Human–wildlife conflict, unequal knowledge and the failure to conserve the

Zanzibar leopard (Panthera pardus adersi)

Helle V. Goldman, Norwegian Polar Institute, goldman@npolar.no & Martin T. Walsh, University of Cambridge, mtw30@cam.ac.uk
Presented at the Felid Biology and Conservation Conference, University of Oxford, 17-20 September 2007

1. The Zanzibar leopard and witchcraft Leopards reported 3. The rise and fall of Zanzibar leopard conservation
killed in official
Panthera pardus adersi is (or was) a small and small-spotted subspe- records, 1990-1995 In 1995, stories of the Zanzibar leopard’s continued survival were con-
cies of leopard endemic to the island of Unguja in the Zanzibar archi- veyed to the chairman of the IUCN’s Cat Specialist Group. In 1996, a
pelago, off the coast of Tanzania. It is thought to have been evolving conservation and development project in Zanzibar asked us to inves-
in isolation from its continental African relatives since at least the tigate indigenous knowledge and practice relating to the leopard. Lo-
end of the last Ice Age, when Unguja was cut off from the East Afri- 1 2 3 4 5 6 cal accounts of leopard keeping were so compelling that a number of
can mainland by rising sea levels. Rapid human population growth wildlife researchers had accepted them at face value. We found that
and the expansion of farming in the mid-20th century destroyed leop- Chaani/
Mkwajuni
there was no evidence for leopard domestication, though there did ap-
ard habitat and decimated their natural prey, bringing them increas- Kiwengwa/
Pangeni/
pear to be an extant wild population. However, in a follow-up survey,
ingly into conflict with people. Villagers explained the growing num- Mchangani Tanzania ZANZIBAR a South African wildlife consultant and Cat SG member found no
ber of attacks on their children and livestock by theorizing that the solid evidence for the leopard’s survival, and advised that it was too
leopards responsbile were magically controlled by witches and sent 0 10 late to save this felid, even if a few remained. International interest in
by them to do harm. This theory, which is elaborated in many ways, km Ndudu the conservation of the Zanzibar leopard fizzled out abruptly.
still dominates indigenous knowledge about the Zanzibar leopard.
4. Conflicting knowledge, inadequate practice?
2. Campaigns to exterminate the leopard Ubago Uroa
Disregarding presumptions of the leopard’s extinction, rural Zan-
In the post-war period, villagers in different parts of the island acted Zanzibar
Ufufuma Forest/
Jendele/
zibaris continue to allege its presence and government officials have
Chwaka
on this theory by making several determined attempts to extermi- Town Hanyegwa-
mchana
discussed schemes for the display of domesticated leopards. This case
nate leopards and/or punish the witches believed to own them. After Ukongoroni raises awkward questions about the effectiveness of orthodox con-
the Zanzibar Revolution in 1964, an island-wide leopard-eradication Bungi- Cheju
kerenge
Charawe servation initiatives when human–wildlife conflict is compounded
and witch-finding campaign was organized with government sup- by conflicting scientific and indigenous knowledge about endangered
Jozani Mtule
port, and state-subsidized leopard hunting continued into the 1990s Pete
animals. Could the Zanzibar leopard have been saved if local and
Kitogani
as part of national efforts to control animals classified as “vermin”. Muungoni
international authorities had acted together promptly in the 1990s?
Although some international authorities had presumed the Zanzi- Should the leopard have been presumed extirpated on the basis of
Plantations, Jambiani
bar leopard extinct since the early 1970s, the last reported leopard permanent cultivation Muyuni/
a single survey concentrated in a small area? When should local
bagged by National Hunters was in 1995. Despite this history of trap- Thicket,
Kizimkazi/
Makunduchi
knowledge be discounted and when should it be given credence? To
ping and shooting only six museum specimens are known, and P. p. shifting cultivation what lengths should we go to rescue endemics where they are vehe-
adersi has never been studied in captivity or in the wild. Jozani-Chwaka Bay mently loathed? When their existence is disputed?
National Park

1919 Leopard given 1939-43 District Commis- 1950 Following leopard attacks, 1971 Smithers pre- 1985–95 National Hunters report bagging 1997 External consultant finds 1998–2007 No further investiga-
legal protection by sioner reports 23 leopards govt allows killing problem leop- sumes Zanzibar more than 100 leopards, 13 leopards re- no solid evidence of leopards tion of leopards, continued reports
colonial govt killed, despite law ards with special permission leopards extirpated ported killed in 1993, 13 in 1994, 1 in 1995 during 3-week survey of sightings & attacks on livestock

1932 Subspecies P. 1940s–60s Various illegal Late 1960s–early 1970s With govt sup- 1979 Halsted, US Consul in Zanzibar, re- 1996 Renewed legal protection of leopards in Zanzibar;
p. adersi formally village-based initiatives target port, Kitanzi leads national campaign to ports seeing leopard skins in shoe factory Jozani–Chwaka Bay Conservation Project survey of Zan-
described by Pocock leopards & “leopard keepers” persecute “leopard keepers” and leop- during his tenure in 1975–77, was told that zibaris’ beliefs about leopards suggests extant population;
ards, unknown number of leopards killed the authorities were killing 3–4 annually Nowell & Jackson presume Zanzibar leopards extirpated

References and further reading
Goldman H.V. & Walsh M.T. 1997. A leopard in jeopardy: an anthropological survey of
perceptions and practices threatening the survival of the Zanzibar leopard (Panthera
pardus adersi). Zanzibar Forestry Technical Paper 63. Zanzibar: Commission for
Natural Resources.
Goldman H.V. & Walsh M.T. 2002. Is the Zanzibar leopard (Panthera pardus adersi)
extinct? Journal of East African Natural History 91, 15–25.
Halsted D.C. 1979. Birds and larger mammals of Zanzibar. East African Natural History
Society Bulletin March/April, 41–45.
Nowell K. & Jackson P. (eds.) 1996. Wild cats. Gland: IUCN.
Pocock R.I. 1932. The leopards of Africa. Proceedings of the Zoological Society of London
1932, 543–591.
Smithers R.H.N. 1971. Family Felidae. In J. Meesters & H.W. Setzer (eds.) The mammals of
Africa: an identification manual. Pp. 1–10. Washington DC: Smithsonian Institution Press.
Stuart C. & Stuart T. 1997. A preliminary faunal survey of south-eastern Unguja
with special emphasis on the leopard Panthera pardus adersi. Loxton: African–Ara-
bian Wildlife Research Centre.
Walsh M.T. & Goldman H.V. 2003. The Zanzibar leopard: between science and cryp-
tozoology. Nature East Africa 33, 14–16.
Walsh M.T. & Goldman H.V. In press. Killing the king: the demonization and exter-
mination of the Zanzibar leopard. In E. Dounias et al. (eds.) Le symbolisme des ani-
maux: l’animal clef-de-voûte dans la tradition orale et les interactions homme–nature.
Pp. 1033–1056. Paris: IRD.