International Journal of Agricultural Science and Research (IJASR) ISSN 2250-0057 Vol.

3, Issue 2, Jun 2013, 155-174 TJPRC Pvt. Ltd.

WATERSHED MANAGEMENT AND AQUACULTURE IN RELATION TO FISHERIES

KIRAN, B. R.1 & SHANKAR MURTHY, K2
1

Research & Teaching Assistant in Environmental Science, Directorate of Distance Education, Kuvempu University, Shankaraghatta, Karnataka, India

Research & Teaching Assistant in Botany & Biotechnology, Directorate of Distance Education, Kuvempu University, Shankaraghatta, Karnataka, India

ABSTRACT
The present study reviewed the importance of aquaculture in watershed management. Watershed is not only the hydrological unit but plays crucial role in determining food, social, and economical security and provides life support services to rural people. India has numerous farm ponds and check dams that are used for irrigation, watering livestock, and recreation. Even though most of these water bodies are not used for recreational activities, they could provide excellent fishing opportunities if they were properly managed. Ponds can be managed to attract wildlife and to provide a variety of recreational activities. It may be difficult to manage for all of these things simultaneously. Proper management of fish in aqua cultural pond is as much an art as a science. As research continues and the results are developed into recommendations, pond management will become more successful. The art of pond management will always be a necessity. Global annual aquaculture production has more than tripled within the past 15 years, and by 2015, aquaculture is predicted to account for 39% of total global seafood production by weight

KEYWORDS: Watershed Management, Community, Water, Aquaculture Ponds, Farm Ponds INTRODUCTION
Watershed development in India, in different agroclimatic regions, needs immense attention because fisheries in India are still in its infancy. It is bound to become a major economic activity in near future and would attract new entrepreneurs who would like to enter the new field and try new innovative technologies, for launching successful projects. The scientists are yet to solve many more impediments of aquaculture and fishery technology. Indias population is exploding at the rate of 15 million per annum and expected to reach one billion by the end of the century. The agricultural land and its production are reducing year after year but the people need more nutritious food. The water resource of India is not yet fully capped and has more promising areas. The present fish production of 4.36 million tones farms only 25% of 16 million tons required for feeding 50% of the present non-vegetarian population, which includes both inland and marine production, against the world 100 million tones fish production (Srivastava 1985; Santanam et al 1987; Belsare 1986; Jhingran 1991). Fish play an important role in the nutrition of people in India. Per capita availability of fish in the country is 9.5 kg with production at 5.8 million tonnes during 1999-2000. This production level makes India the second largest aquaculture producing country in the world, China is the leading aquaculture producer. India cultures many different species including Indian major carps (catla, Catla catla; rohu, Labeo rohita; naini,Cyprinus mrigala; and calbasu, Labeo calbasu), marine shrimp, freshwater shrimp, oysters, green and brown mussels, and pearl oysters for domestic and international markets. To meet the increased demand for fisheries products by 2010, India must increase its current level of production to 7-8 million tonnes per year. With marine fishery production/capture steady at 3 million tonnes per year,

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inland aquaculture production must increase from its current level of 2.5 million tonnes to 5 million tonnes by 2010. India must intensify culture production methods for this increased production values to be achieved (Gopakumar 2003). India has got vast potential in marine, brackish water and Inland waters. Watershed areas are being increased with the new inbounded water of new hydal projects, major irrigation tanks, minor tanks, village ponds and pools, besides present rivers and irrigation canals.

WATERSHED PROGRAMME IN INDIA

Watershed development approach in India with government support started in mid 50s, but group efforts existed even in early twenties. The first government scheme namely Soil Conservation Works in the Catchments of River Valley Projects (RVP) was launched in 1962-63 to control the siltation of multi-purpose reservoirs. The second Mega-Project Drought Prone Area Development Programme (DPAP) started in 1972 -73 for drought-proofing the vulnerable areas and mitigating the impact of drought. Later in 1976-77, Desert Development Programme (DDP) was also added for development of desert areas. The DAC of MOA launched a scheme of propagation of water harvesting/conservation technology in rainfed areas in 19 identified locations in 1982-83. In October 1984, MoRD adopted this approach in 22 other locations in rainfed areas. In these 41 model watersheds ICAR/SAUs were also involved to provide research and technology support. The scheme of National Watershed Development Project for Rainfed Areas (NWDPRA) was launched in 1990-91 in 25 States and 2 UTs based on twin concepts of Integrated Watershed management and sustainable farming system. During IX Plan, the scheme was extended to three newly formed States. The scheme of NWDPRA has been subsumed with Scheme for Macro Management of Agriculture Supplementation/Complementation of the state efforts through Work Plans in 2000-01. At present, the scheme is being implemented as a programme in Centrally Sponsored Scheme of Macro Management of Agriculture in 28 States and 2 UTs. During the VIII Plan Ministry of Rural Development (MoRD) launched a new initiative in 1994-95 incorporating the essential elements of WARASA guidelines and providing for NGO participation as implementing agents. Number of projects assisted by bilateral donors and international funding agencies like World Bank were also launched in the 80s. Besides, a number of NGOs are also working for Integrated Watershed Development Projects in different parts of the country (Orissa Watershed Development Mission 2012). Watershed development in India has, made three important transitions. Firstly, there has been a shift from a topdown, command-and-control regulatory approach to a more people-centered, bottom-up and participatory approach, which recognizes that watershed protection and development is impossible to undertake and sustain successfully without the active participation of local communities. Secondly, and related to the first, it has been realized that technical solutions that normally characterize watershed protection activities in India such as building of engineering structures, policing of forests from local people, etc. are by themselves insufficient, and that social solutions involving collective action by the communities, and offering them suitable incentives to participate in watershed development and natural resource management, are far more sustainable in the long run. Thirdly, it has been accepted that watershed development is far more effective when done in an integrated and planned manner, following a logical ridge-to-valley approach, rather than in isolation by each government line department separately (DES Himachal Pradesh 2009; Himachal Pradesh Watershed Development Mission 2009).

HISTORY OF WATERSHED DEVELOPMENT IN INDIA

About 60 per cent of total arable land (142 million ha) in India is rain-fed, characterized by low productivity, low income, low employment with high incidence of poverty and a bulk of fragile and marginal land (Joshi et al 2008).

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Rainfall pattern in these areas are highly variable both in terms of total amount and its distribution, which lead to moisture stress during critical stages of crop production and makes agriculture production vulnerable to pre and post production risk. Watershed development projects in the country has been sponsored and implemented by Government of India from early 1970s onwards. The journey through the evolution of watershed approach evolved in India is shown in Figure-1 (Wani et al. 2005 and 2006). Various watershed development programs like Drought Prone Area Program (DPAP), Desert Development Program (DDP), River Valley Project (RVP), National Watershed Development Project for Rain-fed Areas (NWDPRA) and Integrated Wasteland Development Program (IWDP) were launched subsequently in various hydroecological regions, those were consistently being affected by water stress and draught like situations. Entire watershed development program was primarily focused on structural-driven compartmental approach of soil conservation and rainwater harvesting during 1980s and before. In spite of putting efforts for maintaining soil conservation practices (example, contour bunding, pits excavations etc.), farmers used to plow out these practices from their fields. It was felt that a straightjacket top-down approach cannot make desired impact in watersheds and mix up of individual and community based interventions are essential ( Suhas P Wani and Kaushal K Garg 2011). The integrated watershed development program with participatory approach was emphasized during mid 1980s and in early 1990s. This approach had focused on raising crop productivity and livelihood improvement in watersheds (Wani et al 2006) along with soil and water conservation measures. The Government of India appointed a committee in 1994 under the chairmanship of Prof. C H Hanumantha Rao. The committee thoroughly reviewed existing strategies of watershed program and strongly felt a need for moving away from the conventional approach of the government department to the bureaucratic planning without involving local communities (Raju et al 2008). The new guideline was recommended in year 1995, which emphasized on collective action and community participation, including participation of primary stakeholders through community-based organizations, non-governmental organizations and Panchayath Raj Institutions (PRI) (GoI 1994 2008; Hanumantha Rao et al 2000; DOLR 2003; GoI 2008; Joshi et al 2008). Watershed development guidelines were again revised in year 2001 (called Hariyali guidelines) to make further simplification and involvement of PRIs more meaningful in planning, implementation and evaluation and community empowerment (Raju et al 2008) and guidelines were issued in year 2003 (DOLR 2003). Subsequently, Neeranchal Committee (in year 2005) evaluated the entire government-sponsored, NGO and donor implemented watershed development programs in India and suggested a shift in focus away from a purely engineering and structural focus to a deeper concern with livelihood issues (Raju et al 2008). Major objectives of the watershed management program are: 1) conservation, up-gradation and utilization of natural endowments such as land, water, plant, animal and human resources in a harmonious and integrated manner with low-cost, simple, effective and replicable technology; 2) generation of massive employment; 3) reduction of inequalities between irrigated and rain-fed areas and poverty alleviation (Suhas P Wani and Kaushal K Garg 2011).

IMPORTANCE OF WATERSHED DEVELOPMENT IN KARNATAKA

The land resources of Karnataka especially its dry drought prone lands, which comprises more than 79 % of the total arable area, have been poorly managed by the resource poor farmers of the state. Soil loss due to erosion coupled with reduced water resources has led to a situation of rapid soil fertility deterioration, declining/stagnating crop yields, depletion of underground water sources, deforestation, denudation, destruction of natural pasture and diminishing biomass production. Exploring the full potential of rain fed agriculture to meet the food, fodder and fuel requirement of the state population, is the only alternative, however, this will require investing in suitable soil and water conservation technologies,

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crop breeding targeted to rain fed environments, agricultural extension services, and access to markets, credit and input supplies in rain fed areas. The potential for increasing the irrigable area and enhancing productivity from irrigated lands has its limitations. The total irrigation potential from all sources, including inter basin transfers, is estimated at around 50 % of the total cropped area of 104.89 lakh hectares by the Karnataka state land use board. The remaining land has to depend on rain fed farming forever. Therefore if the state has to conserve and develop natural resources in rain fed areas to improve their production and productivity, their development on watershed basis is inevitable. Development of rain fed areas is important because more than 44 % of its agricultural production comes from drylands. Karnataka has the highest proportion (79 %) of drought prone area among all major states in the country and in absolute terms it has the second largest area of dry land in the country after Rajasthan. In addition, Karnataka also has the second lowest (154.2 M ha M/Yr) replenishable ground water resources among major states after Rajasthan (Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka 2007-08). Water bodies holding water for more than six months taken up for fish culture from ten districts viz., Mysore, Kodagu, Dakshina Kannada, Uttara Kannada, Belgaum, Dharwad, Haveri, Shimoga, Chikmagalore and Hassan. 458 Farm ponds, 7 Nala bunds and 01 Gukatte will be stocked with approximately 90,000 fish fingerlings of Catla, Common Carp, Rohu and Grass Carp respectively (Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka 2007-08).

WATERSHED MANAGEMENT APPROACHES

Integrated and Consortium Approach Integrated approach suggest the integration of technologies within the natural boundaries of a drainage area for optimum development of land, water, and plant resources to meet the basic needs of people and animals in a sustainable manner. This approach aims to improve the standard of living of common people by increasing his earning capacity by offering all facilities required for optimum production (Singh 2000). In order to achieve its objective, integrated watershed management suggests to adopt land and water conservation practices, water harvesting in ponds and recharging of groundwater for increasing water resources potential and stress on crop diversification, use of improved variety of seeds, integrated nutrient management and integrated pest management practices, etc. Consortium approach emphasizes on collective action and community participation including of primary stakeholders, government and non-government organizations, and other institutions. Watershed management requires multidisciplinary skills and competencies. Easy access and timely advice to farmers are important drivers for the observed impressive impacts in the watershed. These lead to enhance awareness of the farmers and their ability to consult with the right people when problems arise. It requires multidisciplinary proficiency in field of engineering, agronomy, forestry, horticulture, animal husbandry, entomology, social science, economics and marketing. It is not always possible to get all the required support and skills-set in one organization. Thus, consortium approach brings together the expertise of different areas to expand the effectiveness of the various watershed initiatives and interventions (Suhas P Wani and Kaushal K Garg 2011). Land and Water Conservation Practices Soil and water conservation practices are the primary step of watershed management program. Conservation practices can be divided into two main categories: 1) in-situ and 2) ex-situ management. Land and water conservation practices, those made within agricultural fields like construction of contour bunds, graded bunds, field bunds, terraces building, broad bed and furrow practice and other soil-moisture conservation practices, are known as in-situ management.

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These practices protect land degradation, improve soil health, and increase soil-moisture availability and groundwater recharge. Moreover, construction of check dam, farm pond, gully control structures, pits excavation across the stream channel is known as ex-situ management (Figure 1). Ex-situ watershed management practices reduce peak discharge in order to reclaim gully formation and harvest substantial amount of runoff, which increases groundwater recharge and irrigation potential in watersheds.

Figure 1: Check Dam & Farm Pond Utilized for Aquaculture

LEVELS OF AQUACULTURAL TECHNOLOGY

A high degree of technological flexibility makes aquaculture feasible under a variety of conditions and objectives. Aquaculture may be practiced at different intensity levels. Simple systems requiring low levels of technological management and resources, and only slight modifications of the environment are termed "extensive." Aquaculture becomes increasingly "intensive" as more control of the environment and sophistication in management are used. An important aspect of aquacultural technology is the use of nutrient inputs in the form of fertilizers, foods or both. Extensive aquaculture uses low- quality foods and fertilizers in small amounts. Higher quality inputs in large amounts are required for intensive aquaculture. Small-scale aquaculture for the promotion of socio-economic development fulfills the objectives of food production, income generation and provision of local employment for small farmers. Extensive technology and associated low operating costs with higher labor requirements are often mandated by the reduced availability of investment and operating capital for small-scale farmers. Large-scale or "industrial" aquaculture is more concerned with maximizing profit through sales and relies on more intensive technology. Larger capital outlay and more advanced management skills are required (International center for Aquaculture and aquatic environments 2003).

AQUACULTURE
Aquaculture is the farming and husbandary of economically important aquatic animals and plants under controlled condition. (Santanam et al 1987). Hence careful aquaculture generates, much more income than any agriculture and allied commodities, Inland aquaculture has got high employment generation aspects. Therefore the efforts of our scientists in standing techniques and transferring them from lab to land are commendable. A few of them are, Developing the technique of farming and hatchery operations for brackish water prawn. Culture of pearl oyster and its hatchery operations. Hatchery and farming operations for the edible oyster.

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Composite fish culture of carps. Intensive carp culture and its hatchery technique. Alternate boat building material like ferrocement, etc. Better synthetic substitutes for net making material and Indigenous feed and production of value added products. While development and transfer of newer technologies can be implemented through the combined efforts of technocrats, entrepreneurs, development agencies and financing institutions etc., development of newer technologies or improvement in existing technology for successful commercial application can solely be done by fisheries scientists.

SCOPE OF AQUACULTURE
Global production of fish from aquaculture has grown substantially in the past decade, reaching 52.5 million tonnes in 2008, compared with 32.4 million tonnes in 2000. Aquaculture continues to be the fastest-growing animal food producing sector and currently accounts for nearly half (45.6 percent) of the worlds food fish consumption, compared with 33.8 percent in 2000. The AsiaPacific region continues to dominate the aquaculture sector, accounting for 89.1 percent of global production, with China alone contributing 62.3 percent of global production. Moreover, of the 15 leading aquaculture producing countries, 11 are in the AsiaPacific region. Achieving the global aquaculture sectors long-term goal of economic, social and environmental sustainability depends primarily on continued commitments by governments to provide and support a good governance framework for the sector. It is encouraging that the experience of the past decade indicates that many governments remain committed to good governance. As the sector further expands, intensifies and diversifies, it should recognize the relevant environmental and social concerns and make conscious efforts to address them in a transparent manner, backed with scientific evidence ( FAO 2011). Achieving the global aquaculture sectors long-term goal of economic, social and environmental sustainability depends primarily on continued commitments by governments to provide and support a good governance framework for the sector. It is encouraging that the experience of the past decade indicates that many governments remain committed to good governance. As the sector further expands, intensifies and diversifies, it should recognize the relevant environmental and social concerns and make conscious efforts to address them in a transparent manner, backed with scientific evidence. In the process, the sector should also prepare itself to face the potential impacts of climate change and global economic crisis, and make special efforts to further assist small-scale producers by organizing them into associations and through promotion of better management practices, as has been successfully demonstrated in many countries. It is hoped that, as the new decade unfolds, a stronger and more confident sector will stand ready to face and overcome the future challenges and move further along the path to sustainability ( FAO 2011). Among 28 states and Union territories, The Inland Fisheries resources available are from: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Tanks & ponds Reservoir Open estuaries & Brackish water area Lakes Rivers and Irrigation canals -----1078.1 M.ha. 1093.5 M.ha. 1536.6 M.ha. 802.6 M.ha. 75,639 K.mts. 4510.8 M.ha.

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Karnataka Contribute to be from: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Tanks & ponds Reservoir Open estuaries & Brackish water area Lakes Rivers and Irrigation canals -----272.0 M.ha. 126.0 M.ha. 9.5 M.ha. 0.4 M.ha. 9000 K.mts. length 407.9 M.ha

Inland Fisheries India is blessed with huge inland water resources (29,000 kms of rivers, 0.3 million ha of estuaries, 0.19 million ha of backwaters and lagoons, 3.15 million ha of reservoirs, 0.2 million ha of floodplain wetlands and 0.72 million ha of upland lakes). It has been estimated that about 0.8 million tones of inland fish is contributed by different types of inland open water systems. Though, the production breakup of these water bodies is not available, it is believed that capture fisheries production from rivers and estuaries contribute only a small share of the total inland catch. The bulk of the production comes from reservoirs and floodplain wetlands, which are managed on the basis of culture-based fisheries or various other forms of enh ancement. The 14 major rivers, 44 medium rivers and innumerable small rivers of the country with a combined length of 29,000 kms provide for one of the richest fish faunistic resources of the world. While production figures from different riverine systems are not available, estimates made for major rivers showed yield varying from 0.64 to 1.64 tons per km with an average of 1 tone per km. The average estimated yield in different estuaries range from 45-75 kg/ha. Table 1: Indian Fisheries Potential Production Present Fish Production Inland Marine Fish seed production Hatcheries FFDA BFDA Export (Source: Ayyappan, 2009) 8.4 mmt 6.18 mmt 3.16 mmt 3.02 mmt 18500 million fry 1070 422 39 Rs. 6,800 crores

Flood plain wetlands or beels are other potential fishery resources in the states of Assam, West Bengal and Bihar. They offer tremendous scope for both culture and capture fisheries. These water bodies play vital role for recruitment of fish stocks of the riverine system and provide nursery grounds for commercially important finfishes and shellfishes. It has been estimated that these beels possess potential to yield as much as 1000-1500 kg/ha/year, while the present level remains at only 100-150 kg/ha. The rich nutrients load and availability of fish food organisms make water bodies ideal for culturebased fisheries leading to higher growth of stocked fish species compared to the reservoirs. The marginal areas of the beels can be utilised for construction of ponds or pens of suitable sizes for raising the required fingerlings for stocking the beels. Considering the present threat of increased pollution levels and siltation of open water resources like rivers, estuaries and lagoons and also the over-exploitation of these resources leading to stagnation of fisheries production, thrust on culturebased fisheries in reservoirs and floodplain wetlands holds the key for future of the inland fisheries development in India( Ayyappan 2009 ).

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ADVANTAGES OF AQUACULTURE
Productive venture, compared to that the animal husbandry and agriculture. Fish crowded (200/m2) in water recirculation system. Food conversion 1.5 times more when compared to pig, chicken, and 2 times more than cattle and sheep. Duckery is known to be

Integration with agriculture, horticulture and animal husbandry, sericulture, poultry and more profitable than agriculture alone. Domestic waste protect environment. Earn good foreign exchange. Employment generation in rural area. Rich in protein (lysine & methionine) PUFA (Eicosepantaenoic acid) and which reduces blood and rich in vitamins A B C D E & mineral calcium, and sulphur in sufficient quantities,

cholesterol

level

in

phosphorous, iron, sodium, potassium, magnesium

required by the human body.

Cheapest protein when compared to egg, poultry, pig and beef.

CULTURABLE FISHES AND CHARACTERISTICS AND RELATION TO ENVIRONMENT

Most of the culturable species are belongs to Cypriniformes used in mixed culture, or polyculture or composite fish culture in fresh watersheds. They do not possess stomach, hence they do feed continuously due to non keeled and non serrated abdomen. Body is naked or covered with cycloid scales. Catla-catla (catla) Labeo rohita (Rohu) Cirrihina mrigala (Mrigal), Ctenopharyngdon idella (grass carp), Hypophthalmychthys molitrix (Silver Carp) Cyprinus carpio (Common Carp) and order pereiformes Oreochromis mossambicus (Tilapia). Where carp culture is not possible, areas could be effectively utilized in catfish culture or (order: siluriformes). These species can withstand the hazards or water qualities and swamphy environment because of their air-breathing and cutaneous breathing nature. Heteropnenues fossilis, Clarias-batrchus, Channa marulius, Channa striatus, are the common species employed in SWAM culture. Nitrogen Cycle in the Pond

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The Nitrogen cycle occurring in pond water body showing relationship between elemental nitrogen, and inorganic and organic nitrogenous compounds is shown in the above diagram. Shellfish culture with two species of monsoon river prawns like, Macrobrachium-malcomsoni and M. rosenbargi could also bring high economic return in the near future.

ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS
Climatic Factors Light Temperature Rain fall Humidity & Air Atmosphere (gases & wind)

Topographic or Physiographic Factors Altitude Direction of mountain, claims & valley Steepness & exposure of slopes

Edaphic Factors Physical Nature SOIL Chemical Nature Water Holding Biotic Factors Plants Animals Micro-organisms and Primary productions

CRITERIA FOR SELECTION OF FISH SPECIES

The successful fish farming depends upon the species which possess the following important criteria. High growth rate Effective conversion of organic production of the water in to fish flesh (conversion Compatibility with other species under culture. Adaptation to crowded condition. Hardness to withstand for the changing water environment, like, physico-chemical conditions, temperature, pH,DO2, factor)

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turbidity, CO2 etc. Reproduction under confined condition. Easier to handle & harvest. Taste and texture of fish flesh. Good Demand & Marketability And Good Keepability (preservation)

Integrated Fish Farming In a number of countries in Asia (e.g., China, Nepal, Thailand, Malaysia, Indonesia) and in some parts of Africa, freshwater fish culture is integrated with the farming of crops, mainly rice, vegetables and animals (usually pigs, ducks, and chickens). This leads to greater overall efficiency of the farming system as wastes/by-products or one component are used as inputs in another. Figure 2 depicts poultry or pig manure can be used to fertilize the fish pond and the vegetable garden and the waste vegetables can be fed to the fish and the pigs (FAO 1989). In Africa, fish culture in rice fields and in combination with pig and duck rearing, is not too widely practised but has significant potential. Reported fish yields ranged from 2000-4000 kg/ha/yr with ducks, 8500-8900 kg/ha/y with pigs, and 3600-4900 kg/ha/y with poultry in Gabon. It has also been proven economically viable since it involves minimal investment. Its spread has, however, been constrained by the widespread use of pesticides in many countries (FAO 1989).

Figure 2: Interrelationships among the Various Components of an Integrated Fish Farming System (FAO 1989)

TYPES OF AQUACULTURE
Metahaline Culture In the supersaline salt pan areas, culture of Brine shrimp ( Artemia salina) can be undertaken. While the dormant eggs (cysts) released under unfavorable conditions earn a good foreign exchange, the nauplii hatched from the cysts sene as an instant protein-rich live food for the larvae of fish and shellfish (Santhanam e t al 1987) Mariculture The pollution free near shore coastal and open sea environment have got wide scope for culture of fish and shell fish despite marine fisheries sector which deals with different fishing zones, area specific Bathymetric and Spatial locations and behaviour composition of catches, catch for unit effort and resultant maximum sustainable yield and also the calculation of the problem of over fishing with the result depletion of stock. However, the country is known to possess deep sea resources like yellowfin tuna about 2 lakh tones, Beel fishes 1.13 lakh ton, shrimp and lobsters 8,000 tonne

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having an export potential to the tune of Rs. 4,800 million. However, our effort has to take cognizance of these valuable resources. Problematic areas are: Bio waste development in processing technology. Development of fuel efficient vessel. New netting material such as monofilament, polypropylene polymide and Low energy fishing practices. Though China, Japan, Korea,Philippines and Thaiwan have taken up mariculture programme in a big way. India is yet to start commercial farming. We are yet to adopt and try in this regard in respect of stocking material, operational input, optimum level of physic-chemical parameters, feed with better feed conversion ratio. Engineering aspects of cages/penin the marine environment in this regard we must follow the countries who have got successful stories. Brackish Water Culture Brackish-water areas, rich in plankton and oxygen, fishes such as milkfish, ( Chanos chanos) cock-up, Lates calcarifer, mullets (Mugil spp) and prawns could be cultured either by constructing tidal ponds or by installing bamboo or nylon enclosures, otherwise called pens. Pole culture of mussels rock culture of Oysters and raft and rope culture of mussels can also be attempted in brackish-water as in coastal water ecosystem. In the shallow brackish-water regions, culture of the mangrove crab, Scylla serrata may also be attempted by constructing bamboo cages. During the past 5 to 6 years the brackish water reclamation and culture are fast developing and some of the important problems needs immediate solution are: Lack of fuel proof technology and backyard hatchery projects. Poor survival at different larval stages of prawn. Non-availability of cheap, nutritious, indigenous feed with better FCR. Engineering aspects of farm and hatchery construction. Diseases. Technology for each species. Culture of live feed artemia etc. The large scale breeding of Mullets, milkfish and lobsters are yet in laboratory scale. Environmental protection and ecological balance as experienced by some of our neighboring countries.

Fresh Water Aquaculture This includes pond fish culture, comprising mono sex culture, composite fish culture, predator-prey culture, airbreathing fish culture, fish culture in temple tanks, irrigation tanks, raceways, seepage systems and water recirculation systems, ornamental fish culture, larvivorous fish culture, culture of fish food organisms, sport fish culture and integrated fish farming as detailed below:

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While some advanced countries are producing 65 ton of fish per hectare-culture technology established in India still gives and average production of only 2 to 5 tonnes per hectare per year. The reservoir fisheries is one sector which has an capacity to bring is a sea change in our overall fish production level but this component is yet to attract the attention of entrepreneurs because of technological and several managerial hardles. In freshwater sector, adaptive research techniques are available only for few carps and cat fishes. There are several fresh water species requiring detailed studies on their biology behavoiurs, growth pattern etc., which could be utilized for increasing fish production, technologies for prawn farming, pearl culture, pen culture, cage culture, cold water fish production integration of fish farming with other agricultural activities, fish culture in irrigation canals, streams and tributaries are some of the areas which need immediate attention of research institutions. Detailed information of culture, breeding, feeding requirement during different growth stages, countrywise market preferences etc. Should be made available to the entrepreneurs before taking up large scale culture of ornamental fish and aquatic plants. Propagation of ornamental fish culture has tremendous possibilities of providing avocations to landless youths as there exists excellent demand for these fishes in domestic and international market.

EVOLUTION OF INLAND AQUACULTURE AND FISHERIES

Carp Culture Fish culture has a long history in India and farmers were aware of the importance of the Indian major carp (IMC) in pond fish culture (Chaudhuri et al 1974). However, the production from these systems remained significantly low at 600kg ha-1 year-1 (Banerjee 1967; Jhingran 1969) until the introduction of scientific composite carp culture technology during the seventies. Introduction of exotic species like silver carp (Hypophthalmichthys molitrix) and grass carp (Ctenopharyngodon idella) during 1959 (Alikunhi and Sukumaran 1964) filled two important niches of phytoplankton and macro vegetation. These species along with the indigenous carp species have contributed significantly in enhancing the yields from fish ponds. Further, the Bangkok strain of common carp (Cyprinus carpio) introduced during 1957 also made a mark through its presence within very short period (Ayyappan and Jena 1998; Pillai and Pradeep K Katiha 2004). The technology of scientific carp culture in India developed at the Pond Culture Division of CIFRI, Cuttack, was disseminated to different agro-climatic zones and was refined through the work carried out at different centres under All India Coordinated Research Project (AICRP) on Composite Fish Culture and Fish Seed Production, initiated in 1971 by Indian Council of Agricultural Research, New Delhi. Studies from all the six centres of AICRP revealed that the production increased from 2436 kg ha-1 year-1 to 6522 kg ha-1 year-1 through fertilization and supplementary feeding at the various agro-climatic zones.The researches by Lakshmanan et al., 1971; Sinha et al., 1973;Chaudhuri et al., 1974, 1975; Chakrabarty et al. 1979; Saha et al., 1979; Sinha and Saha, 1980; Tripathi and Mishra, 1986; Rao and Raju, 1989; Tripathi et al., 2000; Ayyappan and Jena, 2001and Jena et al., 2002 a, b have led to the development, refinement and standardization of a host of technologies with varied production levels depending on the input use and finally resulted in the development of the technology for intensive carp culture. Catfish Culture Various researchers worked for the development of technology for air breathing fish and large size catfish culture (Parameswaran and Murugesan 1975; Dehadrai 1980; Dehadrai et al 1985; Thakur and Das 1986; Seth 1997; Seth and Katiha 2002). Integrated Fish Farming Little attention has been paid to integrated fish farming system in India, though initial trials on the integration of

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pig, duck and poultry with fish culture have given encouraging results (Sharma et al 1979 and 1979a; Jhingran and Sharma 1980; Sharma and Das 1988; Jhingran 1991; Tripathi, 1991). Hatchery Technologies Breakthrough in induced breeding through hypophysation (Chaudhuri and Alikunhi 1957) was achieved during the fifties with a thrust on mass production of quality spawn in controlled environment, thereby reducing dependence on natural seed collection. Scientists have successfully induce-bred different carp species like Labeo rohita, Cirrhinus mrigala, C. reba, L. bata and Puntius sarana by injecting carp pituitary extract. This technique has been adopted widely and forms a regular part of fish culture programme in India (Jhingran 1991). Chinese carps were also successfully bred in 1962 adopting similar techniques (Alikunhi et al., 1963). The technique of induced breeding of carps by hypophysation has been followed in different species by several workers (Chaudhuri 1960, 1963; Moitra and Sarkar 1975; Varghese et al 1975; Bhowmick et al 1986). Further, the use of various synthetic formulations including Ovaprim has largely replaced the use of pituitary and the technology has become more farmer-friendly. Now Ovatide and WOVA-FH are also becoming popular(Pillai and Pradeep K. Katiha 2004). Strain Development Several intergeneric and interspecific hybrids have been produced in the last four decades for genetic improvement (Chaudhuri 1973; Das et al 1989; Naseem and Alikunhi 1971; Varghese and Santara 1971; Chondar 1977; Konda Reddy and Varghese 1980a b; Basavaraju and Varghese 1983a b; Bhowmik et al 1981; Khan et al 1988 ; Gopal et al 1989). Monosex production by breeding six inverted broodstock in grass carp, common carp and silver carp has been reported for their production enhancement in open water system (Naggy et al 1984). In India sex reversal of common carp is reported by Basavaraja and Rao (1988) and in tilapia (Oreochromis mossambicus) by Das et al. (1987), Varadaraj and Pandian (1989a) and Pandian (1991). The genetic engineering practice which is becoming popular during recent years is gynogenesis, polyploidy and transgenics (Das et al 1986; Das and Ponniah 1991). Sterile triploid hybrids have been produced by crossing common carp with IMC males (Khan et al 1988). Reddy et al. (1990) succeeded in producing triploidy and tetraploidy in rohu and catla by giving heat shocks to the fertilized eggs. Further, Reddy et al. (1998a) induced triploidy in common carp. Pandian and Varadaraj (1987) produced triploids and tetraploids in tilapia by heat shock. Varadaraj and Pandian (1989 b, c) employing judicious combination endocrine sex reversal, selective breeding and gynogenetic techniques produced super male tilapia for the first time.In India, selective breeding work has been taken up at the Central Institute of Freshwater Aquaculture for rohu wherein growth increments of about 15 % over the parental stock for F1 generation was successfully demonstrated (Reddy et al 1998b; Das Mahapatra et al 2000). After the F 3 generation, the genetic improvement was of the order of 50%. Carp hatchery has been improved from the earthen pits to double-walled hapa and running water glass jar or FRP circular hatcheries (Bhowmick 1978; Dwivedi and Rabindranathan 1982; Dwivedi and Zaidi 1983; Jhingran and Pullin 1985; Gupta et al 1994 and Rath and Gupta 1997).Though refinements in various hatchery systems have paved the way for a large scale seed production (Alikunhi et al 1964; Bhowmick 1978), spawn and fry rearing suffer 50-70% mortality (Lakshmanan et al 1967 ; Lakshmanan 1969; Jena et al 1996, 1998b). Thus, efficient rearing of the initial stages of fish has assumed importance (Sukumaran et al 1976; Mishra and Tyagi 1981; Mohanty 1995). Although the need for raising fingerling in rearing pond system is fully realized, it is usually ignored by most of the fish culturists, who normally resort to stocking the ponds directly with fry (Hora and Pillay 1962; Lakshmanan et al 1968; Natarajan et al 1979). As a result, young and delicate fry are exposed to different species of predators. This feature directly affects the survival of the seed

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(Tripathi 1990b; Pillai and Pradeep K Katiha 2004).

CONCLUSIONS
Watershed development has become the main intervention for fishery resource management and rural development. Watershed development programmes not only protect and conserve the environment, but also contribute to livelihood security. Watershed development activities have significant impact on groundwater recharge, access to groundwater and hence the expansion in irrigated area. Therefore, our policy focus must be on the development of these water-harvesting structures, particularly farm ponds, percolation ponds, wherever feasible. In addition to these public investments, private investments through construction of farm ponds may be encouraged as these structures help in a big way to harvest the available rainwater and hence fish culture activities. In the developing world, the fisheries sector provides the basis for livelihoods and nutrition for millions of people, and constitutes a significant source of foreign exchange for many developing economies. This lack of attention to the sector is particularly problematic given that capture fisheries are currently being fished at capacity, and that further increases in production will have to come from expansion of aquaculture. There is, therefore, an important role for developing country governments to play, both in managing capture fisheries to prevent further stock depletion, and in regulating the development of aquaculture to ensure that it is both environmentally sustainable and pro-poor. Under such conditions, fisheries and aquaculture can act as an important and growing source of economic development in rural areas. Although farm ponds in watershed management are typically constructed to supply agricultural lands with water for irrig ation, livestock watering, or re control, they can also enhance the aesthetic qualities of a landscape, provide recreational opportunities, and supply habitat for wildlife. Farm ponds help to increase the overall health of the watershed, and can contribute to soil and water conservation. If farm ponds are managed properly, they can provide valuable sh and wildlife habitat and fullling other farm needs for many years.

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