The Hausa Lexicographic Tradition
265
last of the glottalized consonants is a laryngealized semivowel /
’
y
/, a histori-cally recent phoneme derived from /
Î
y
/ which is found only in a small num- ber of lexemes of high frequency, e.g.
’
y
ā
'daughter, small',
’
y
ā
’
y
ā
'children'.Second, Hausa has two phonemic /
R
/ sounds which are not distin-guished in the standard orthography (P. Newman 1980b). One, which does notoccur in word-final position, is a retroflex flap represented by /
r
/ e.g.,
bar
ā
Ÿ
'servant'. The other, commonly represented in linguistic works by /
r
)
/, is anapical tap or trill, e.g.,
tar
)
à
'nine'.Third, most Hausa consonants can occur as geminates, indicated by dou- ble letters, e.g.,
gamm
ō
'head pad', cf.
gàm
ō
'meeting'.Hausa has five vowels,
a
,
e
,
i
,
o
,
u
,
all of which can occur long or short,e.g.,
t
ā
Ÿ
f
ī
'palm of hand' vs.
tàfi
'go', and two diphthongs
ai
and
au
. In scholarlyworks, long vowels are either indicated by means of a macron (
ā
) or by doublevowels (
aa
). In closed syllables, only short, monophthongal vowels occur.Hausa is a tone language with three distinctive tones, which are not indi-cated in standard orthography. These are high (H), low (L), and falling (F).(There is no rising tone.) In modern Hausa linguistic scholarship, low is mark-ed with a grave accent, e.g.,
à
, falling is marked with a circumflex, e.g.,
â
, andhigh tone is left unmarked, e.g.,
wùy
ā
(L-H) 'trouble',
fusk
ā
Ÿ
(H-L) 'face',
yâr
ā
(F-H) 'children'. (Most Hausa examples in this article use this tone/length nota-tion, except when quoting examples drawn directly from works that are notphonologically marked.)Hausa has two grammatical genders, masculine and feminine, distin-guished in the singular only. Most feminine nouns end in /
a
/, e.g.,
r
ā
n
ā
'sun', but some masculine nouns do also, e.g.,
wat
ā
Ÿ
'moon', and thus gender assign-ment has to be overtly marked. A striking and complex feature of Hausa is themultiplicity of noun and adjective plural formations involving suffixation,infixation, reduplication, and tone change. Although there are some correla-tions between the phonological shapes of the singulars and the choice of theplurals, this is essentially word-specific information that has to be lexicallyindicated. Moreover, many words allow alternative plural forms, e.g.,
d
ō
k
ī
Ÿ
'horse', pl.
daw
ā
k
ī
,
dàw
ā
Ÿ
kai,
and (less often)
d
ō
kun
ā
Ÿ
.There are two main morphogrammatical features of verbs that raise lexi-cographic problems. First, in certain syntactic environments, such as in a con-tinuous tense or when following a modal verb (such as 'begin', 'repeat', 'quit',etc.), Hausa uses a "verbal noun" gerundive-type form rather than a finite verb,e.g.,
y
ā
c
ī
Ÿ
z
ā
'He bit (it)', but
yan
ā
Ÿ
c
ī
z
ō
Ÿ
'He is biting',
y
ā
dainà c
ī
z
ō
Ÿ
'He quit bit-ing'. The formation of verbal nouns from corresponding verbs is not regular orpredictable and therefore needs to be noted in dictionary entries.Second, Hausa verbs occur in morphologically productive forms termed"grades" (Parsons 1960), some of which are basic and some of which are deri-vational classes indicating "action totally done, action done away, action donetowards or for the speaker, action affecting the subject (passive)", etc. Examplesare:
sày
ā
'buy' (grade 2),
say
ē
Ÿ
'buy all' (grade 4),
sayar
)
'sell' (grade 5),
say
ō
'buy
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