is also found in the beach swash zone. Also, beachrock will form in this zone as CO2 degasses, and carbonate is precipitated.

Reef succession

Modern Reef environment

Modern Reef Environment

Diagenesis

Cementation by aragonite

First Stage of Diagenesis

Later Burial (Dolomite dependant on fluid chemistry)

Reefs in the fossil record

Capitan reef, Permian, Texas

Recognition of fossil reefs

Can be hard, as most of the criteria for reefs (photic zone etc) cannot be directly seen the rock record. Thus, any fossil structure with relief and framework is usually called a reef.

Build-ups
Many fossil structures lack framework. Then they are called build-ups instead. Examples include bioherms and mudmounds. It is possible to have massive structures without either framework OR relief. Then they are called Biostromes. All this terminology is arbitrary and confused.

Build-up classification

Problems with fossil reefs

Relief is inferred by discontinuity at the top - suggests reef was able to maintain net growth against erosion and transport. But relief could be caused by differential compaction, or Be generated by an older, underlying structure.

Fossil reef structure

Core: massive frame builders with cavities Cap: Low, encrusting frame Flank: bedded limestone Inter-reef: normal sedimentation

Idealised reef facies

Facies in the record

Reefs through time

Another interpretation of history of reefs: Wood 1999. Key emphasis here is placed on the level of nutrients available to benthic marine organisms in reef environments.

Unusual reefs etc

Precambrian: stromatolites. Cyanobacteria that baffle and trap sediment.

Archaeocyaths
Lower-Middle Cambrian

Archaeocyaths
Sponge-like forms that occur in low carbonate banks together with calcifying algae. Act as sediment baffles, so not real reefs exactly.

Ordovician/Silurian build-ups
E.g. Osmundsberg, Gotland! Typical Paleozoic structures Mostly lack binding framework (Boda Limestone). Gotland reefs composed of stromatoporoids - but they do not bind either!

Palaeozoic buildups

Stromatactis

Typical component - sparry calcite, unclear origin!

Gotland reefs

Hgklint reef

Gotland Stromatoporoid buildups

Kuppen stromatoporoid biostrome

Halysitis biostrome

Waulsortian mud mounds

Very hard to understand, as they totally lack any framework - they are really heaps of mud. Found only in the Early Carboniferous. Contain crinoids, bryozoans, Stromatactis Genesis very unclear - hydrodynamic??

Prorichthofenia: Late Paleozoic reef-dwelling brachiopods

ww.geol.unipid.it

Common in Ireland
Overlying black shales Mound

Rudists
Dense stands of bizarre, organ-pipe shaped bivalves from the Late Cretaceous Baffle sediment, but no framework, so not really reefs! All died out suddenly in the K/T extinction.

Typical rudist buildup, Northern Sinai