Mark Atkinson

Mental toughness and hardiness at different levels of football

Sports Psychology and Coaching Master's Thesis

Document Nr. V210646 http://www.grin.com ISBN 978-3-656-41057-7

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Mental toughness and hardiness at different levels of football

Mark Atkinson

University of Sunderland Faculty of Applied Sciences SR1 3SD

Contents Chapter 1 1.1 1.2 Chapter 2 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 Chapter 3 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 Chapter 4 Chapter 5 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.5 Chapter 6 Chapter 7 Introduction Research aim Hypothesis Literature review Conceptualising mental toughness Characteristics of hardiness Training strategies Coaching mental toughness and hardiness Methods Participants Measures Procedure Data Analysis Results Discussion Re-statement of aim Interpretation of results Limitations of the study Conclusion Future recommendations References Appendices Page 2 Page 6 Page 6 Page 7 Page 7 Page 11 Page 19 Page 21 Page 22 Page 22 Page 22 Page 23 Page 23 Page 24 Page 26 Page 26 Page 27 Page 33 Page 35 Page 41 Page 44 Page 48

Chapter 1. Introduction. Sport is no longer a pastime, run and organised by amateurs. Now with the growth of commercialisation it is a multi billion pound business that competes for scarce resources and uses, amongst other things, professional management techniques (Robinson, 2003). Because of the increase and push towards efficiency, success and value for money, it has become of greater interest to players, coaches, administrators, spectators and owners to identify psychological attributes and mental skills associated with superior sport performance, as a primary stage of facilitating their development (Golby & Sheard, 2004).

In football there can be many factors opposing players such as, physical, technical and social demands (Coutts, Reaburn & Abt, 2003). However there has been little research into the emotional factors affecting footballers at different levels (Hanin et al, 2000), in particular, the mental toughness and hardiness of footballers. This is surprising given that an athletes psychological response to competition is thought to depend largely on the characteristics and requirements of the sport (Krane & Williams, 1987).

Various other sports have been heavily researched in this area over the years. Research has identified mental skills that distinguish between more and less successful performers across a number of sports such as, golf (Thomas & Over, 1994), rodeo and equestrian (Meyers, LeUnes & Bourgeois, 1996). Psychological attributes will distinguish between players

operating at different levels of performance. Identifying the psychological and emotional traits of footballers at different levels of performance can help to devise various coaching strategies to improve mental toughness and hardiness of footballers.

Mental toughness and hardiness can be defined as the ability to cope and persevere through the struggles and pressures of sports, (Gucciardi et al, 2009). This can be in a game situation or more outside the box, such as getting fit in pre-season, coping with life in the public eye or dietary requirements. Mental toughness is an unshakeable perseverance and conviction This

towards some goal despite pressure or adversity (Nicholls et al, 2008).

conceptualisation of mental toughness provides a platform from which instruments of measurement can be developed.

According to Loehr (1986), mentally tough performers are disciplined thinkers who respond to pressure in ways which enable them to remain feeling relaxed, calm and energised because they have the ability to increase their flow of positive energy in crisis and adversity. This can be related to footballers as there are many factors within a match or season that could potentially affect them. Pressure, crisis and adversity can occur in the form of, big game stress, good opposition, critical fans, achieving maximum potential, achieving results, being beaten by opposition players. Defined by Loehr (1986), the psychological attributes specific to this study and footballers in particular are; Self confidence (knowing that one can perform well and be successful), negative energy control (handling emotions such as fear, anger and frustration and coping with externally determined events i.e. fans), attention control (remaining focused for 90 minutes), visualisation and imagery control (thinking positively in pictures, or visualising a successful moment), motivation (willingness to persevere through pain or fitness troubles etc), positive energy (enjoying the game you are in) and attitude control (unyielding). Furthermore, Brennan (1998) describes mental toughness as the ability handle situations. It can be somebody who does not choke, does not go into shock and can stand up and be counted in any situation. It involves focus, discipline, self confidence,

patience persistence, accepting responsibility without whining or excuses, tolerating pain and having an overall positive approach to a task.

Contrasting characteristics of mental toughness are provided in a study by Fourie & Potgeiter (2001) suggesting that the psychological factors of mental toughness are motivation level, coping skills, confidence maintenance, cognitive skill, discipline and goal directedness, competitiveness, possession of pre-requisite physical and mental requirements, team unity, preparation skills, psychological hardiness and ethics. The study was carried out by 131 coaches and 160 elite athlete recruited from 31 sports. Data responses from the coaches (n=534) and from the athletes (n=488) were content analysed through a consensual procedure and resulted in 41 higher order themes that were summarised into 12 mental toughness umbrella categories. (See table 1 in Appendix 1). Although some characteristics are evident in footballers, the study results show the characteristics from 31 different sports and are generalised and not specific to football.

The present study focused on the many aspects of mental toughness and hardiness of footballers at different levels and explored the relationship between the emotions of athletes and the level of football they play. The intention of the study was to identify the areas of mental toughness and hardiness that are most affected and focus on coaching techniques that can help overcome those factors in order for an athlete (footballer) to reach his or her full potential, (Martens, 1987). In turn, posing the question, what can coaches do to help their players achieve a superior mental toughness when going into a game?

Previous studies in other sports show that elite athletes are unlikely to get phased when competing and are more likely to deal with pressure and other psychological factors than those athletes taking part recreationally. Superior Hardiness is related to improved performance in sport (Golby et al, 2003). Usually the athletes with more optimism, hardiness or global self esteem may cope more effectively with competitive stress, or specific game situations which may add pressure on the athlete (Nicholls, 2008). Rhodewalt and Agostsdottir (1984) have found that hardy individuals are more likely to cope with stressors by transforming them mentally into something less threatening. Psychological responses in footballers have been related to a hardy personality, i.e. Contrada et al (1991) found associations with Heart rate and Blood pressure patterns in both the resting state and in response to stressful situations felt during a 90 minute match. A similar study analysing the mental toughness of rugby league players by Golby & Sheard (2003), shows that out of four international rugby league teams (Wales, England, France and Ireland), the welsh nationality players had a significantly higher mean score on two of the hardiness subscales. Hardiness measures displayed the greatest and most frequently statistically significant differences. The findings concur with previous work indicating superior hardiness is related to improved performances in sport. Further studies by Sheard (2009), focusing on different mental toughness substrates (positive cognition, visualisation and total mental toughness). The Australian university athletes had a significantly higher mental toughness score than the rest of the competing nations and the Australian team went on to win the tournament. Furthermore, practical implications focus on the potentiality of ameliorative cultural environments.

1.1 Research Aim The aim of the present study was to investigate the relationship between mental toughness and hardiness of footballers and the level of football at which they perform. The present study aimed to discover the factors of mental toughness and hardiness that distinguish footballers between recreational and elite levels of performance. Furthermore the present study aimed to identify the areas of mental toughness and hardiness which affect footballers most. This then will help discover what coaches can do to overcome those areas most affecting footballers. Therefore, the present study aimed to examine whether mental toughness, hardiness and their respective subscales distinguish between elite and recreational footballers. 1.2 Hypothesis. Null Hypothesis. There will be no difference between mental toughness and hardiness of footballers at different levels of performance. Hypothesis. There will be a difference between mental toughness and hardiness of footballers at different levels of performance. Explained Hypothesis. Elite footballers will have an overall superior mental toughness and hardiness score than those taking part recreationally.

Chapter 2. Literature Review. Considerable evidence exists within the extant of sport psychology literature that desirable psychological attributes contribute significantly to superior sports performance (Thomas & Over, 1997). Moreover it has been suggested that as sports performers move up towards elite levels, only those with adaptive personality characteristics advance (Deaner & Silva, 2002). Sport is about the revealing of character and inner spirit as much as it is about technical brilliance (Cleary, 2005). For instance, there are many recreational or intermediate level footballers with vast technical and physical attributes or have the potential to be professional footballers but lack in psychological attributes or their personalities do not facilitate the adjustment, meaning they do not fulfil their potential. 2.1. Conceptualising mental toughness. In sport, mental toughness and hardiness can also be defined as,

Coping better than your opponents with competition, training and lifestyle and the pressures that sport can put on a performer (Jones at al, 1993).

In addition, specifically to a game situation it can be defined,

Mental toughness and hardiness is being more consistent and better than your opponents in remaining determined, focused, confident and in control under pressure (Rotella, 1998).

Mental toughness is an ability to withstand strong criticism and to avoid becoming upset when losing or performing poorly (Clough et al, Loehr 1995, Alderman 1974, Clough 2002, Goldberg 1998). It can be an intensity or resilience (Loehr 1995), or an ability to maintain an optimal mindset throughout a sporting event (Cashmore, 1992, Jones 2001). Jones (2001) suggests that maintaining an optimal mindset throughout a sporting event can be a 90 minute match when related to football, or a 38 game league season. Being mentally tough contributes towards successful sides winning titles and tournaments, for example Manchester United. This can be the ability to overcome a strenuous period of intense games and is what separates winners from the rest of the contenders. Loehr 1986 suggests there are seven dimensions of mental toughness. They are self confidence, negative energy control, attention control, visualisation and imagery, motivation, positive energy and attitude control. Possessing the seven dimensions of mental toughness is what distinguishes athletes between success and failure (loehr, 1986). (See Table 2 in Appendix 2).

In contrast, Crust (2008) identifies the components of mental toughness as being, self efficacy potential, mental self concept, task familiarity, value, personal bests, goal commitment, perseverance, task focus, positivity stress minimisation and positive comparisons.

Some factors may affect athletes more than others and certain factors may vary between different sports. Moran, (1996) states that coaches regarded concentration as the most

important characteristic, while athletes regarded perseverance as the most important. Further studies show that coaches rated the effectiveness of coaches and sport psychologists in strengthening the characteristics of mental toughness more highly than their athletes did,

(Fourie & Potgeiter, 2001). Mental toughness appears to be more significant in individual sports like tennis, and team sports often show that players can hide behind the rest of the team or become content with making up the numbers of a team. However it is the superior mental toughness of a player that distinguishes the elite footballer from a recreational footballer. The superior mental toughness of a player is what makes a winner at all levels of the game. The term mental toughness is intuitively appealing and used equally generously by players, coaches and the sports media, yet usually without adequate definition (Cashmore, 2002). As football is always in the media, footballers at the top level are required to cope with pressure (Goldberg, 1998), to rebound from failures (Woods, Hocton & Desmond, 1995) and possess superior mental skills (Bull, Allbinson, & Shambrook, 1996).

A qualitative investigation of mental toughness by Jones et al (2002) asked 10 international sports people to define mental toughness. The interviewees were then asked to place the attributes in rank order of importance, 12 attributes are identified from the interview, (see table 3 in Appendix 3). Although the sports are not stated, the study provides an insight to the general attributes of mental toughness.

Footballers, coaches and managers agree that mental toughness is an extremely important attribute to possess if a top level performance is desired. Mental toughness is also an important factor in training. In order to reach high levels of performance, athletes must endure long hours of strenuous training regimes which can be boring and tiring. Footballers must cope with injuries and various uncontrollable factors which will influence the smooth running of their training programs. Being mentally tough can assist in coping with setbacks such as injuries and being able to endure the intensive workload players have to go through to

make it as an elite footballer. Another factor affecting the mental toughness of footballers can be stress related in the form of media interest. Mental toughness can help a footballer cope with the inconvenient and upsetting comments which can affect footballers and have done in the past. Even an elite footballer playing at semi-professional level, now has lots of interest in the press and can now have T.V. coverage to take into consideration. Many potentially outstanding footballers stop competing before they reach their potential because they can not perform at the highest levels whether it is due to nerves, motivation or stress etc.

Many studies, in particular by Bull, Albinson and Shambrook (1996) have identified the key factors as being commitment and desire to reach full potential. Being committed is vital in achieving potential as a footballer and athletes should be asked the following questions;

To what extent am I prepared to make the necessary sacrifices in order to succeed in my sport? Do I give 100% in training as well as competition- even if things arent going so well? Am I prepared to put in extra time on physical and mental preparation? Can I take responsibility for my own development and dedicate myself fully to my training and competition program? (Bull, Albinson and Shambrook, 1996).

A study by Loehr (1994) has identified the key factors of mental toughness as being able to cope with pressure. If an athlete cannot cope with pressure, either in training or competition they are not mentally tough. Loehr (1994) suggests that it is an athletes emotional response

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to problems which brings either success or failure as a competitor. A Qualitative study by Thompson, Vernacchia & Moore (1998) have identified confidence, focus and control as major factors of mental toughness in competing. The study focuses on a female college fencer and states; her mind would wander and shed find it hard to concentrate and would often lose sight of important things like footwork. She underwent a mental training

programme which included, goal setting, anxiety management, pre performance routines, attention focus, energy management, visualization training and life development skills. This mental training programme helped to improve confidence, focus and control as well as overcome competition anxiety. This is an ongoing process of assimilation and

accommodation. (Thompson, Vernacchia, & Moore, 1998)

In football, Mental toughness can extend to the team as a whole not just as individuals. As a coach it might be worth considering how mentally tough the team is. For a team to compete at a high level each individual must be comfortable in their role and be totally committed to the team effort (Carron.1988, Sports Dynamics). This can lead to a performance by the team which is the sum of each individuals potential, known as synergy. This still refers back to coaching individuals and helping individuals reach their potential but affects the team as a whole which is vital in football.

2.2. Characteristics of Hardiness. Researchers have increasingly expressed an interest in ways which people respond to stress and in the coping strategies they use to overcome it. Hardiness describes the personalities of people who have the ability to view stressful situations in a positive way. A hardy personality should allow one to react to an event or relative to the present study, a 90 minute match, as if it is challenging rather than threatening.

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As research relating hardiness to sport is limited, hardiness in a non sporting environment has been assumed to decrease the likelihood of stress related physical illness, mental illness and decrements in performance (Maddi & Khoshaba, 2001). According to Fourie & Potgieter (2001), Psychological hardiness was defined as the ability of the athlete to reveal a strong personality, emotional and psychological well being, to take charge and show autonomy. Similarly Clough et al. (2002) states a mentally tough or hardy performer possesses a high sense of self belief and an unshakeable faith that they control their own destiny, these individuals can remain relatively unaffected by competition or adversity. This summarises mental toughness and hardiness in terms of resilience of stress resistance, an individuals positive response to situations of stress and adversity (Braddock, Royster, Winfield & Hawkins, 1991; Rutler 1987). Such resilient responses have often been described in terms of hardiness, (Kobasa, 1979). Moreover, Clough et al. (2002) relate mental toughness within the theoretical context of Kobasas hardy personality. The factors of Hardiness (Control, Challenge and Commitment), are defined by Tillich (1952) as the factors that aid one in pursuing the future despite its uncertainty. Relative to football, many footballers may not commit to playing for a higher level club due to fear of uncertainty that they may fail. This is enhanced if they experience support for exercising the cognitive abilities of symbolisation, imagination, judgement, approval and admiration for doing things themselves and see role models who advocate hardiness and show it in their own functioning, (Sheard 2009).

Hardiness is assumed to decrease the likelihood of stress related physical illness, mental illnesses, and decrements in performance, conduct and morale. These improvements are

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achieved by motivating transformational coping (active, decisive) rather than regressive coping (denial, avoidance) with stressful circumstances (Maddi, 1999). Coaches need to help their athletes develop a number of mental qualities to overcome the psychological and emotional problems they face when they compete. The qualities that are highly regarded as essential in order to compete at a high level of performance are, the four Cs, (Cabral, & Crisfield, 1996). They are commitment - to strive for their goals, confidence - self confidence in their own ability, control - emotional control to focus their energy on the goal ahead of them and concentration - to achieve their goals. Elite performers usually exhibit these qualities. To become a better performer, athletes are required to reach peak performance consistently in competition; it can be achieved by using the 4 Cs effectively. (Cabral, & Crisfield, 1996)

Commitment. Commitment is the tendency to involve oneself, rather than experience alienation from whatever one is doing or encounters. (Maddi, Hoover & Kobasa 1982) Coaches can help performers develop commitment by working together to identify aims and ambitions, identifying any interests which may conflict with the performers training. Coaches, with the athlete, can create long term and short term SMARTER goals. Athletes need commitment in order to improve their performance. Committed performers work on all aspects of their sport, technical, physical and psychological. Elite athletes usually work on all factors naturally and have the ability to understand what it takes to achieve and possess the desire to achieve it. This is not to say that it cannot be coached.

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Coaches can assist athletes in establishing and maintaining commitment; determining the performers aims and ambitions, identifying conflicting interests and converting aims into goals. Determining aims and ambitions- Most performers have dreams and aims, and coaches must identify their aims in order to help achieve them. Coaches must help identify their players ambitions, potential, strengths and weaknesses. Identifying conflicting interests- Performers will have other factors in their lives in addition to their sports. Usually elite athletes have little else other than their main focus in sport. This could affect their mentality towards their sport. Recreational athletes tend to have more going on, or usually take part in other sports which is why they are not totally committed or dedicated to football, in this case. Coaches can identify conflicting interests and develop a players commitment to football. The Demographics questionnaire, (Appendix 8) identifies other sports which athletes take part in. Recreational footballers usually take part in other sports on a regular basis, whereas elite footballers are totally focused and commited to football. Once conflicting interests are negotiated between coach and athlete, it is easier to determine session plans and exactly how much time is available to train. This helps coaches propose a realistic target to create a final outcome. If the availability for a player to train is minimal, coaches and players must agree that the final goal should be low. Little training can only result in low achievement.

Confidence. Elite performers have high self confidence and have to believe that they can carry out a task successfully. Recreational performers can often have doubts about their performances, and this can affect the outcome or make an athlete nervous during a task, affecting their performance on the whole. In football, high self confidence raises self esteem during a game

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and helps them overcome difficult challenges. In tennis, it has been shown to be one of the factors which differentiate highly from less successful players, (Weinberg, R.S. 1998). Self confidence in tennis players is having self-confidence to play a drop shot at the net in a tense situation to win a point. This can relate to football by having the confidence to play a difficult pass or shot that may win a game in the dying minutes of a game, rather than being content with a draw. Coaches can create practices, sessions and game situations which help

performers gain self confidence and provide them with the opportunity to feel competent and develop their self confidence. The more success performers experience, the more confident they become in difficult situations. The most effective way in which self confidence can be achieved is by the interpretation of psychological cues, (increased heart rate, rapid breathing or recreating identical game situations). (Bandura, 1977).

Control. (Emotional control) Control is expressed as a tendency to feel and act as if one is influential in the face of various contingencies. (Averill 1973; Seligman 1975). It allows an individual to choose the most appropriate course of action when faced with a potentially stressful situation. Emotions felt and experienced by footballers, i.e.; anxiety, can become potential sources of distraction and interference if not managed appropriately, thus affecting concentration during a game, reducing their level of performance. Coaches can help performers learn how to control emotions so they can channel energy and focus on their game. The most common are found to be stress and anxiety.

Stress and anxiety. Numerous terms are used to describe stress and anxiety e.g. panic, nerves, worry, activation and arousal. Their affects on an athletes performance are explained;

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Stress can be positive or negative. If a situation is perceived positively, performers interpret the events as challenging, exciting and exhilarating, like elite performers do. If a situation is perceived negatively, the situation is seen as threatening and performers worry about their ability to cope, like recreational athletes. Anxiety describes the negative reactions to stress which can disrupt performance by generating worry. Anxiety is brought around by different situations such as; Fear of physical harm (in particular returning from injury and re-injuring), threat to ego or self image (being beaten by opposition, in particular lower opposition) fear of punishment, fines, post match debrief, retribution by coaches or being dropped. Athletes who can handle these factors tend to be more mentally tough and can perform at an elite level of performance, simply due to the fact that they can overcome interfering factors, like those previously mentioned.

Concentration. Maintaining concentration for 90 minutes and in training sessions is deemed to be crucial in order to compete at an elite level of performance. Elite performers focus on what is current to their performance and are not affected by surroundings, opposition, past events or what ifs. Adapting focus is essential for footballers in particular, for example a player must focus on their awareness of space or positioning, and then they must switch their focus to awareness of opposing players, then focus on a pass or tackle depending on the situation. Elite footballers do this naturally. An individuals level of anxiety can affect concentration which can prove critical (Orlick, 2000).

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Improving concentration. Coaches can use trigger words which help athletes regain focus in the same way they can be used to increase confidence or motivation. By simply shouting the word focus to players can instantly help them regain focus and concentrate again. The aim being, to reduce anxiety or negative energy, (identified as the main cause of poor mental toughness and hardiness). Highly effective in a penalty shootout or free kick situation. Gallwey, (1986) suggests that a learning strategy can be used to avoid negative self talk and anxiety, and help focus on the task required; Drills include using trigger words, i.e. calling aloud or in your head the direction of the ball or shouting as the ball bounces, the calls are irrelevant to the game or performance but it helps keep the player focused and alert.

Effects on a player. Cognitive symptoms are the psychological responses to a forthcoming event. Worry, poor concentration etc. can occur between 24-48 hours before a match. These will be more significant if the game is more important such as a cup final or a decisive league game. Somatic symptoms are the physiological responses such as rapid heart rate, sweating or muscle tension. They usually occur around an hour before the game. These symptoms can be reduced by easing the anxiety. Anxiety can be eased by putting a player through game situations repeatedly, so they can adapt to game situations. (Hady & Jones, 1994).

Hardiness as a stress buffer. Personality is an important factor to ones psychological state and affects the way a person or athlete perceives a difficult situation. Also in a non sport relation, hardy individuals believe they have a commitment to a task or situation and their interpersonal relationships with inner

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self, in that they can recognize their own distinctive values, goals and priorities in life (Maddi & Khoshaba, 2001). In relation to football, a player is able to manage their own performance, knowing their objectives, knowing what is required of them and in terms of a career, season or extended period of time, elite footballers tend to prioritise training and football commitments before anything else. In terms of hardiness being a stress buffer, hardiness moderates the stress illness relationship by reducing the cognitive appraisals of threat and reducing the use of regressive coping (Rhodewalt & Agotsdottir, 1994). Hardiness as a personality trait has been found to eliminate the negative effects of stress in relation to possible mental illness, depression and sports rehabilitation. Further research which can possibly relate to footballers and stressful events that they may be faced with is a study of occupational stress and burnout in nurses, which reported that hardiness had a moderating effect, resulting in hardy nurses being more stress and burnout resistant than those who were non hardy (Rich & Rich, 1987). The relation of hardiness to sport performance and football in particular is highly important, knowing that hardy individuals are physically and mentally healthier as a result of their sense of commitment, control and challenge. And more importantly the way in which they handle potentially stressful situations more easily than those who are less hardy.

Hardiness as a performance enhancer. As well as being able to cope with adverse pressure and overcome any chance of stress related illness, hardy individuals appear to perform better. Research suggests that the greater the level of hardiness, the stronger the tendency to perceive events or circumstances as less stressful than those who are not hardy.

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In terms of performance enhancing, elite footballers who are committed, in control and positively challenged by difficult game situations, see game related stresses as manageable rather than overwhelming. Positive relationships have been demonstrated between hardiness and basketball performance among university players (Maddi & Hess, 1992). Some people have a hardy personality in the sense that they possess, for example, coping skills that enable them to thrive under adverse circumstances.

The overall combination of hardy attributes allows one to handle difficult situations that would normally effect someone, affecting their overall performance. However by managing those difficult situations and overcoming any stress or negativity allows the elimination of negativity and overall performances to improve.

2.3. Training strategies. There is a lot of work that can be done to develop mental skills and overcome the psychological pressures of competition. Skills like imagery and centering can be effective but they must be incorporated into a coaching session early in order to have an effect, it can take time to develop a long term goal. Coaches should create structured sessions, mock competition and competition training strategies. All of this is to aid the footballers with coping strategies so they can cope with situations they may face in a game. Elite footballers often have to deal with large crowds, disappointments and errors, poor decisions i.e. referee or linesmen, verbal abuse and sometimes abuse from the opposition. Coping strategies are designed to help athletes concentrate, retain confidence and cope with anxiety whatever the situation they are faced with, (National coaching foundation, 1996).

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Orlick, (2000) states that mental rehearsal helps an athlete prepare for and practice effective responses in their mind before being confronted by a challenge, problem or distraction in a game situation. Coping strategies are better when executed in a real game training session, followed by a simulated session, followed then by the real event. (Hogg, 1997). In relation to the theory by Contrada et al (1991), in that the psychological responses relate to a hardiness personality and are found associated with Heart rate and Blood pressure patterns, Dienstbier (1989), proposed that there are four toughening manipulations that influence physiological mediators, which in turn could potentially affect a footballers performance, or temperament characteristics, They are; 1. Early experience, the ways in which children have faced extreme stress in early life and its relationships to differences in their resilience, (Garmezy, 1983). 2. Passive toughening. Weiss et al, (1975) highlighted the positive impact of repeated exposure to cold water and electric shocks and an increase stress tolerance. 3. Active toughening; by exercising aerobically, self regulating toughening can occur. 4. Ageing; all affects for ageing are opposite to those for the 3 other manipulations. Deinstbier (1989) also suggests that psychological toughening could be elicited by exposure to repeat game situations, and that psychological benefits may accrue from successful participation in exercise programmes through feelings or mastery and improved body image associated with long term coping. Insufficient physical demands can result in lack of

toughening and the neuroendocrine systems associated with arousal and not maintained and strains can occur. This can lead to the psychological effects previously mentioned, like, poor coping endurance (stress tolerance), Susceptibility to anxiety and depression, attention to

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learning deficits, which can generally affect information provided by a coach within a 90 minute match or training session.

2.4. Coaching mental toughness and Hardiness The way coaches involve performers in their own development, structured sessions, communication and appraisals, canal have a significant impact on performers. To enhance intrinsic motivation, performers should be encouraged to take responsibilities for their own behaviour and the outcomes of their performance. This is achieved by involving performers in the design and running of their own training and competitions. This approach gives performers more choice and decision making. It keeps them more involved and clued up with their tasks and regimes. Bull, Albinson & Shambrook (1996) suggest, that in order to maximize effectiveness of psychological preparation programmes, the following should be considered; Performance profiling should be employed, athletes have different factors which affect them when competing. Goal setting is also essential, to allow the athlete the need to achieve and achieve small targets in order to achieve big overall. Are extrinsic rewards evident in a footballers approach to competition? Elite footballers receive some form of payment so does this affect the players performance, could the player be playing at a higher level but are content with the money they are making or does it have no impact at all.

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Chapter 3. Methods. 3.1. Participants. The participants consisted of 61 footballers (mean AGE=25.23 years; range 18-40 years; SD=5.55), from various clubs and 2 levels of performance: Playing recreational football (n=33) (1-2 hours per week max) or elite football (n=28) (Contracted players, semi professional or professional). All players were playing at the highest level that they have ever played at the time they completed a questionnaire, to ensure consistency in results. Prior to participation, participants completed a consent form or were given consent from a parent/guardian. (See Appendix 4.) A risk assessment was also carried out, the football clubs should have provided a risk assessment but where this was not the case, a risk assessment was designed and administered. (See Appendix 5) Participant confidentiality was essential and honoured by everyone who had or has access to this study. Participants were treated in an appropriate professional manner.

3.2. Measures. Mental toughness. Mental toughness was measured using the Psychological Performance Inventory (PPI; Loehr, 1986). The Psychological Performance Inventory is a 42-item scale yielding an overall mental toughness score as well as seven 6-item subscale scores; Self confidence, negative energy control, attention control, visualisation and imagery control, motivation, positive energy and attitude control. (See Appendix 6) Scores were recorded on a five point Likert scale anchored by almost always and almost never.

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Hardiness. Hardiness of footballers was measured by the most recent measurement of hardiness developed by Maddi and Khoshaba (2001). The 18 item personal views survey III-R (PVS III-R) yields an overall hardiness score, as well as three 6-item subscale scores; commitment, control and challenge. (See Appendix 7) Scores were recorded on a four point Likert scale anchored by not at all true and very true.

3.3. Procedure. Permission from any related organising committees, co-operation of coaches and consent from each individual player to be obtained prior to the administration of inventories. (Also see Appendix 4) Full ethical approval was also required.

Prior to the administration of the PPI and PVS III-R, a demographics questionnaire was completed by each subject. (See Appendix 8)

3.4. Data Analysis. Data was analysed using SPSS. Data provided a subscale score and an overall mental toughness and a hardiness score for each subject. An average score for recreational athletes from each subscale and from the overall mental toughness and hardiness scores were calculated as well as an average score for elite athletes from each subscale and from the overall mental toughness and hardiness scores were calculated. An Independent T test was then carried out to compare the scores between recreation and elite athletes.

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Chapter 4. Results. 4.1 Descriptive statistics. Descriptive statistics were calculated for the groups. (See Table 4). This included group means and standard deviation of all variables.

Table 4. Means and standard deviation of PPI and PVS III-R subscales. Standard Elite M 23.46 27.46 24.18 25.82 25.07 26.11 25.32 26.79 180.75 12.46 11.82 12.82 37.29 Recreational M SD 26.72 6.61 13.94 14.12 14.42 17.45 18.52 19.48 18.18 116.12 7.91 8.27 7.76 23.97 4.50 3.87 5.81 5.14 6.36 5.33 4.32 23.89 2.45 2.20 2.05 5.33

Age PPI Self Confidence Negative energy control Attention control Visualisation/imagery control Motivation Positive energy Attitude control Total mental toughness PVS III-R Commitment Control Challenge Total hardiness

SD 3.25 1.93 4.75 3.81 3.73 3.13 2.97 2.91 16.050 1.64 2.91 1.91 5.26

Independent T-tests indicated that there was a significant effect between elite and recreational levels of performance. Significant differences were observed in all of the dependant variables, (See Table 5). The significant differences observed in the PPI are as follows. Motivation; t (5.748) = 0.000; p < 0.05, Positive energy; t (5.149) = 0.000; p < 0.05, Attitude Control; t (8.952) = 0.000; p < 0.05, Self Confidence; t (14.775) = 0.000; p < 0.05, Negative energy control; t (9.108) = 0.000; p < 0.05, Attention control; t (8.880) = 0.000; p < 0.05, 24

Visualisation and imagery; t (6.541) = 0.000; p < 0.05 and Overall mental toughness; t (12.165) = 0.000; p < 0.05

The significant differences observed in the PVS III-R are as follows. Commitment; t (8.354) = 0.000; p < 0.05, Control; t (5.423) = 0.000; p < 0.05, Challenge; t (9.935) = 0.000; p < 0.05 and Overall hardiness; t (9.780) = 0.000; p < 0.05.

Table 5. t values, degrees of freedom and significance levels for dependant variables. t values PPI Self Confidence Negative energy control Attention control Visualisation/imagery control Motivation Positive energy Attitude control Total mental toughness PVS III-R Commitment Control Challenge Total hardiness 14.775 9.108 8.880 6.514 5.248 5.149 8.952 12.165 8.354 5.423 9.935 9.780 Degrees freedom 59 59 59 59 59 59 59 59 59 59 59 59 of Significance levels .000* .000* .000* .000* .000* .000* .000* .000* .000* .000* .000* .000*

* Significance of the < 0.05 level, two-tailed test. Results show that elite footballers have superior levels of mental toughness and hardiness over recreational footballers, and also have superior scores for each of the subscales which contribute towards mental toughness and hardiness.

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Chapter 5. Discussion. 5.1. Re-statement of aim. The aim of the current study was to investigate whether mental toughness, hardiness and their respective subscales would distinguish between footballers playing at different standards. Investigating mental toughness and hardiness at different levels of football has identified that elite footballers have superior mental toughness and hardiness than recreational footballers. The present study has identified the psychological attributes which contribute towards a footballer being able to overcome stress or adversity (Loehr 1986). Such psychological attributes has proven to identify the factors of mental toughness and hardiness that distinguish between recreational and elite footballers. The present study has also identified the areas of mental toughness and hardiness which affect footballers most, relative to a game situation and the key elements required to play at an elite level. The present study discovered that mental toughness, hardiness and their respective subscales distinguished between elite and recreational footballers.

Elite footballers scored higher in all subscales than recreational, whereas previous studies in other sports, golf (Thomas & Over, 1994), rodeo (Meyers, LeUnes & Bourgeois, 1996), rugby (Golby and Sheard, 2003) and equestrian (Meyers, LeUnes & Bourgeois, 1996) have only identified that mental skills distinguish between a few subscales. Suggesting that the psychological attributes required to play elite football are more demanding than those of other sports.

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5.2. Interpretation of the results. Results suggested a significant difference in overall mental toughness, hardiness and each of their respective subscales. Significant differences on each subscale of the PPI and PVS III-R suggest that both inventories are measuring related but distinct attributes of mental skills indicating an equally important contribution to the distinguishing scores present in each subscale that was compared. Elite footballers scored significantly higher than recreational footballers in overall mental toughness, hardiness and each individual subscale (motivation, positive energy, attitude control, self confidence, negative energy control, attention control, visual imagery, commitment, control and challenge).

PVS III-R and hardiness results. The fact that elite footballers scored significantly higher control may indicate that they felt more able to influence positively the outcome of matches. A further explanation may be that this feeling allowed them to view highly competitive contests in a less stressful manner (Maddi & Khosaba, 2001). This may be a reason as to why recreational athletes have not progressed to become elite athletes, despite having good ability, the lack of control in a tense or difficult game situation means the player cannot perform at a high level or fulfil their own playing potential. Relative to commitment, elite players demonstrated higher levels of organisation and involvement in football. Demographic results show that elite athletes train more often and dedicate more hours to football, including playing more matches per week. Also elite athletes partake less in other sports, meaning less distractions and meaning they are less likely to make football second choice to any other sport, totally dedicating their lives to football. In

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previous research it is suggested that commitments moderating role in successful academic performance is manifested by students deep involvement in their studies that also facilitates a preparedness to exert effort in the pursuit of scholarly success (Sheard and Golby 2006). This shows the importance of Commitment as a factor of hardiness, showing that those footballers who possessed high levels of commitment, had deep involvement in football and training and showed a preparedness to exert effort, resulting in higher levels of performance and an ability to reach an elite playing standard.

The elite footballers significantly higher challenge scores suggest that they were more able to view potentially difficult situations as opportunities for personal and professional growth and not as a threat (Maddi & Khosaba, 2001). Recreational athletes may become anxious or stressed in a challenging game and may not want to rise to the challenge which relates to the low negative energy control scores observed in the PPI, another suggestion for example is that a recreational athlete may have been offered the chance to play at a higher standard or were maybe offered trials at professional clubs but rejected them because of fear of rejection or lack of self belief, this can relate to their low self confidence scores also observed in the PPI. The data relative to hardiness supports previous findings regarding the functions of hardiness as a buffer to stress and as a performance enhancer (Maddi & Khosaba, 2001). Competition stress and negative views of footballers is associated with the arousal of their sympathetic nervous system (SNS) and according to a study by Dienstbier (2002) is directly related to anxiety, neuroticism, personality and can be linked to cardiovascular disease. Illness susceptibility is a result of life events requiring adjustments; stress control has become synonymous with arousal reduction. The management of arousal defines mental and physiological toughness and can aid psychological coping and corresponds with positive

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performance even in the most difficult of tasks, with emotional stability and immune system enhancement as a result. The results obtained from the PVS III-R confirm that elite footballers are more likely to cope with stressful game situations and the external factors which come with football, like press coverage and high profile lifestyle. Elite athletes are also more likely to maintain high levels of competitive performance due to superior levels of hardiness.

Further research not related to sport has clarified the efficacy of high levels of hardiness in many careers and professions such as, health care professionals, business managers (Maddi and Kobasa, 1982) and military personnel (Bartone, 1999). However literature on the relationship between hardiness and sport performance is limited (Maddi and Khoshaba, 2001). Results confirm previous work by Golby and Sheard (2003) in that psychological intervention work to increase hardiness levels should be considered to provide recreational players with skills to progress as footballers and improve playing performance levels.

PPI and mental toughness results. The PPI and the mental toughness subscales made an equally important contribution to the variance in the footballers playing standard. As mentioned when discussing hardiness, elite footballers displayed significantly higher levels of negative energy control. Higher levels of negative energy control suggested that elite footballers were more able to keep their emotions in control and remain calm and relaxed under pressure. (Cashmore, 2002). The low scores of negative energy control displayed by recreation athletes suggested that they possessed the negative psychological effects previously mentioned, like, poor coping endurance (stress tolerance), Susceptibility to anxiety and depression, attention to learning deficits, all of which

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can generally affect information provided by a coach within a 90 minute match or training session. (Deinstbier, 1989). Also the distinguishing scores displayed within negative energy control, suggested that elite footballers are more likely to regain psychological control following negative events during a game (Jones et al, 2002) i.e. conceding a goal, or repeatedly being beaten by an opponent. Although negative energy control displays a significant difference between elite and recreational footballers, the score obtained by elite athletes is still low in comparison to the rest of the mental toughness subscales which is of interest. This could mean that as a mental toughness subscale, it holds less importance than the rest of the subscales when identifying a difference in standard as suggested by Jones (2002). Stating that anxiety is inevitable and is ranked eighth in order of importance, as shown in table 3 (See Appendix 3). Or it could be that players of a higher standard such as international level would display an even higher level of negative energy control.

Another mental toughness subscale which can relate challenge from the PVS III-R is self confidence. Self confidence has already been mentioned regarding lack of self belief when confronted with a challenging problem or decision. Elite footballers displayed significantly higher scores in self confidence, suggesting that elite performers have high self confidence and have to believe that they can carry out a task successfully or relative to football, they have confidence that they make a 60 yard pass successfully or beat an opponent easily. Recreational performers can often have doubts about their performances, and this can affect the outcome or make an athlete nervous during a task, affecting their performance on the whole (Weinberg, R.S. 1998). In football, high self confidence raises self esteem during a game and helps them overcome difficult challenges, again referring back to hardiness and the subscale challenge.

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Elite footballers also displayed significantly higher levels of attention control than recreational footballers. Jones (2002) suggests that players performing at the highest competitive level possess a greater capacity for long and intensive periods of total concentration. It was identified that remaining focused on the task at hand when faced with distractions such as fans or game related pressure is a key mental toughness attribute for sports performers and footballers in particular. Elite athletes possess an ability to concentrate and have a quality to block out any external factors such as fans jeering, weather interference or poor decisions, whereas recreational athletes appear to lose concentration more often and cannot seem to focus on the game without being distracted (loehr, 1986).

Significantly high levels of motivation suggest that in order to play at the highest level of football, motivation is essential. Fourie and Potgieter (2001) identify characteristics of motivation as being determined, responsible and committed and rank motivation as the highest characteristic within mental toughness. These characteristics are very important but seem more related to a non game situation such as training, diet and general lifestyle of the elite footballer, similar to commitment, observed in the PVS III-R. Elite footballers are highly motivated to train and commit themselves to more hours playing football than recreational footballers. According to Fourie and Potgieter (2001) elite footballers are more determined to succeed and become successful, meaning they have more motives to win and or play well, hence their higher levels of motivation.

Elite footballers also possessed a significantly higher score in positive energy. Elite footballers possess positive energy as a result of negative energy control. Loehr (1986) describes positive energy as the essential source that enables an athlete to achieve high levels

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of activation whilst simultaneously experiencing calmness, low muscle tension and attention control. By managing the negative energy, this allows footballers to remain positive, in particular within a game situation, elite footballers can control anxiety and stress, meaning they feel totally positive about the game. Whereas recreational footballers cannot control these factors as well and as a result experience stress and become anxious when faces with a difficult game situation.

Elite footballers obtained a significantly higher score than recreational footballers in the subscale, attitude control. Elite footballers display a positive attitude towards playing in general, and more specifically the task at hand, such as marking an opponent. Loehr (1986) defines attitude control as the ability to maintain habit of thought. The right attitudes produce emotional control and positive energy flow. Attitude control can be a result of many other psychological characteristics, all resulting in a player being positive and simply thinking they are going to succeed or play well.

Psychological attribute help a footballer overcome stressful or demanding situations. Specific to a game situation, mental toughness and hardiness is being more consistent and better than your opponents in remaining determined, focused, confident and in control under pressure, (Rotella, 1998). Elite level performers have significantly higher levels of mental toughness and hardiness, helping elite footballers to achieve a better psychological state and overcome more difficult factors which may occur during a football match.

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5.3. Limitations of the study. It is important to recognise some limitations associated with the present study that could potentially offer a platform for future research. Results show that elite footballers scored significantly higher in all subscales, this could suggest that the two groups of playing standard used (elite and recreational) were too far apart in terms of ability. Furthermore, although participants from the higher standard were elite footballers, it could have been more beneficial to the study to investigate international or premiership level footballers rather than the highest being league 1. Results suggest that it could be important to extend data collection to other groups of standard or higher footballers to gain a wider range of participant results. Factors such as gender, various sports and youth players were not explored due to lack of availability. This is important for future work and in particular the development of grass roots within the sport, should any future research take place.

Previous studies have criticised the PPI and state the lack of subscales does not provide enough information to analyse the overall mental toughness of athletes (Middleton et al, 2003). However, the inclusion of the PVS III-R offered more subscales to support results obtained from the PPI, offering a more valid construct to the results obtained. Another concern is that the definition of mental toughness presented by Jones et al (2007) does not represent what mental toughness is but rather what mental toughness can allow athletes to do. This definition was an essential part of the literature review as it is beneficial for identifying footballers potential and the specific characteristics that can be adapted to footballers. It was essential to include this as well as Loehrs (1986) definition to support the specific characteristics and add what mental toughness can potentially offer a footballer, rather than the statements contradict each other.

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Possible criticisms by Cabral & Crisfield (1996) suggest that a fourth characteristic of hardiness is confidence, where the PVS III-R only measures three subscales of hardiness, Control, challenge and commitment. Previous research in the field of mental toughness and hardiness defines confidence as a main characteristic and possibly should have been considered in the PVS III-R. Despite this self confidence is included in the PPI and was still considered a main attribute to the mental toughness and hardiness of footballers.

As the present study is limited to one sport and only two playing standards, little attention has been given to the previously mentioned proposal of Bull et al (1996), who suggested different forms of mental toughness. Differentiating between, pressure mental toughness, endurance mental toughness and mental toughness in relation to heavy training schedules, all of which are factors to a footballer, but the present study does not specifically distinguish between the different forms of proposed mental toughness. In practical terms, the mental toughness required of a snooker player is not likely to be congruent to that of a rower, or a mountaineer. The same way a goal-keeper may differentiate from a striker or midfielder. If the ultimate outcome is to intervene and help footballers to develop higher levels of mental toughness, it would appear that such differences are detrimental to the development of a footballers mental toughness and hardiness and may be considered for future research, considering the current lack of research in the area.

Furthermore as an alternative to the present quantitative study, researchers may consider a qualitative approach to gaining results in addition to the quantitative method already used. Additional use of a qualitative method would aim to provide definition and validation of the mental toughness and hardiness of footballers.

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5.4. Conclusion. The current evidence confirms that elite level performers obtain high levels of beneficial psychological attributes and remains consistent with previous research (Golby and Sheard, 2003). The present study has demonstrated that footballers playing at an elite playing standard possess significantly higher levels of mental toughness and hardiness. Physical and technical abilities are more evenly matched at elite levels of sport, so personality and an individuals psychological state becomes extremely significant, suggesting that to make that step up from recreational to elite level at any sport, or to become a champion in any sport is as much about an individuals psychological state as it is about their physical or technical prowess. As results from the present study suggest, a superior psychological state is even more requisite in football. This is in comparison to other sports studied previously, golf (Thomas & Over, 1994), rodeo, equestrian (Meyers, LeUnes & Bourgeois, 1996) and more recently Rugby league (Golby, Sheard and Lavallee, 2003). This therefore supports previous literature by Cleary (2005), stating that those athletes with the appropriate psychological attributes make the transition upward, because their personalities facilitate the adjustment. The results of the present study support the assertion that athletes of higher achievement levels are more mentally tough. Previous research by Nicholls et al (2008) and the fore mentioned Golby, Sheard and Lavallee, (2003) suggest that differences between levels of athletic achievement are minimal and that other factors like physical attributes, technical skills or different psychological factors predict achievement levels more accurately, suggesting that conceptualisations of mental toughness based on athletes of different sports have significant limitation. Whereas the present study suggests that a superior mental

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toughness and hardiness is much more required in the modern game that other sports as previous research shows.

In relation to the importance of hardiness, further research by Sheard and Golby (2006) support this more showing that hardiness had a significant affect on undergraduate students. Results showed that hardiness was significantly positively correlated with dissertation mark, and general academic success. In addition to the many physical, technical and social attributes needed to excel in sporting performance, a psychological profile that includes high levels of mental toughness and hardiness appears to be essential in elite level performers. Whilst it is extremely important to reach superior levels of mental toughness and hardiness to be successful, it is of equal importance to maintain those levels. It is often considered that to be a true champion at elite level, one must be able to retain excellence (Abbott & Collins, 2004). Whilst previous research in football in sparse, a relative study in rugby league football identifies the dominance of Australias 30 year reign in the sport, of whom recently displayed the highest levels of mental toughness and hardiness at the Rugby league world cup and went on to win (Golby, Sheard & Lavallee, 2003). In comparison to rugby league where previous research states that distinguishing factors between playing standard are limited, suggests that footballers are more dependant on psychological attributes, in particular those playing at the top level of the game. Further areas which are of interest are the cultural effects towards an individuals psychological state, and what makes countries such as Australia dominate in psychologically dependant sports.

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Limited evidence is available on cultural variations in psychological characteristics within sport (Segal et al, 1999). Examining the effects of culture on individuals and their levels of mental toughness and hardiness, show that individuals experience situational stress differently in different nations, and are taught to deal with different occasions differently. Cultural factors may dictate the manner in which a performer perceives and responds to a stressful event and it may be argued that such attributes can be coached or some attributes develop naturally as part of an individuals personality, either gained as part of playing experience or can be the reason why an individual plays at an elite level.

Recent research has identified the links between the components of mental toughness and hardiness (Golby and Sheard, 2003). By defining hardiness as stress buffering and performance enhancing (Maddi, and Khoshaba, 2001) has proven to be increasingly common with attributes of mental toughness. The components of mental toughness and hardiness combined are what aid one in pursuing the future despite its uncertainty, or whatever may occur in a players career, season or more specifically, a 90 minute match. With these contributing factors in mind, mental toughness involves multiple cognitive and motivational processes that moderate the impact of the objective environment or well being, which in turn can enhance performance.

Contrary to findings by Gucciardi et al (2007) the present study showed that years of playing experience had no effect on superior levels of mental toughness, with higher scores reported by those footballers (elite) with less years of playing experience (See table 4). The present data contradicts previous research on expertise in sport demonstrating that those individuals

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who reach an expert level of performance have done so through many years of deliberate practice and training (Ericsson, 2007). Despite years of experience having no affect on the present data, the difference in playing standard with elite footballers scoring higher levels of mental toughness than recreational is important and consistent with research indicating that psychological skills distinguish experts from novice performers, and that psychological skills are associated with performing to ones potential (Krane & Williams 2006). In other words, in order to reach ones full playing potential, one must achieve maximum psychological skills and reach full potential of their mental toughness and hardiness to do so, regardless of playing experience . Results from the present study show that an elite footballer is more able than a recreational footballer, to manage their own performance, knowing their objectives, knowing what is required of them during a 90 minute match and in terms of a footballers career, elite footballers tend to prioritise training and football commitments before anything else. The relation to hardiness as a stress buffer and football performance is highly important knowing that hardy individuals are physically and mentally healthier as a result of their sense of commitment, control and challenge, and in particular the way they handle potentially stressful situations more easily than those who are less hardy, as mentioned in the review of literature. Even more noteworthy is the development of elite athletes over time, showing that elite athletes are highly capable of dealing with stress or adverse situations. In football, previous history shows a lot of high profile players have resorted to drug abuse and alcoholism, to overcome difficult situations, like press coverage and game related stress. Examples of this are George Best and Diego Maradonna. However more recent research shows that elite athletes are more adapted to difficult situations and are possess more hardy personalities, perhaps showing the psychological

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development of players over time. In contrast to other sports, few footballers are resorting to drug abuse or alcoholism, possibly due to the vast amount of support and monetary funding to deal with such situations. As opposed to rugby, where many players are still resorting to drug abuse to overcome, the more physically demanding aspects of the game, most recently Matt Stevens. In terms of hardiness being a performance enhancer, the present study supports previous research in that positive relationships were demonstrated between hardiness and sport performance. The present study supports the findings presented by Maddi & Hess (1992), suggesting a positive relationship between hardiness and basketball. Elite footballers have proven to have high levels of hardiness, explaining why they are elite footballers and excel over their recreational counterparts.

Where previous research has emphasised the importance of coping as a key factor relating to mental toughness ( Bull et al, 2005; Jones et al, 2002), the present study has failed to identify which coping strategies mentally tough footballers use. Research in football and the present data suggest that footballers who are mentally tough use more approach coping strategies and less avoidance strategies. Where as recreational footballers tend to use more avoidance strategies unsuccessfully.

The present study indicates that a certain psychological profile appears to be linked with successful performance, and being able to achieve excellence in particular sports. Previous suggestions by Williams and Krane (2001) state the general profile included, self reputation of arousal, high self confidence, heightened concentration, coping skills for dealing with distractions and unexpected events, feeling in control, a positive pre-occupation with sport and determination and commitment, all of which appear to be key characteristics

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distinguishing successful from non successful athletes. Furthermore the key characteristics mentioned by Williams and Krane (2001) are all relative to the subscales which make up mental toughness and hardiness and all of which feature in the PPI and PVS III-R.

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5.5 Future recommendations / further work. While the present study confirms that elite footballers have superior levels of mental toughness and hardiness than recreational footballers, future research might concentrate further on psychological skills training, coping strategies and psychological preparation strategies in a wider variation of sports specific to a wider range of athletes, from grass roots to international level.

Practical implications. Practical implications should be considered to develop the psychological skills of recreational footballers. There is a lot of work that can be done to develop mental skills, in particular the mental toughness and hardiness of recreational footballers, which as the present study suggests, is significantly low compared to the mental toughness and hardiness or their elite counterparts. Hardiness is difficult to apply and factors such as commitment can be difficult, considering a players work commitment, lack of playing opportunities and factors such as family commitments. Other hardiness attributes can be considered personality traits and some believe such attributes cannot be coached or applied via a psychological intervention.

Some attributes of mental toughness can be applied using coaching strategies and various psychological interventions can also be applied to benefit an athlete. Coping strategies are designed to help athletes concentrate, retain self confidence and cope with anxiety or negative energy, whatever the situation they are faced with (national coaching foundation, 1996), all of which are main attributes to mentally tough performers and enable them to respond to pressure and remain relaxed, calm and energised (Loehr, 1986).

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Psychological interventions can aid the psychological skills required to control game stresses, good opposition, critical fans, being beaten by opposition or the pressure of having to achieve maximum potential or results, all of which can be key factors which could potentially affect the elite footballer, and can result in a recreational footballer not being able to succeed at an elite level. As noted in the review of literature, Dienstbier (1989) proposed that there are 4 toughening manipulations that influence physiological mediators and could mentally prepare a footballer in order to improve performance; They are early experience, the ways in which children have faced extreme stress in early life and its relationships to differences in their resilience, (Garmezy, 1983). Passive toughening. Weiss et al, (1975) highlighted the positive impact of repeated exposure to cold water and electric shocks and an increase stress tolerance. Active toughening; by exercising aerobically, self regulating toughening can occur, and ageing; all affects for ageing are opposite to those for the 3 other manipulations. The benefits of such psychological toughening and preparation could enable a footballer with good technical and physical ability to progress and make the step up from recreational to elite playing standard.

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Word Count. Abstract: 234 Introduction: 5,279 Methods: 425 Results: 405 Discussion: 4,388 Future recommendations / Further work: 443 Total Word Count: 10, 497

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Chapter 6. References. Abbott, A., Collins, D. (2004). Eliminating the dichotomy between theory and practise in talent identification and development, considering the role of psychology. Journal of sports science 27, pp- 395-408 Alderman, R. B. (1974). Psychological behavior in sport. Toronto, Ontario, Canada: W. B. Saunders Company. Averill, J.R. (1973). Personal control over aversive stimuli and its relationships to stress. Psychological bulletin 80; 288-303. Bandura, A. (1977) Social learning theory. Englewood cliffs, NJ. Prentice Hall. Bartone, P.T. (1999). Hardiness protects against war-related stress in army reserve forces. Consulting psychology journal; practise and research, 51, pp. 72-82. Braddock, J. H., Royster, D. A., Winfield, L. F., & Hawkins, R. (1991). Bouncing back: Sports and academic resilience among African-Amefican males. Education and Urban Society, 24,113-13 1. Brennan, S. (1998). Mental toughness wins out Christian science mentor: 90 issue 173 Bull, S.J. Albinson, J.G. and Shambrook, C.J. (1996). The mental game plan; getting psyched for sport, Sports dynamics, Eastbourne. Cabral, P. & Crisfield, P. (1996). Motivation and mental toughness. The national coaching foundation, Leeds. Cashmore, E. (2002). Sports Psychology; The key concepts. Routledge, London. Cleary, M. (2005). Injury crisis is sending game to intensive care. The Daily Telegraph, p. S6 (Sport). Clough, P., Earle, K., & Sewell, D. (2002). Mental toughness: The concept and its measurement. In I. Cockerill (Ed. ), Solutions in sport psychology (pp. 3245). London: Thomson. Contrada, R.J., Dimsdale, J., Levy, L. And Weiss, T. (1991) Effects of isoproterenol on Twave amplitude and HR. A dose response study. Psychophysiology 28. 458-462 Coutts, A. Reaburn, P. and Abt, G. (2003). Heart rate, blood lactate concentration and estimated energy expenditure in a semi professional rugby league team during a match; a case study. Journal of sports sciences 21, pp. 97-103. Crust, L. (2008). A review and conceptual re-examination of mental toughness; Implications for future researchers. Elsevier ltd. Deaner, H., & Silva, J. M. (2002). Personality and sport performance. In J. M. Silva & D. E. Stevens (Eds. ), Psychological foundations of sport (pp. 48-65).

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Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon. Deinstbier, R.A. (1989). Arousal and physiological toughness; Implications for mental and physical health. Psychological review, 96. 84-100. Dienstbier, R.A. (2002) Arousal and physiological toughness: implications for mental and physical health. Department of psychology, university of Nebraska-lincoln, Lincoln, Nebraska, USA. Ericsson, K.A. (2007). Deliberate practise and the modifiability of body and mind: toward a science of the structure and acquisition of expert and elite performance. International journal of sport psychology 38, pp 4-38. Fourie, S. and Potgeiter, J.R. (2001). The nature of mental toughness in sport. Gallwey, W.T. (1986). The inner game of tennis. Pan books. Garmezy, N. (1983). Stressors of childhood, stress coping and development in children. Pp.43-84. New York, McGraw Hill. Golby, J. Sheard, M. Lavallee, D. (2003). A cognitive behavioural analysis of mental toughness in national rugby league football teams. Perceptual and motor skills 96, pp. 455462. Golby, J. Sheard, M. (2004). Mental toughness and hardiness at different levels of rugby league. Elsevier. Goldberg, A.S. (1998). Sports slump busting; 10 steps to mental toughness and peak performance. Human kinetics, Champaign, IL. Gucciardi, D.F. et al. (2009). Development of preliminary validation of a mental toughness inventory for Australian football. Hady, L. and Jones, J.G. (1994). Stress and performance in sport, London. J.Wiley and sons. Hanin, Y.L. (2000). Emotions in sport. Cited, Elsevier ltd Hogg, J.M.(1997). Mental skills for young athletes; A mental skills work book for athletes 12 years and under. Edmonton; Sports excel. Jones, G. Hanton, S. and Connaughton, D. (2002). What is this thing called mental toughness? An investigation of elite sports performers. Journal of applied sports psychology 14, pp. 205-218. Khoshaba, D.M. Maddi, S.R. (2001). Early experiences in hardiness development. Consulting psychology journal. Practise and research 51, pp. 106-116. Krane, V. and Williams, J. (1987). Performance and somatic anxiety, cognitive anxiety and confidence changes prior to competition. Journal of sport behaviour 10, pp. 47-56.

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Loehr, J.E. (1986). Mental toughness training for sports; Achieving athletic excellence. Stephen Greene Press, Lexington, MA. Loehr, J. E. (1995). The new toughness trainingfor sports. New York: Plume. Maddi, S.R. and Hess, M.J. (1992). Personality hardiness and success in basketball. International journal of sports psychology 23, 360-368 Maddi, S.R., Hoover, M. and Kobasa, S.C. (1982). Alienation and behavior. Journal of personality and social psychology 42. 884-890 Maddi, S.R. and Khoshaba, D.M. (2001). Personal Views Survey. (3rd ed, Rev), The Hardiness Institute, Newport Beach, CA. Martens, R. (1987). A coaches guide to sport psychology. Meyers, M.C. LeUnes, A. and Bourgeois,A.E. (1996). Psychological skills assessments and athletic performance in collegiate rodeo athletes. Journal of sports behaviour 19, pp. 132-146 Middleton, S.C., Marsh, H.W., Martin, A.J., Richards, G.E., Clark Perry, J.S. and Brown, R. (2003) Mental Toughness: Is the Mental Toughness Test Tough Enough? Self-concept Enhancement and Learning Facilitation Research Centre University of Western Sydney, Australia Moran, A.P. (1996). The psychology of concentration in sports performers; A cognitive analysis. Hove, Psychology press. National coaching foundation. (1996). Mental skills; an introduction for sports coaches. NCF. Leeds. Nicholls, A.R. Polman, R.C.J. and Levy, A.R. (2007). Mental toughness, optimism, pessimism and coping among athletes. Nicholls, A.R. Polman, R.C.J., Backhouse, S.H. and Levy, A.R. (2008). Mental toughness in sport: Achievement level, gender, age, experience and sport type differences. Orlick, T. (2000). In pursuit of excellence, III. Champaign, IL. Rhodewalt, C. And Agostsdottir, S. (19984) On the relationship of hardiness to the type of behaviour patterns. Perceptions of life events versus coping with life events. Journal of research personality, 18. 212-223. Rich, V.L. and Rich, A.R. (1987). Personality hardiness and burnout in female staff nurses, journal of nursing scholarships, 19. 63-68 Segall, M.H., Dasen, P.R., Berry, J.W. and pootinga, Y.H. (1999). Human behaviours in global perspectives, in introduction to cross cultural psychology (2nd Edition) Boston M.A. Allyn and Bacon Seligman, M.E.P. (1975). Helplessness. S.F. Freeman publishing..

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Sheard, M. & Golby, J. (2006) Hardiness and undergraduate academic study: the moderating role of commitment. University of Teesside, school of social sciences and law, Middlesbrough, Cleveland UK Thompson, M.A., Vernacchia, R.A. & Moore, W.E. (1998). Case studies in applied psychology. An educational approach. Weinberg, R.S. (1998). The mental advantage: Developing your psychological skills in tennis. Champaign, IL. Leisure Press. Weiss, J.M., Glazer, H.I., Pohorecky, L.A., Brick, J. and Miller, N.B. (1975) Effects on chronic exposure to stressors on avoidance- escape behavior and on the brain norephidrine. Psychosomatic medicine 37; 153-160

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Chapter 7. Appendices.

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Appendix 1. Table 1. Mental toughness characteristics, umbrella categories and the higher order themes (Fourie & Potgieter 2001)

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1. Motivation 2. Coping Skills

Determination, Desire, responsibility, commitment. Coping ability, composure, acceptance, activation control and adaptability.

3.Confidence Maintenance 4.Cognitive Skills 5.Discipline Directedness 6. Competitiveness and

Competence self confidence and attitude.

Concentration focus, thinking and decision making. Goal Discipline, goal orientation and idealism

Will, appearance of a winner, consistent performing, high comp level, big mental temperament.

7.Possession requisite and

of

pre- High physical and mental conditioning, ability to cope with mental pain, self sacrifice.

requirements 8. Team Unity 9. Preparation Skills 10.Psychological Hardiness 11.Religious Convictions 12. Ethics Respect, team cohesion, relationship skill. Balance, balanced preparation and visualisation. Strong personality, emotional and psychological well being, change taking autonomy. Religious beliefs Sense of righteousness

50

Appendix 2. Table 2. The definitions of Loehrs 1986 seven dimensions of mental toughness.

51

Self confidence A feeling and a knowing that you can do it. That you can perform well and be successful. Regardless of your level of physical talent and skill. If you have lost your confidence, your performance output will be drastically affected. Negative energy control Controlling such negative emotions as fear, frustration, envy, resentment, rage and temper is essential to competitive success. Staying calm relaxed and focused is directly related to keep negative energy to a minimum. Linked to your ability to perceive challenges as difficult and frustrating problems. Attention control The ability to sustain a continuous focus on the task at hand is so central to performing well that it cant be over emphasised. Attention control is nothing more than the ability to tune in to what is not. The goal is a one pointed form of concentration, so complete that a total loss of self occurs in the act of focusing. The more deeply an athlete can become immersed in the relevant aspects of play, the deeper the concentration and the greater the loss of self. Athletes consistently report that they lose self consciousness when they are concentrating well. Visualisation and imagery. Successful athletes invariably have well developed visualisation and imagery skills. They are able to think in pictures rather that words and they are able to control the flow of their mental pictures and images in positive and constructive directions. Performing well in sport requires that an athlete shifts from highly rational, logical and deliberate style of thinking to much more spontaneous, free flowing and instinctive one. Visualisation and imagery practise both prior to and during performance helps to facilitate that shift.

52

Motivation

Setting meaningful goals, programming a steady diet of daily success and managing failure properly are all critical components of motivation. The willingness to persevere with training schedules and to endure the pain, discomfort and self sacrifice associated with the forward progress in linked to an athletes level of self motivation.

Positive energy

Essentially the ability to become energised from such sources as fun, joy, determination, positiveness and team spirit. Positive energy makes peak performance possible. Its the essential source that enables an athlete to achieve high levels of activation whilst simultaneously experiencing calmness, low muscle tension and attention control.

Attitude control

Attitude control simply reflects an athletes habit of thought. The right attitudes produce emotional control and positive energy flow. Elite athletes are disciplined thinkers. A specific constellation of attitudes characterises successful competitors. These dimensions reflect the extent to which your personal attitudes are consistent with high level performers.

53

Appendix 3. Table 3. Mental toughness Attributes and importance Ranking (Jones et al, 2002).

54

Rank. 1 2 3 4= 4= 6 7 8 9= 9= 11 12

Attribute. Having an unshakeable self belief in your ability to achieve your goals. Bouncing back from performance setbacks as a result of increased determination to succeed Having an unshakeable self belief that you possess unique qualities and abilities that make you better than your opponent. Having an insatiable desire and internalised motive to succeed Remaining fully focused on the task at hand in the face of competition specific distractions. Regaining psychological control following unexpected, uncontrollable events (competition specific). Pushing back the boundaries of physical and emotional pain. While still maintaining technique and effort under distress ( in training and competition) Accepting that competition anxiety is inevitable and knowing that you can cope with it. Thriving on the pressure of competition. Not being affected by others good and bad performances. Remaining fully focused in the face of personal life distractions. Switching a sport focus on and off as required.

55

Appendix 4.Participant consent forms

56

PARTICIPANT CONSENT FORM

Study Title: Name Address.. I give consent for myself / child to be a participant in this study. I have been fully informed what participation will involve and had all my questions answered. I understand that I can withdraw from this study at any time without giving reason and without penalty. * I also give consent for recordings to be made relating to my participation. # I also give consent for my personal data to be used by the research workers in any way they wish and passed to anyone they wish. Date..................... Signed.. Participant

Note: Participant address should only be obtained if necessary. * Separate consent should be obtained for electronic recordings to be taken of participants. # Separate consent may also be required for research workers to distribute participant personal Data.

This study is approved by the University of Sunderland Research Ethics Committee

57

Appendix 5. Psychological questionnaire risk assessment forms

58

UNIVERSITY OF SUNDERLAND SPORT AND EXERCISE DEVELOPMENT PSYCHOLOGICAL QUESTIONNAIRES RISK ASSESSMENT FORM
1. Title of Activity: The mental toughness and hardiness of footballers. Brief description of Activity (or attach schedule) Assessing the mental toughness and hardiness of footballers using questionnaires, Participant approval has been approved prior to the taking part of questionnaires. And consent has been granted by league or club officials.

2. Venue: Assessor:. Date of Assessment:........

3. Possible Hazards:N/A.

4. Control measures specific to questionnaires: Controls Checklist Ethical approval League or club approval Players consent Signing of all relevant forms Are subjects aware of questionnaires used

Signature of Assessor.

Date.

Signature of Club/league Official.

Date

59

Appendix 6. Psychological performance inventory

60

Psychological Performance Inventory To help you get a clearer idea of your mental strengths and weaknesses, circle one of the five spaces for each of the items in the following list. Circle only one response for each item. Your choices are ALMOST ALWAYS, OFTEN, SOMETIMES, SELDOM, and ALMOST NEVER. Select whichever one best fits your interpretation of the item as it relates to you in athletics. Your response is simply an estimate. Be as open and honest as you can with yourself and respond to each item as it pertains to you in the right-here-and-now context. 1. I see myself as more of a loser than a winner in competition. 1 2 3 4 Almost Always Often Sometimes Seldom 4 Seldom 5 Almost Never 5 Almost Never 5 Almost Never 1 Almost Never

2. I get angry and frustrated during competition. 1 2 3 Almost Always Often Sometimes

3. I become distracted and lose my focus during competition. 1 2 3 4 Almost Always Often Sometimes Seldom

4. Before competition, I picture myself performing perfectly. 5 4 3 2 Almost Always Often Sometimes Seldom

5. I am highly motivated to play my best. 5 4 3 Almost Always Often Sometimes

2 Seldom

1 Almost Never 1 Almost Never 1 Almost Never

6. I can keep strong positive emotion flowing during competition. 5 4 3 2 Almost Always Often Sometimes Seldom 2 Seldom

7. I am a positive thinker during competition. 5 4 3 Almost Always Often Sometimes

61

8. I believe in myself as a player/performer. 5 4 3 Almost Always Often Sometimes

2 Seldom 4 Seldom

1 Almost Never 5 Almost Never

9. I get nervous or afraid in competition. 1 2 3 Almost Always Often Sometimes

10. It seems my mind starts racing 100 mph during critical moments of competition or performance. 1 2 3 4 5 Almost Always Often Sometimes Seldom 2 Seldom Almost Never 1 Almost Never

11. I mentally practice my physical skills. 5 4 3 Almost Always Often Sometimes

12. The goals Ive set for myself as a player/performer keep me working hard. 5 4 3 2 1 Almost Always Often Sometimes Seldom Almost Never

13. I am able to enjoy competition/performance even when I face lots of difficult problems. 5 4 3 2 1 Almost Always Often Sometimes Seldom Almost Never 5 Almost Never 5 Almost Never 5 Almost Never

14. My self-talk during competition/performing is negative. 1 2 3 4 Almost Always Often Sometimes Seldom 4 Seldom 4 Seldom

15. I lose my confidence very quickly. 1 2 3 Almost Always Often Sometimes

16. Mistakes get me feeling and thinking negatively. 1 2 3 Almost Always Often Sometimes

62

17. I can clear interfering emotion quickly and regain my focus. 5 4 3 2 Almost Always Often Sometimes Seldom

1 Almost Never

18. Thinking in pictures about my sport/competition/performance comes easy for me. 5 4 3 2 1 Almost Always Often Sometimes Seldom Almost Never

19. I dont have to be pushed to play or practice hard. I am my own best igniter. 5 4 3 2 1 Almost Always Often Sometimes Seldom Almost Never

20. I tend to get emotionally flat when things turn against me during play/performance. 1 2 3 4 5 Almost Always Often Sometimes Seldom Almost Never 1 Almost Never 1 Almost Never 5 Almost Never 5 Almost Never

21. I give 100 percent effort during play/performance, no matter what. 5 4 3 2 Almost Always Often Sometimes Seldom

22. I can perform toward the upper range of my talent and skill. 5 4 3 2 Almost Always Often Sometimes Seldom

23. My muscles become overly tight during competition/performance. 1 2 3 4 Almost Always Often Sometimes Seldom 4 Seldom

24. I get spacey during competition/performance. 1 2 3 Almost Always Often Sometimes

25. I visualize working through tough situations prior to competition/performance. 5 4 3 2 1 Almost Always Often Sometimes Seldom Almost Never

26. Im willing to give whatever it takes to reach my full potential as a player/performer. 5 4 3 2 1 Almost Always Often Sometimes Seldom Almost Never

63

27. I practice with high positive intensity. 5 4 3 Almost Always Often Sometimes

2 Seldom

1 Almost Never

28. I can change negative moods into positive ones by controlling my thinking. 5 4 3 2 1 Almost Always Often Sometimes Seldom 2 Seldom Almost Never 1 Almost Never

29. Im a mentally tough competitor/performer. 5 4 3 Almost Always Often Sometimes

30. Uncontrollable events like the wind, cheating opponents, and bad officials/judges get me very upset. 1 2 3 4 5 Almost Always Often Sometimes Seldom Almost Never

31. I find myself thinking of past mistakes or missed opportunities as I play/perform. 1 2 3 4 5 Almost Always Often Sometimes Seldom Almost Never 1 Almost Never 5 Almost Never

32. I use images during play/performance that help me perform better. 5 4 3 2 Almost Always Often Sometimes 3 Sometimes Seldom 4 Seldom

33. I get bored and burned out. 1 2 Almost Always Often

34. I get challenged and inspired in tough situations. 5 4 3 Almost Always Often Sometimes

2 Seldom

1 Almost Never 1 Almost Never

35. My coaches/teachers would say I have a good attitude. 5 4 3 2 Almost Always Often Sometimes Seldom

64

36. I project the outward image of a confident fighter. 5 4 3 Almost Always Often Sometimes

2 Seldom

1 Almost Never

37. I can remain calm during competition/performance when confused by problems. 5 4 3 2 1 Almost Always Often Sometimes Seldom Almost Never

38. My concentration is easily broken. 1 2 3 Almost Always Often Sometimes

4 Seldom

5 Almost Never

39. When I visualize myself playing/performing, I can see and feel things vividly. 5 4 3 2 1 Almost Always Often Sometimes Seldom Almost Never

40. I wake up in the morning and am really excited about playing and practicing. 5 4 3 2 1 Almost Always Often Sometimes Seldom Almost Never

41. Pursuing my pursuit (sport, music, dance, etc.) gives me a genuine sense of joy and fulfillment. 5 4 3 2 1 Almost Always Often Sometimes 3 Seldom 2 Seldom Almost Never 1 Almost Never

42. I can turn crisis into opportunity. 5 4 Almost Always Often

Sometimes

65

Psychological Performance Inventory To help you get a clearer idea of your mental strengths and weaknesses, circle one of the five spaces for each of the items in the following list. Circle only one response for each item. Your choices are ALMOST ALWAYS, OFTEN, SOMETIMES, SELDOM, and ALMOST NEVER. Select whichever one best fits your interpretation of the item as it relates to you in athletics. Your response is simply an estimate. Be as open and honest as you can with yourself and respond to each item as it pertains to you in the right-here-and-now context. 43. I see myself as more of a loser than a winner in competition. 1 2 3 4 Almost Always Often Sometimes Seldom 4 Seldom 5 Almost Never 5 Almost Never 5 Almost Never 1 Almost Never

44. I get angry and frustrated during competition. 1 2 3 Almost Always Often Sometimes

45. I become distracted and lose my focus during competition. 1 2 3 4 Almost Always Often Sometimes Seldom

46. Before competition, I picture myself performing perfectly. 5 4 3 2 Almost Always Often Sometimes Seldom

47. I am highly motivated to play my best. 5 4 3 Almost Always Often Sometimes

2 Seldom

1 Almost Never 1 Almost Never 1 Almost Never

48. I can keep strong positive emotion flowing during competition. 5 4 3 2 Almost Always Often Sometimes Seldom 2 Seldom

49. I am a positive thinker during competition. 5 4 3 Almost Always Often Sometimes

66

50. I believe in myself as a player/performer. 5 4 3 Almost Always Often Sometimes

2 Seldom 4 Seldom

1 Almost Never 5 Almost Never

51. I get nervous or afraid in competition. 1 2 3 Almost Always Often Sometimes

52. It seems my mind starts racing 100 mph during critical moments of competition or performance. 1 2 3 4 5 Almost Always Often Sometimes Seldom 2 Seldom Almost Never 1 Almost Never

53. I mentally practice my physical skills. 5 4 3 Almost Always Often Sometimes

54. The goals Ive set for myself as a player/performer keep me working hard. 5 4 3 2 1 Almost Always Often Sometimes Seldom Almost Never

55. I am able to enjoy competition/performance even when I face lots of difficult problems. 5 4 3 2 1 Almost Always Often Sometimes Seldom Almost Never 5 Almost Never 5 Almost Never 5 Almost Never

56. My self-talk during competition/performing is negative. 1 2 3 4 Almost Always Often Sometimes Seldom 4 Seldom 4 Seldom

57. I lose my confidence very quickly. 1 2 3 Almost Always Often Sometimes

58. Mistakes get me feeling and thinking negatively. 1 2 3 Almost Always Often Sometimes

67

59. I can clear interfering emotion quickly and regain my focus. 5 4 3 2 Almost Always Often Sometimes Seldom

1 Almost Never

60. Thinking in pictures about my sport/competition/performance comes easy for me. 5 4 3 2 1 Almost Always Often Sometimes Seldom Almost Never

61. I dont have to be pushed to play or practice hard. I am my own best igniter. 5 4 3 2 1 Almost Always Often Sometimes Seldom Almost Never

62. I tend to get emotionally flat when things turn against me during play/performance. 1 2 3 4 5 Almost Always Often Sometimes Seldom Almost Never 1 Almost Never 1 Almost Never 5 Almost Never 5 Almost Never

63. I give 100 percent effort during play/performance, no matter what. 5 4 3 2 Almost Always Often Sometimes Seldom

64. I can perform toward the upper range of my talent and skill. 5 4 3 2 Almost Always Often Sometimes Seldom

65. My muscles become overly tight during competition/performance. 1 2 3 4 Almost Always Often Sometimes Seldom 4 Seldom

66. I get spacey during competition/performance. 1 2 3 Almost Always Often Sometimes

67. I visualize working through tough situations prior to competition/performance. 5 4 3 2 1 Almost Always Often Sometimes Seldom Almost Never

68. Im willing to give whatever it takes to reach my full potential as a player/performer. 5 4 3 2 1 Almost Always Often Sometimes Seldom Almost Never

68

69. I practice with high positive intensity. 5 4 3 Almost Always Often Sometimes

2 Seldom

1 Almost Never

70. I can change negative moods into positive ones by controlling my thinking. 5 4 3 2 1 Almost Always Often Sometimes Seldom 2 Seldom Almost Never 1 Almost Never

71. Im a mentally tough competitor/performer. 5 4 3 Almost Always Often Sometimes

72. Uncontrollable events like the wind, cheating opponents, and bad officials/judges get me very upset. 1 2 3 4 5 Almost Always Often Sometimes Seldom Almost Never

73. I find myself thinking of past mistakes or missed opportunities as I play/perform. 1 2 3 4 5 Almost Always Often Sometimes Seldom Almost Never 1 Almost Never 5 Almost Never

74. I use images during play/performance that help me perform better. 5 4 3 2 Almost Always Often Sometimes 3 Sometimes Seldom 4 Seldom

75. I get bored and burned out. 1 2 Almost Always Often

76. I get challenged and inspired in tough situations. 5 4 3 Almost Always Often Sometimes

2 Seldom

1 Almost Never 1 Almost Never

77. My coaches/teachers would say I have a good attitude. 5 4 3 2 Almost Always Often Sometimes Seldom

69

78. I project the outward image of a confident fighter. 5 4 3 Almost Always Often Sometimes

2 Seldom

1 Almost Never

79. I can remain calm during competition/performance when confused by problems. 5 4 3 2 1 Almost Always Often Sometimes Seldom 4 Seldom Almost Never 5 Almost Never

80. My concentration is easily broken. 1 2 3 Almost Always Often Sometimes

81. When I visualize myself playing/performing, I can see and feel things vividly. 5 4 3 2 1 Almost Always Often Sometimes Seldom Almost Never

82. I wake up in the morning and am really excited about playing and practicing. 5 4 3 2 1 Almost Always Often Sometimes Seldom Almost Never

83. Pursuing my pursuit (sport, music, dance, etc.) gives me a genuine sense of joy and fulfillment. 5 4 3 2 1 Almost Always Often Sometimes 3 Seldom 2 Seldom Almost Never 1 Almost Never

84. I can turn crisis into opportunity. 5 4 Almost Always Often

Sometimes

70

Appendix 7. Personal views survey III-R

71

Personal Views Survey III-R.

For your profile report to be accurate, you need to answer the following questions to the best of your ability and as honestly as possible. There are no right or wrong answers. This is not a test. Please answer each question by circling the number that best describes your currents views and life situation. Thank you.
NOT AT
ALL TRUE

A LITTLE
TRUE

MOSTLY
TRUE

VERY
TRUE

1 By working hard, you can always achieve your goal 2 I dont like to make changes in my everyday schedule 3 I really look forward to my work 4 I am not equipped to handle the unexpected problems of life 5 Most of what happens in life is just meant to be 6 When I make plans, Im certain I can make them work 7 No matter how hard I try, my efforts usually accomplish little 8 I like a lot of variety in my work 9 Most of the time, people listen carefully to what I have to say 10 Thinking of yourself as a free person just leads to frustration 11 Trying your best at what you do usually pays off in the end 12 My mistakes are usually very difficult to correct 13 It bothers me when my daily routine gets interrupted 14 I often wake up eager to take up life wherever it left off 15 Lots of times, I really dont know my own mind 16 Changes in routine provoke me to learn 17 Most days, life is really interesting and exciting for me 18 Its hard to imagine anyone getting excited about working

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2

3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3

72

[PVS III-R]

Personal Views Survey III-R.

For your profile report to be accurate, you need to answer the following questions to the best of your ability and as honestly as possible. There are no right or wrong answers. This is not a test. Please answer each question by circling the number that best describes your currents views and life situation. Thank you.
NOT AT
ALL TRUE

A LITTLE
TRUE

MOSTLY
TRUE

VERY
TRUE

1 By working hard, you can always achieve your goal 2 I dont like to make changes in my everyday schedule 3 I really look forward to my work 4 I am not equipped to handle the unexpected problems of life 5 Most of what happens in life is just meant to be 6 When I make plans, Im certain I can make them work 7 No matter how hard I try, my efforts usually accomplish little 8 I like a lot of variety in my work 9 Most of the time, people listen carefully to what I have to say 10 Thinking of yourself as a free person just leads to frustration 11 Trying your best at what you do usually pays off in the end 12 My mistakes are usually very difficult to correct 13 It bothers me when my daily routine gets interrupted 14 I often wake up eager to take up life wherever it left off 15 Lots of times, I really dont know my own mind 16 Changes in routine provoke me to learn 17 Most days, life is really interesting and exciting for me 18 Its hard to imagine anyone getting excited about working

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2

3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3

73

[PVS III-R]

Appendix 8. Demographics questionnaire.

74

Demographics Questionnaire 1. Age. 2. How long have you participated in Football 3. What Football group do you belong to? Recreational (1 or 2 hours per week) Elite (semi-pro, Contracted, Professional) (Please circle one) 4. Number of training sessions per week 5. Number of training hours per week 6. Do you take part in competitive football matches? If yes, How many matches per week?.. 7. If you take part in competitive matches, what league do you play your matches in? Local or amateur leagues/BUCS National league/Northern league/Conference/The Football league/Premiership. (please circle all that apply) 8. If you take part in competitive matches, what competitions do your club enter? Local or amateur Cups/ British University championships/ The F.A. vase/ The F.A. Cup/ Carling Cup/ International tournaments. (please circle all that apply) 9. Are you contracted by a football club?...................................................... 10. Do you take part in any other sport on a regular basis?.............................. If yes which sports?................................................................................................... 11. Have you sustained any injuries in Football?............................................ If yes, please provide a brief description of the injury or injuries

75

Demographics Questionnaire 1. Age. 2. How long have you participated in Football 3. What Football group do you belong to? Recreational (1 or 2 hours per week) Elite (semi-pro, Contracted, Professional) (Please circle one) 4. Number of training sessions per week 5. Number of training hours per week 6. Do you take part in competitive football matches? If yes, How many matches per week?.. 7. If you take part in competitive matches, what league do you play your matches in? Local or amateur leagues/BUCS National league/Northern league/Conference/The Football league/Premiership. (please circle all that apply) 8. If you take part in competitive matches, what competitions do your club enter? Local or amateur Cups/ British University championships/ The F.A. vase/ The F.A. Cup/ Carling Cup/ International tournaments. (please circle all that apply) 9. Are you contracted by a football club?...................................................... 10. Do you take part in any other sport on a regular basis?.............................. If yes which sports?................................................................................................... 11. Have you sustained any injuries in Football?............................................ If yes, please provide a brief description of the injury or injuries

76