Lecture : Histology of Cartilage and Bone

Histology Department Medical Faculty University of Sumatera Utara

CARTILAGE

Early Fetal Life: Forms most of the skeleton Persists in adults over the articular surfaces of bones Sole skeletal support in the respiratory passage and parts of the ear

MATRIX contains:

Collagenous Fibers
for increase in the tensile strength

Elastic Fibers different regions of

for elasticity

Adapt the tissue to the mechanical requirements of the different regions of the body without permanent distortion

MESENCHYME surrounding the enlarging mass of cartilage is compressed and forms a fibrous envelope the PERICHONDRIUM.

TWO PROCESSES BY WHICH CARTILAGE GROWS:

1. Interstitial or ENDOGENOUS
1. Expansion of cartilage from within 2. Results from mitotic division of pre existing chondrocytes

2. Appositional or EXOGENOUS
1. addition of new layers of cartilage to one surface 2. results from differentiation within the inner layer of PERICHONDRIUM

Cartilage
A. Contains water, but no nerves, vascular & lymph vessels B. There are 3 basic types.

1. Hyaline - smooth, glassy, highly collagenic a.articular - joints b. costal - ribs c. respiratory d. laryngeal - larynx e. nasal
2. Elastic a. external ear b. epiglottis 3. Fibrocartilage a. intervertebral discs b. knee joints

Note: The differences in the KIND and ABUNDANCE OF FIBERS incorporated within the matrix form the basis of

classification

HYALINE CARTILAGE
appears as a translucent, bluish-white mass in fresh conditions forms the articular surfaces to bone within joints, the costal cartilages,and the cartilages of the nose, larynx, trachea, and the bronchi in the fetus, nearly all the skeleton is first laid down as HYALINE cartilage, which is replaced later by bone.

ELASTIC CARTILAGE
fresh elastic cartilage has a yellowish color owing to the presence of elastin in the elastic fibers found in the external ear, the walls of the external auditory canals, the eustachian tubes, the epiglottis, and the cuneiform cartilage in the larynx. Elastic cartilage is essentially identical to hyaline cartilage except that it contains an ABUNDANT NETWORK OF FINE ELASTIC FIBERS in addition to the collagen fibers. frequently found to be gradually continuous with hyaline cartilage Like hyaline cartilage possesses a perichondrium.

FIBROCARTILAGE
transitional form between cartilage and dense connective tissue occurs where a tough support or tensile strength is required found in the intervertebral disc of certain other joints NEVER occurs alone, but merges gradually into neighboring hyaline cartilage or with dense fibrous tissue. Lacks a perichondrium.

REGENERATION OF CARTILAGE TISSUE

Except in young children damaged cartilage regenerates with difficulty and often incompletely. It is by an activity of the perichondrium which invades the injured area and generates new cartilage. In extensively damaged areas and occasionally in small areas, the perichondrium produces a scar of DENSE CONNECTIVE TISSUE instead of forming a NEW CARTILAGE

Bone as a Tissue
Connective tissue with a matrix hardened by minerals (calcium phosphate) Individual bones consist of bone tissue, marrow, blood, cartilage and periosteum Continually remodels itself Functions of the skeletal system
support, protection, movement, electrolyte balances, acid-base balance and blood formation

65% inorganic (Ca) 35% organic (34% collagen, ..) (1% cells)

Shapes of Bones
Long bones levers acted upon by muscles Short bones glide across one another in multiple directions Flat bones protect soft organs

General Features of Bones

Shaft (diaphysis) = cylinder of compact bone
marrow cavity (medullary cavity) lined with endosteum (osteogenic cells and reticular connective tissue)

Enlarged ends (epiphyses)

spongy bone covered by compact bone enlarged to strengthen joint and attach ligaments

Joint surface covered with articular cartilage Shaft covered with periosteum
outer fibrous layer of collagen inner osteogenic layer of bone forming cells

Epiphyseal plate (growth plate)

Structure of a Long Bone

Compact and spongy bone Marrow cavity Articular cartilage Periosteum

Structure of a Flat Bone

External and internal surfaces composed of compact bone Middle layer is spongy bone and bone marrow Skull fracture may leave inner layer of compact bone unharmed

Bone cells

Cells of Osseous Tissue (1)

Osteogenic cells in endosteum, periosteum or central canals give rise to new osteoblasts
arise from embryonic fibroblasts multiply continuously

Osteoblasts mineralize organic matter of matrix Osteocytes are osteoblasts trapped in the matrix they formed
cells in lacunae connected by gap junctions inside canaliculi

Cells of Osseous Tissue (2)

Osteoclasts develop in bone marrow by fusion of 350 stem cells Reside in pits that they ate into the bone

 Dry weight = 1/3 organic and 2/3 inorganic matter Organic matter
collagen, glycosaminoglycans, proteoglycans and glycoproteins

Matrix of Osseous Tissue

Inorganic matter
85% hydroxyapatite 10% calcium carbonate other minerals (fluoride, potassium, magnesium)

Combination provides for strength and resilience

minerals resist compression; collagen resists tension bone adapts by varying proportions

Histology of Compact Bone

Compact Bone
Osteon = basic structural unit
cylinders formed from layers (lamellae) of matrix around central canal (osteonic canal)
collagen fibers alternate between right- and left-handed helices from lamella to lamella

osteocytes connected to each other and their blood supply by tiny cell processes in canaliculi

Perforating canals or Volkmann canals

vascular canals perpendicularly joining central canals

Blood Vessels of Bone

Spongy Bone
Spongelike appearance formed by plates of bone called trabeculae
spaces filled with red bone marrow

Trabeculae have few osteons or central canals

no osteocyte is far from blood of bone marrow

Provides strength with little weight

trabeculae develop along bones lines of stress

Spongy Bone Structure and Stress

Bone Marrow
In medullary cavity (long bone) and among trabeculae (spongy bone) Red marrow like thick blood reticular fibers and immature cells Hemopoietic (produces blood cells) in vertebrae, ribs, sternum, pelvic girdle and proximal heads of femur and humerus in adults Yellow marrow fatty marrow of long bones in adults Gelatinous marrow of old age yellow marrow replaced with reddish jelly

Intramembranous Ossification
Condensation of mesenchyme into trabeculae Osteoblasts on trabeculae lay down osteoid tissue (uncalcified bone) Calcium phosphate is deposited in the matrix forming bony trabeculae of spongy bone Osteoclasts create marrow cavity Osteoblasts form compact bone at surface Surface mesenchyme produces periosteum

Intramembranous Ossification 1

Produces flat bones of skull and clavicle.

Intramembranous Ossification 2

Note the periosteum and osteoblasts.

Stages of Endochondral Ossification

Endochondral Ossification 1
Bone develops from pre-existing model
perichondrium and hyaline cartilage

Most bones develop this process Formation of primary ossification center and marrow cavity in shaft of model
bony collar developed by osteoblasts chondrocytes swell and die stem cells give rise to osteoblasts and clasts bone laid down and marrow cavity created

Primary Ossification Center and Primary Marrow Cavity

 Secondary ossification centers and marrow cavities form in ends of bone

same process

Endochondral Ossification 2

Cartilage remains as articular cartilage and epiphyseal (growth) plates

growth plates provide for increase in length of bone during childhood and adolescence by early twenties, growth plates are gone and primary and secondary marrow cavities united

Secondary Ossification Centers and Secondary Marrow Cavities

The Metaphysis
Zone of reserve cartilage = hyaline cartilage Zone of proliferation
chondrocytes multiply forming columns of flat lacunae

Zone of hypertrophy = cell enlargement Zone of calcification

mineralization of matrix

Zone of bone deposition

chondrocytes die and columns fill with osteoblasts osteons formed and spongy bone is created

Fetal Skeleton at 12 Weeks

Bone Growth and Remodeling

Bones increase in length
interstitial growth of epiphyseal plate epiphyseal line is left behind when cartilage gone

Bones increase in width = appositional growth

osteoblasts lay down matrix in layers on outer surface and osteoclasts dissolve bone on inner surface

Bones remodeled throughout life

Wolffs law of bone = architecture of bone determined by mechanical stresses
action of osteoblasts and osteoclasts

greater density and mass of bone in athletes or manual worker is an adaptation to stress

Dwarfism
Achondroplastic
long bones stop growing in childhood
normal torso, short limbs

spontaneous mutation during DNA replication failure of cartilage growth

Pituitary
lack of growth hormone normal proportions with short stature

Other Factors Affecting Bone

Hormones, vitamins and growth factors Growth rapid at puberty
hormones stimulate osteogenic cells, chondrocytes and matrix deposition in growth plate girls grow faster than boys and reach full height earlier (estrogen stronger effect) males grow for a longer time and taller

Growth stops (epiphyseal plate closes)

teenage use of anabolic steroids = premature closure of growth plate and short adult stature

Fractures and Their Repair

Stress fracture caused by trauma
car accident, fall, athletics, etc

Pathological fracture in bone weakened by disease

bone cancer or osteoporosis

Fractures classified by structural characteristics

break in the skin multiple pieces

Types of Bone Fractures

Healing of Fractures 1
Normally 8 - 12 weeks (longer in elderly) Stages of healing
fracture hematoma (1) - clot forms, then osteogenic cells form granulation tissue soft callus (2)
fibroblasts produce fibers and fibrocartilage

hard callus (3)

osteoblasts produce a bony collar in 6 weeks

remodeling (4) in 3 to 4 months

spongy bone replaced by compact bone

Healing of Fractures 2