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Make up about half of total body mass Exerts force by converting chemical energy, ATP, to mechanical energy Muscle tissue is classified based on Shape Number and position of nuclei Presence of striations Voluntary or involuntary control Functional Characteristics of Muscle Tissue
Excitability Ability to receive and respond to stimuli Contractility Ability to shorten after adequate stimulation Extensibility Ability to stretch Elasticity Ability to return to its original length after contraction Functions of Muscle
Skeletal muscle Cells are elongated Multinucleated Nuclei are peripherally placed Striated Voluntary They attach to and cover the bony skeleton Cardiac Cells branch Single centrally placed nucleus Striated Involuntary Located in the heart (Tab 9.3) Smooth Spindle shaped fibers Centrally placed nucleus Non-striated Involuntary Located in the walls of hollow visceral organs
Smooth muscles in different organs differ in: Fiber arrangement and organization Responsiveness to stimuli Innervation Categorized into two main categories both of which are innervated by the ANS
sheets
Also called visceral muscle Cell contract rhythmically and as a single unit Cells are connected to each other via gap junctions and are arranged in opposing
Muscles fibers are independent of each other (Gap junctions rare) Richly innervated and each nerve forms a motor unit with a number of muscle
Responds to neural stimulation with graded contractions Examples: Arrector pili muscles, eye muscles that adjust pupil size, muscles in
Each muscle has a nerve and blood supply that allows neural control and ensures
Connective tissue sheaths are found at various structural levels of each muscle:
endomysium surrounds each muscle fiber, perimysium surrounds groups of muscle fibers, and epimysium surrounds whole muscles. (Fig 9.2)
Attachments span joints and cause movement to occur from the movable bone
(the muscles insertion) toward the less movable bone (the muscles origin)
Skeletal muscle fibers are long cylindrical cells with multiple nuclei beneath the
sarcolemma.
Myofibrils account for roughly 80% of cellular volume, and contain the
Striations are due to a repeating series of dark A bands and light I bands. Myofilaments make up the myofibrils, and consist of thick and thin filaments.
There are two types of myofilaments in muscle cells: thick filaments composed of
9.4)
Tropomyosin and troponin are regulatory proteins present in thin filaments. (Fig
myofibril.
T tubules are infoldings of the sarcolemma that conduct electrical impulses from
the surface of the cell to the terminal cisternae. (Fig 9.5) Sliding Filament Theory
The sliding filament model of muscle contraction states that during contraction,
the thin filaments slide past the thick filaments. Overlap between the myofilaments increases and the sarcomere shortens Physiology of a Skeletal Muscle Fiber
muscle fiber that is the route of electrical stimulation of the muscle cell.
A nerve impulse causes the release of acetylcholine to the synaptic cleft, which
binds to receptors on the motor end plate, triggering a series of electrical events on the sarcolemma. (Fig 9.7) Generation of an Action Potential Across the Sarcolemma
Like plasma and nerve cell membranes the sarcolemma is polarized The potential difference between the extracellular space and the intracellular
Typical resting potential (Nerve) is -70mV meaning the inside of the cell is more
Difference is due to selective ionic permeability of the cell membrane It is maintained by Na+/K+ pump K+ ion concentration is higher inside than outside Negatively charged proteins are trapped inside the cell Resting membrane potential is created because the membrane is selectively
permeable K+ ions
K+ ions diffuse down its concentration gradient Na+ is not allowed to enter the cell thus the cell remains polarized Transmission of action potentials lead to disruption of the ionic gradients which
must then be restored by the Na+/K+ pump that uses ATP to transport 3 Na+ out for every 2 K+ it transports in Action Potential
depolarization occurs
The inside of the cell becomes progressively less negative and an action potential
is generated
depolarization
Na+ ions rush down its electrochemical gradient into the cell
The segment of the cell where this occurs is depolarized The Na+ channels then close Voltage gated K+ ion channels then open K+ ions rush out down its electrochemical gradient The cell is repolarized (returns to a more negative potential) Ionic concentrations of the resting state are restored by Na+/K+ ATPase An action potential is therefore a transient reversal of the resting membrane
potential
The inside of the cell may become more negative than normal after repolarization
(hyperpolarization)
This period is referred to as the refractory period (relative and absolute refractory
periods)
An action potential is propagated along the entire sarcolemma All-or-none response An action potential with consistent size and duration is produced only when a
acetylcholine binding with receptors on the motor end plate. It involves the influx of sodium ions, which makes the membrane potential slightly less negative.
Muscle fiber contraction follows exposure of the myosin binding sites, and
follows a series of events (Fig 9.10, 9.11, and 9.12) Contraction of a Skeletal Muscle
A motor unit consists of a motor neuron and all the muscle fibers it innervates. It
The muscle twitch is the response of a muscle to a single action potential on its
There are three kinds of graded muscle responses: wave summation, multiple
motor unit summation (recruitment), and treppe. (Fig 9.15 & 9.16) Muscle Tone
A state of partial contraction exhibited by relaxed muscles Results from spinal reflexes that activate a group of motor units in response to
Does not produce movements Keeps muscles healthy and firm so they can respond when stimulated Helps stabilize joints and maintain posture Isotonic Contraction
Same tension Muscle contracts and shortens to move a load Concentric contractions occur when muscle contracts as it shortens (picking a
book)
Same length Occurs when a muscle tries to move a load that is greater than the force the
Tension builds up in the muscle but it does not shorten Muscle Metabolism
Muscles contain very little stored ATP, and consumed ATP is replenished rapidly
through phosphorylation by creatine phosphate, glycolysis and anaerobic respiration, and aerobic respiration.
Muscles will function aerobically as long as there is adequate oxygen, but when
exercise demands exceed the ability of muscle metabolism to keep up with ATP demand, metabolism converts to anaerobic glycolysis. (Fig 9.20)
available ATP.
Oxygen debt is the extra oxygen needed to replenish oxygen reserves, glycogen
stores, ATP and creatine phosphate reserves, as well as conversion of lactic acid to pyruvic acid and then to glucose after vigorous muscle activity
excess heat through homeostatic mechanisms such as sweating and radiation from the skin. Effect of Exercise on Muscles
number of mitochondria, and increased synthesis of myoglobin, leading to more efficient metabolism, but no hypertrophy.
increase in the number of mitochondria, myofilaments and myofibrils, and glycogen storage, leading to hypertrophied cells. Forces of Muscle Contraction
Number of muscle fibers stimulated Size of the muscle fiber stimulated Frequency of stimulation Degree of Muscle stretch Length-tension relationship Velocity and Duration of Contraction
Velocity and duration of contraction is influenced by: Fiber type Fast and slow fibers exist Difference in speed is dependent on the rate at which myosin ATPase splits ATP Load
(See table 9.2 for comparison between fast and slow twitch muscle fibers)