ME-331 DESIGN OF MACHINE ELEMENTS

UNIT V
DESIGN OF SPRINGS
INTRODUCTION

A spring is an elastic number, which deflects under the action of load and regains its
original shape after the load is removed. Springs are quite commonly used in
Automobiles, Railway wagons, valves, watches etc.,

FUNCTIONS OF SPRINGS

Springs are usually required to perform the following functions.

(i) To measure forces in spring balance. Meters and engine indicators.
(iii) To store energy Example: Clocks. Toys. Circuit breakers and starters.
(iv) To apply Forces and to control motions as in brakes and clutches
K to control motion by maintaining. Contact between two elements as in cam and
followers.

CLASSIFICATION OF SPRINGS

The most common types of springs arc as follows:

(‘ 1.) Helical springs:
Helical springs are made of circular wire coiled into a helical form. The load being
applied along the axis of the helix. In these springs the major stress is shear stress due to
the helical springs may be
(a) Close-coiled or tension helical spring.
(b) Open-coiled or compression helical spring.
The springs which arc sustaining tensile force along their axes, arc called helical tension
or close-coiled. These springs arc having helix angle less than 100.
The springs which are sustaining compression Force along their axes, are called helical
compression or open-coiled springs. These springs are having helix angle more than 10°.
(ii) Spiral springs:
These springs are made of’ flat strip sound in the form of’ spiral and loaded in torsion. In
spiral spring the major stresses arc tensile and compression due to bending. The
deflection is angular.
(iii) Leaf .springs:
A leaf spring consists of flat bars of varying lengths clamped together and supported at
both ends, thus acting as a simply supported beam. The major Stresses are tensile or
compressive.
A leaf spring may be of full elliptical, semi-elliptical or cantilever type.
(a) Compression helical spring (b) Tension helical spring Fig. Spiral spring

(a) (b)
Fig. Leaf spring Fig Disc or Belleville spring

(v) Conical spring:

It is made of round wire wound in the shape of cone as shown in fig. The major stresses
produced in this spring arc shear due to twisting. It is used either where space limitation
does not allow to use helical spring or where a variable rate of stiffness is desired with a
single spring.

DESIGN OF HELICAL SPRINGS

As explained earlier, the coil or helical spring consists of a wire wound in the form of
helix. It is loaded axially along the axis which tends to shorten, lengthen or twist.
However, most springs work in compression. The main advantages of these springs arc
that they are cheaper to manufacture and they perform its function satisfactorily for
prolonged periods.
The most commonly used terms in connection with these springs are as follows.
(1) Spring spiffiness (q):
This defined as the load required per unit deflection.

(ii) Spring index (C) The ratio of mean or pitch diameter to the diameter of wire for the
spring is called the spring index.

If spring is made of rectangular section wire.

 Thickness of wire.

Fig. Helical spring nomenclature

(iii,) Active coils:
Those coils which are free to deflect under load called active coils.
(iv) Inactive coils:
The coils, which do not take part in deflection of a spring. Are known as inactive coils.
(iv) Free length (L f):
The full length of a spring under the no-load condition is called its free length.
Allowance
= Solid length + maximum spring deflection clash

As colid length ii is the product of total number of coils and the diameter of wire.
LS=nt*d
Where Nt —total number of coils.
(ii) Pitch (p):
The axial distance between adjacent coils in uncompressed state. Mathematically.

The design of any spring must satisfy the following requirements.

(a) Spring must carry the service load without the stress exceeding the safe value.
(b) The spring rate must be satisfactory) for the given application. Shows close coiled
helical spring made of circular wire and sub to axial load, P.
Let
P = Axial load
D = Mean diameter of spring
A = diameter of spring wire ii = number of active coils r = radius of wire. —2
R mean radius of coils
Deflection of spring = maximum shear stress induced in the wire.
P = Pitch of the coils.

Fig. Spring subjected to axial load

Torsional moment:

Deflection of spring:
The value of deflection is calculated as follows. We know that, the
Torsion equation

Energy stored in spring (U):

Strain energy stored in spring or resilience of the spring is given by

Springs under impact loading:

When a load P falls on a spring through a height is. Then the energy absorbed in a spring
is

\Vhere.
Pe is the equivalent gradual load, which shall give the same results as that of P. Which
falls through a height h.
Y —Deflection of the spring.

End conditions of spring:

The total number of turns in a spring depends upon the type of the end conditions used
for them. It is the sum of actual number of turns and the inactive turns due to end
conditions. Generally the following four types of end conditions arc used.
Plain end: It is most economical to produce. It has poor seating space. It is shown in fig.
(a) Plain Ends (b) Plain and (c) Squared (d) Squared and
Ground Ends Ends Ground Ends
The following table shows the total number of turns, solid length and free length for
different types of end conditions.

Springs in series:
When two or more springs are arranged in series as shown.in fig, their equivalent
stiffness is given by

Where,
Q1 —Stiffness of first spring.
Q2 —Stiffness of second spring.

Qequ —Stiffness of the equivalent spring. Fig. Springs in series

Springs in parallel:

When two or more springs are arranged in parallel and subjected to load P. Their
equivalent stiffness is given by
Where,
 Fig Springs in parallel
Q and q - Stiffness of the spring.
Qeqv —Stiffness of the equivalent spring.
Light service:
It consists of operation under essentially static conditions and where the maximum load is
carries infrequently i.e. a total of less than i000times. Examples are safety valves, slip
coupling and bolted joints.
Average service:
It includes springs subjected to the maximum load 1000 to 100000 times during service
life. Example: engine governor springs. Automobile suspension springs used in circuit
breaker mechanism.
Severe service:
It consists of a large number of cycles i.e. Greater than one million of varying load where
the maximum load is one-half or less of the maximum load. Example: automotive valve
springs.
CONCENTRIC SPRINGS
Concentric helical springs are used to obtain a greater spring force in a given space and to
ensure the operation of a mechanism in the event that one spring will break. To obtain the
above conditions, either a two- spring nest or a three-spring nest may be used.
Fig. Shows the two concentric springs have the same free length and arc compressed
equally. Such springs are used for automobile clutches and railway clutches.
To obtain a spring force which does not increase in a direct relation to the deflection, but
it increases faster; concentric springs are made of different lengths as shown in fig.
 Fig. Concentric springs
Let
P —Axis load
D —Mean coil diameter of outer spring
D —Wire diameter of outer spring
N —Number of active coils in outer spring.
— Length of outer spring

The spring index

HELICAL SPRINGS SUBJECTED TO VARIABLE LOADING

Helical springs in many applications are subjected to variable or fatigue load. Example.
IC. Engine valve spring. These springs which can carry atleast l0million stress reversal
cycles before fatigue failure are called infinite life. Springs subjected to fluctuating
stresses arc designed on the basis of the modified Soderberg equation.

DESIGN OF HELICAL TENSION SPRINGS

Helical tension or extension springs are similar to helical compression springs. The
tension springs are usually wound with the coils close and under an initial tension i.e. it is
necessary to apply from 20% to 30% of the maximum load before the coils begin to
separate. The initial tension can also be calculated by the relation

P tension spring

The design procedure for helical tension springs is similar to that for compression springs
except the initial tension. These springs do not get deflected until the external force
exceeds the initial tension.

Thus the total design load

The stress produced at X-X is due to torsion and direct stress. Thus
The basic design equation of the compression spring is applicable

The stress produced at X-X is due to torsion and direct stress. Thus
The basic design equation of the compression spring is applicable
The stress produced in the hook arc due to bending moment and direct force P. The
stresses at section Y-Y in the hook

Where, K, Stress concentration factor

Rm —Mean radius of the hook end.

Ri Inside radius of the hook end.
Generally, the extension springs are not in use because of the following reasons.
(i) They are more expensive to manufacture.
(ii) There is more stress concentration at the end coils of a tension spring than other
portions.
(iii)They require more elaborate fastening of the ends.
(iv) In case of failure, the kinematic constraint is lost.

DESIGN PROCEDURE

The design of a helical spring involves a trial-and-error method, and the result should be
checked by actual testing of the spring. While designing a spring, the designers have to
consider the following factors.
(i) It should be able to carry the designed load.
(ii) It should have the required load-deflection characteristics.
(iii) II should not buckle under load.
(iv) II should also satisfy the given set of constraints, such as space limitation, the
minimum height, the desired life, the specific vibrational characteristics etc.
The values to be found by the designer arc pitch diameter of coil the wire diameter d.
Number of turns n. Free length L solid length 1,, spring stiffness q. And type of ends.
The usual design procedure is as follows.
Step1: Select suitable material for spring according to load, deflection and purpose for
which the spring is to be designed. Use table 5.3.
Step 2: From space limitation, the pitch diameter of coil 1) is selected. If no condition or
limitation is given, then assume suitable value of spring index C usually 5 to 10.
Step 3: By knowing this data, the wire diameter can be found.
Step 4: The Wahl’ s shear stress factor Ks can be calculated by the equation given by AM.
Then the more accurate value of is found by shear stress relation.
Step 5: Adopt the nearest standard size of wire from table 5.5 which is 1S standard, Step
6: Determine the number o coils for the required deflection. If number of coils is small,
the spring will be too soft. So, reduce the mean diameter of the spring. This change will
slightly increase the diameter of wire. If the number of coils are larger. The mean coil
diameter may be increased.
Step 7: Decide the end conditions and select the number of inactive coils.
Step 8: Calculate the free length and solid length of the spring according to and condition,
Use table.
Step 9: Check the spring for buckling by using equation 5.23. Step 10: Check the spring
to avoid surging by computing the natural frequency by using equation 5.25.
Step 10: Compute the spring stiffness.

DESIGN OF BELLE VILLE SPRINGS

Belleville springs or Disc springs arc used where space limitations require high capacity
units i.e. Applications requiring high spring stiffness and compact spring units. This is
obtained at the expense of thickly non-uniform stress distribution across the section. High
Stresses are used in the design of Belleville springs. Each spring consists of several
annular discs that arc dished to a conical shape as in fig (a). There are staked up one on
top of another as in fig. (b) In order to increase the deflection.

(b) (c)
(a) Fig Belleville spring
The unit may be held in alignment by a central bolt or a tube. The springs placed in series
as shown in fig. (c) and the deflection is proportional to the number of discs. The springs
are placed in parallel as shown in fig. (b) and has the high load capacity, which is depend
on number of discs. When the load is applied uniformly around the edge, the relation
between applied load P and axial deflection is given by equation.

Where, P Applied load

Y Deflection of each disc
1 Thickness of disc
D —outside diameter of disc
V Poison’ s ratio
H -Free height of truncated cone

DESIGN OF HELICAL TORSION SPRINGS

The helical torsion springs are similar to helical conical springs in from and arc loaded b
a torque about the axis of the helical is used to transmit the torque to a particular
component of a machine or mechanism Example. Door hinges. Levers. Paratchet.
Automobile Starters etc.

Fig. Torsion springs

The primary stress in helical torsion springs is flexural it continus to the helical
compression or tension spring here the stresses are torsional shear stresses
The bending stress is the predominant stress in there springs

DESIGN OF LEAF SPRING

Simply supported beams and cantilever beams may be used as under a certain amount of
load these beams get deflected and thus absorb energy. These types of springs are
commonly called leaf spring or flat .springs. An advantage of leaf spring over the
Helical spring is that the end of the spring may be guided along a definite path as it
deflects. Thus, the spring may act as a structural member as well as an energy-absorbing
device. For example. An automobile leaf spring may be designed not only to absorb road
shocks, but also to ca lateral loads, brake torque. Driving torque etc., a leaf spring may
have the form of cantilever beam as in fig. Or it may have the beam of simply supported
beam as in fig. The main stresses are tension on one side of the neutral axis and
Compression on the other.
The maximum stress may be found from bending equation.

(a) Cantilever (b) Simply Supported

Fig. Flat or Leaf spring
 I
Where, y-distance of extreme fiber from neutral axis

M-Bending moment = P x I.
The maximum stress on cantilever spring is

Similarly, for .simply supported spring Maximum stress,

Deflection.
This anal sis shows that an automobile spring having length 2L loaded at the centre by a
load 2P may be treated as a beam of cantilever with load P of the end of span L.
The main drawback of the above spring is that the are stressed heavily at one specific
location and the other parts are stressed lightly. Therefore. These springs can be made of
uniform strength by keeping either a constant thickness or constant width generally, the
thickness of these springs is kept constant and the width is made ariab1c as shown in fig.
(a) and (b). The stresses and deflection of the spring are as (1) cantilever spring:

(a) Cantilever spring with varying width

(b) Simply supported spring with varying width
Fig. Leaf springs with varying width
iii) Simply supported spring:

LAMINATED LEAF SPRINGS

In order to increase the load carrying capacity, number of flat plates are placed one below
the other as shown in fig. 5.27(a) and (b). The lengths of the plates are of gradually
decreasing at a constant rate. Such a spring is called the laminated leaf spring. These
types of spring are widely used in widely used in automobiles, railway wagons, coaches
etc.
The maximum stress and deflection value for these springs arc the same as for the single
plate except that width h is replaced by (i,) Cantilever spring:

(a) Cantilever spring

(b) Simply supported spring
Fig Laminated springs

(ii) Simply supported spring:

SEMI-ELLIPTICAL LEAF SPRINGS

The most common type of the leaf spring used in automobile is the semi-elliptical leaf
spring as shown in fig. This spring consists of number of’ leaves, which are held together
by U-clips. The long leaf’ fastened to the supports is called master leaf whose ends arc
bent to form an eye. Remaining leaves arc small lever called graduated leaves. If the
loading is there, one or more full- length are below the master leaf.

Fig. Semi-elliptical leaf spring

Such a spring no longer remains beam of uniform strength and correction must be applied
for it. The perpendicular distance between the reference lines to the master leaf is called
the camber when the spring is subjected to maximum load, it becomes flat. The hole
drilled in the plate for the bolt weakens the spring. Therefore the diameter of bolt should
be subtracted from width of plate when making calculations for strength of the spring.
The pressure exerted by the U-clip, reduces the bending Stress in the central part of the
spring. The U-clip creates a stress concentration at the edge of the spring .It is reduced by
providing soft pad between the leaf and the scat. The ends of shorter or graduated leaves
arc clamped by the rebound clips. They help to distribute the load which is developed by
the rebound action. Otherwise the total load may be taken by the master leaf alone.
The stresses produced in the graduated leaves and full length or master leaf is given by
the equations (Refer PSGDB page 7 104).

Stress in the graduated leaves,

Stress in the master leaves or full-length leave

The deflection is same for both full-length leases and graduated leaves. It is given by the
equation (Refer PSGEB. Page 7.1 04)

Where
a. — Number of lull —length leaves. N —Number of graduated leaves.

NIPPING OF LAMINATED LEAF SPRINGS

 It may be seen from equations that the stress in the full length leaves is 50% greater
than the Stresses in the graduated leaves. For economical use of the materials, design
the sprig such that all the leaves should be equally stressed. Otherwise the master leaf
will fail. This condition can be obtained if the full—l ength leaves are given a greater
radius of curvature than that used in the graduated leaves before the leaves are
assembled to form a spring. This will create an initial gap (C) between the lea es
called the nip. When the central bolt is tightened the full —length leaf will bend back
and ha\ c an initial stress in a direction opposite to that of the normal load. When the
load is gradually applied to the spring, the lull —length leaf is first relieved of this
initial stress and then stressed in opposite direction. Such a pre-stressing obtained by
a difference of radii of curs attire is known as nipping.
Consider the case of equal stress in all the leaves at the maximum load condition. At
the maximum load.
Deflection of graduated leaves = deflection of lull-length leaves +
Nip.

Fig Nipping of laminated spring

Initial gap.

- _______
The total load on the clip bolt Ph required to close the gap can be
Determined by the fact that the total gap

Load on boll to close the nip

The initial stress in the spring leaves will be the stress in full-length leaves due to the
applied load minus the initial stress.

LENGTH OF LEAVES OF LEAF SPRING

The length of leaves may he computed by the following relations. Length of master
leaf= 2L-f it (d+i) Where. D-diameter of the eye.
I-Thickness of master leaf

Length of spring.
Effective length = 21. —Width of central band
Ineffective length = idth of central band.

RADIUS OF CURVATURE (R)

The approximate relation between radius of curvature and the camber is given below

The exact relation is

MATERIALS FOR LEAF SPRINGS

Plain carbon steel having 0.9-LO percent carbon in annealed condition is commonly
used. Chrome vanadium and silica-manganese steels are used for the better grade
spring. The physical properties of these materials are given in the following table.
Table 5.6

The working stress for a leaf spring should be based on the endurance limit. This
should not exceed the yield strength. The endurance limit in bending varies from 40
to 50% of the ultimate tensile strength. The factor of safety based on the endurance
strength is between 2.25 to 2.5 for rear spring and from 3.25 to 3.5 for front springs in
automobiles. For static load incase of governor springs.
A safety factor of 1.5 is sufficient on endurance limit.
The nominal sizes of leaves, as recommended by Is 1135-1996 code, arc given in the
following table
Table
 DESIGN PROCEDURE FOR LEAF SPRING

The usual design procedure is as follows:

Step 1: Select suitable material from table and calculate permissible stress by
selecting suitable factor of safety.
Step 2: Assume the number of leaves if not given. It is usually S to 10, but in railway
wagons it may be increased up to 14.
Step 3: Calculate the effective length of the spring is. 2L.
Step 4: The values of b1 can be found from relation- by
Substituting the values of gi load L. Length 1.And assumed number of leaves.
Step 5: By assuming either b or I. Other can be determined.
Recommended limits of the thickness ranges from S to 16 and width 45

TWO MARK QUESTIONS

1. State any two functions of springs.
2. Define Belleville springs.
3. What is buckling of springs?
4. What is meant by springs in series?
5. What are the various spring materials?
6. State the advantage of leaf spring over the helical spring.
7. What is a laminated leaf spring?
8. What is nipping of laminated leaf spring?
9. What are semi- elliptical leaf springs?
10. What is surge in springs?
PROBLEMS
1. A coil springs is to be designed to support an axial load of 1 KN with an
allowable deflection of 20mm. The outside diameter of the coil is 80mm and the
spring index is 5. Assume suitable material for the spring.

2.A helical spring made of C50 steel has an outside diameter of 80mm and a wire
diameter of 12mm. The spring has to support a maximum axial load of l KN
Determine the maximum shear stress and total deflection. If the springs have
10.5coils with ends ground flat. Determine also the factor of safety
G =0.89x10 2 KN/mm 2

3. A helical spring made of square steel wire is subjected to an axial load of 400N.
The allowable shear stress in spring material is 310N/ mm 2 and spring index is 6. The
modulus of rigidity is 0.8 x 10 5 N/ mm 2 .Determine
A) Size of square section.
B) Mean diameter of coil
C) Number of active turns if the deflection is 10mm.

4. A helical spring of rate 12N/mm is mounted on the top of another spring of rate
8N/mm. Find the force required to give a deflection of 50mm.

5. An extension spring to be manufactured to the following specification.

Wire diameter = 1mm
Number of active coils = 13.2
Outside coil diameter = 7mm
Material: Hard-drawn wire having design shear stress of l27 Mpa
And modulus of rigidity 0.79 x 10 5 N/ mm 2
Find the following
A) Spring index and mean spring diameter.
B) Free length
C) Pre load
D) Spring rate
E) Force required to deflect the spring 9mm
F) Deflection caused by a force of 30N