Phil.

427/627: Lecture 2 (January 31, 2013)

Chapter 1: Enumerability
Goal of Chapter 1:
(i) To understand the concept of enumerability.
(ii) To understand the notion of partial function.
enumerable = countable
Idea: An enumerable set is one whose elements can be arranged in a sinlge list. Every memeber
appears sooner or later, maybe more than once.
(Note: Every nite set is enumerable.)
Denition: A denumerable set is an innte enumerable set.
Cardinal numbers
What do we mean by a set having 5 members? We will try to anwer this obvious question
by using a concept of function, since that will help our further discussions. A set A having ve
members means that there is a one-to-one function from set 0, . . . , 4 onto set A. So, if a set A
has n memebrs, then there is a bijection f : 0, . . . , n 1 A.
We can extend this modeling (of the notion of size) from nite sets to innite sets, answering
the following questions: How can we talk about the size of an innte set? Is there one kind of
innity?
Denitions: Let A and B be sets.
1. We say that A and B have the same cardinality (write |A| = |B|) if and only if there is a
bijection f : A B.
2. We write |A| |B| if there is one-to-one function f : A B.
3. We say that |A| < |B| if |A| |B| and |A| , = |B|.
(Note: Having the same cardinality is an equivalence relation.)
Denition: A set is nite if it has the same cardinality as set 0, . . . , n for some natural number
n A. Otherwise, the set is innite.
By the way, set A is the smallest(?) innite set, we call its cardinality
0
.
Denition:
A set A is countable i |A|
0
.
A set A is denumerable (or innitely enumerable or countably innite) i |A| =
0
.
A set A is uncountable i |A| >
0
.
(Examples) The following sets are denumerable sets:
Set of negative integers
Set of positive even numbers
Set of positive rational numbers
(Note: The laws of arithmetic for innite sets are dierent than they are for nite sets.)
After understing the notion of partial function, we will come back to enumerability again.
1
Partial Function
We dened a function to be a set of ordered pairs with the following characteristic:
for any x, there is one and only y such that x, y is in the set. That is,
f : A B i Dom(f) = A and Rng(f) B.
How about +(Mary, 3)?
Denition: f is dened at x (write f(x)) i x Dom(f). [i.e. yf(x) = y]
f is undened at x (write f(x)) i x , Dom(f).
Denition: f is a total function on A i f is a function and Dom(f) = A.
f is a partial function on A i f is a function, Dom(f) A.
Important: Partial functions arent really a special type of function, but oer a new and useful
way of considering old functions. Hence, it will be useful to have a way of talking about functions
without saying whether they are total or partial.
Denition: f; A B(f semi-maps A into B) i Dom(f) A and Rng(f) B.
[I.e. A
0
A such that f : A
0
B]
Next, lets extend the notions of 1-1 and onto mappings to semi-mappings:
Denition: f; A
11
B i A
0
A such that f : A
0

11
B
f; A
onto
B i A
0
A such that f : A
0

onto
B
Henceforth, the term function will mean total or partial. That is, when we talk about a function
from A to A, we will mean a semi-mapping.
With a notion of partial functions, lets continue our discussion of enumerability.
Redundancy in a list is okay, since we can always get rid of repetition.
How about gaps?
For example, 0, - , 1, -, 2, -, 3, . . . (Call it a gappy list.)
How can we show that this is enumerable list? That is, how can we make a function from the
set of natural numbers to this gappy list? This is where we will use a partial function.
f(0) = 0, f(1), f(2) = 1, f(3), . . .
Also,
f(n) = n/2 if n is even
otherwise
The following function is the same as we did in the above, but lets remember that f doest not
have to be total on A.
Denition: f enumerates A i f; A
11
onto
A
Denition: A is enumerable i f such that f enumerates A.
[p.7: A is enumerable i it is the range of some function of natural numbers.]
Lets compare this denition with the above denition countable. That is,
A set A is countable i |A|
0
.
That is, A is countable i X A|A| = |X|.
Then,
|A| = |X| i f f : A
11
onto
X
i f f : X
11
onto
A
i f f ; N
11
onto
A
2
Chapter 2: Diagonalization
Goal of Chapter 2:
(i) To see that some sets are not enumerable, and
(ii) to understand the technique involved in this kind of a proof.
Here is a time-honored theorem:
Cantors theorem: For any set A, |A| < |(A)|.
Proof : We need to show (i) |A| |(A)| and (ii) |A| , = |(A)|.
Show (i): To nd a one-to-one function f : A (A). Let f(x) = x. This function is 1-1.
Show (ii): To show that there is no one-to-one onto function from A to (A). Suppose that
there is a bijection f : A (A). [Show that there is a contradiction.] Since f is an onto
function, Rng(f) = (A).
Let B = x [ x A and x , f(x). By the denition of this set, for every x B, x A. That
is, B A. Accordingly, B (A). Since Rng(f) = (A), B Rng(f). Then, by the denition
of Rng(f), there is a such that f(a) = B where a A.
Is a B? If so, a , f(a) by the denition of B. That is, a , B, since f(a) = B. Contradiction.
Is a , B? If so, a , f(a) since f(a) = B. Then, by the denition of B, a B. Contradiction.
2
We can illustrate the same point in a slighly dierent(?) way, which the book does.
The set of all sets of natural numbers (i.e. the set of the subsets of A) is not enumerable. It is
too big(!). In the proof for this proposition, we will learn a very useful technique: For a given any
list L of sets of natural numbers, we will construct a set D

(L) of natural numbers which does

not show up in the list L. What if we add D

(L) to the list? Then, for this new list L

, we can
come up with a set D

(L

) which does not occur in the list L

.
Important Method: Diagnolization (How to construct D

(L), given the list L.)

Given the list L of the sets of natural numbers,
S
1
, S
2
, S
3
, . . .
(Note: An innite set is included in the list as well.)
We will show this list is always missing an element, that is, we cannot enumerate them. We
suggest the following element as the candidate:
For each n, n D

(L) i n , S
n
. (Note: D

(L) is innite.)
(Example) 1, c, 1,2, c 2, 1,3, . . .
S
1
, S
2
, S
3
, S
4
, S
5
, . . .
Then, D

(L) = 3, 5, . . . (since 1 S
1
, 2 S
2
, 3 , S
3
, 4 S
4
, 5 , S
5
, . . . )
Show that D

(L) is not in the list L.

Proof : Suppose by reductio that D

(L) appears on the list. Say, S

m
= D

(L).
Then, by the denition of D

(L), we know that m D

(L) i m , S
m
.
Since S
m
and D

(L) are the same set, that m D

(L) i m , D

(L).
This is a plain contradiction!
Lets look at this important diagonalization method from a slightly dierent point of view:
3
Characteristic function
For a given set A, the characteristic function (
A
is a function that outputs 1 if its argument is in
the set A and 0 if it is not. That is,
(
A
(x) = 1 if x A
0 if x , A.
We can set up the characteristic function (
Sn
for each set of natural numbers, S
n
, in the following
way:
(
Sn
(x) = 1 if x S
n
0 if x , S
n
.
(Note: In B & J, the characteristic functions s
n
is the same as (
Sn
in the above.)
Then, we can draw the following array for the given list L: (Figure 2-1 on p.12)
1 2 3 4 . . .
(
S
1
(
S
1
(1) (
S
1
(2) (
S
1
(3) (
S
1
(4) . . .
(
S
2
(
S
2
(1) (
S
2
(2) (
S
2
(3) (
S
2
(4) . . .
(
S
3
(
S
3
(1) (
S
3
(2) (
S
3
(3) (
S
3
(4) . . .
(
S
4
(
S
4
(1) (
S
4
(2) (
S
4
(3) (
S
4
(4) . . .
.
.
.
Lets go back to our example to see how the array looks like:
(Example) 1, c, 1,2, c 2, 1,3, . . .
S
1
, S
2
, S
3
, S
4
, S
5
, . . .
1 2 3 4 . . .
(
S
1
1 0 0 0 . . .
(
S
2
0 1 0 1 . . .
(
S
3
1 1 0 0 . . .
(
S
4
0 0 0 1 . . .
(
S
5
1 0 1 0 . . .
.
.
.
(Note: From this array, we can tell what the original list is. For example, by looking at the
rst row, we know that S
1
= 1, . . . , by the fth row, S
5
= 1, 3. etc.
Lets go back to our array, and draw a diagonal sequence like the following:
d = (
S
1
(1), (
S
2
(2), (
S
3
(3), (
S
4
(4), . . .
This diagonal sequence might be on the list. So, we need one more trick to make sure that we
create a sequence which does not appear on the list. We know that each element of sequence d is
either 1 or 0. So, we reverse each element of d by changing 1 to 0 and 0 to 1. So,
d

= 1 (
S
1
(1), 1 (
S
2
(2), 1 (
S
3
(3), 1 (
S
4
(4), . . .
4
Back to our example:
d = 1, 1, 0, 1, . . .
d

= 0, 0, 1, 0, . . .
We claim that d

does not appear on the list L.

Proof : Suppose (by reductio) it does. Lets say that d

is the mth row in the array. Mth row

looks like this:
(
Sm
(
Sm
(1) (
Sm
(2) (
Sm
(3) (
Sm
(4) . . . . . . (
Sm
(m) . . . . . .
Since d

= 1(
S
1
(1), 1(
S
2
(2), 1(
S
3
(3), 1(
S
4
(4), . . . , 1(
Sm
(m), . . . , we get the following
equations:
(
Sm
(1) = 1 (
S
1
(1),
(
Sm
(2) = 1 (
S
2
(2),
(
Sm
(3) = 1 (
S
3
(3),
(
Sm
(4) = 1 (
S
4
(4),
.
.
.
(
Sm
(m) = 1 (
Sm
(m),
.
.
.
That is,
1 2 3 4 . . . m . . .
(
S
1
1 0 0 0 . . .
(
S
2
0 1 0 1 . . .
(
S
3
1 1 0 0 . . .
(
S
4
0 0 0 1 . . .
(
S
5
1 0 1 0 . . .
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
(
Sm
1 (
S1
(1) 1 (
S
2
(2) 1 (
S
3
(3) 1 (
S
4
(4) . . . 1 (
Sm
(m)
.
.
.
But, (
Sm
(m) = 1 (
Sm
(m) is a plain contradiction, which leads to 0=1! So, sequence d

cannot
appear on the list. 2
5