INTRODUCTION TO THE COURSE I am offering this course to serious would-be professional makeup artists who have already learned

basic makeup techniques and believer they have the stuff to become first-rate professionals. I cannot promise or even imply that you will become one because today this field, like so many other creative ones, is terribly difficult to get into. There are few openings and the competition is fierce. You will need diligence, determination and luck to get in but most of all, you need talent and skill. I cant give anyone great talent, but I can stimulate the growth of what talent you have, and I can teach you all the techniques and materials that I know. What you have got to do is work like hell practicing to become skillful, because the more you can do expertly as a makeup artist or lab assistant, the greater your chance of getting a job. I am going to give you all the knowledge about advanced makeup that I know. I expect you to know basic straight and character makeup and to have enough talent to see where your work needs improvement. Some people are born not only with talent but also with skill. Those lucky ones can immediately draw and sculpt easily. Most of us have to practice long and hard to make our hands skillful, but the hand will eventually obey if the eye sees the mistake and the mind commands the hand to correct it. This is where talent lies, in the mind. During the course you should use what you learn in personal projects, the more the better. Your goal should be as many completed makeups, masks, and creatures as you can manage. Do a variety of jobs. Please not all blood and gore! While you are practicing on these creations, take good photos of some of the most critical steps and close detailed shots of the finished product. I will give you advice on photography later. Of course you wont be able to practice all that Ill tell you in your few finished projects, so do tests and short partial applications with as much as the other information as you can and make notes! Note-taking is one of the most important things you will learn and the one you will forget most often. It took me years to learn the habit but I still forget sometimes under stress. Whenever I start to test something, I whip out my large lined pad and write down the subject and date and only then do I make the first test. Perhaps I am testing separating agents for two materials I have not used before. After each test, I describe the materials and the results. When I am finished, I file the notes in the appropriate file folder (or a new one) in my filing cabinet. I do this because I am constantly changing techniques, using new materials and making things I have never made before. I could never remember all the details for long and I may need them again. Without the notes I would have to repeat the tedious tests I did previously and I would forget how I achieved a tricky effect. Nor would I have clues for creating new effects (and this course would be much shorter!). For instance on THE EXORCIST when I was trying to make an old age stipple that wouldnt come off of Max Von Sydow in the Iraq desert; I found in 16-year-old notes a mention of a latex additive that made the latex very hard to get off the skin. I had considered it a drawback at the time but now it became the key ingredient in the successful hand stipple (AGERIII). I also write down the colors and every step in the application of every special makeup I dofor the tests and the final job. And when the film is over, I record any changes that I made during the filming and anything that didnt work right. All of that is invaluable for creating new and better makeups. Furthermore in these days of rapidly changing technology, you need to note and file every new thing you learn about just to keep up. I mentioned filing your notes and that is another thing to get started. Get a small file cabinet and some file folders. Organize your notes into files by subject or jobs, etc. and also start files for materials and for pictorial reference. When I started, I subscribed to LIFE magazine and others, and I religiously clipped photos of famous people, living and dead, historical stuff, foreign races, old people, and the occasional macabre photo. Now I have about ten drawers and over the years that material has been a godsend.

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Of course I have also collected many books for reference as well, anything on makeup portraits of people, illustrated histories of periods and styles, anatomy, film, sculpture, technology, etc. These have been also invaluable so I will list my favorites at the end of this lesson. GETTING INTO MAKEUP You have heard how difficult it is to get into makeup (I refer to studio makeup, not beauty makeup). Let me give you the facts. Local 798. I.A.T.S.E. in New York has jurisdiction over the east coast. There are about 155 makeup artists working in film and TV in the New York City area, 57 in Florida and 45 in other states. In Lost Angeles, Local 706, I.A.T.S.E. with jurisdiction over the rest of the country, has about 700 makeup artists plus 25 in a lower category called Entry Level. I have not included hairdressers in the numbers above. There are also many non-union makeup artists, number unknown. Some live in smaller cities where there is sporadic work. If they are the only one in the area, they may make a decent living though often a boring one. Tom Savini is the exception. He lives in Pittsburgh and has teamed up for years with horror producer George Romero. It is a unique situation. In such cities the work is more likely to be making commercials, documentaries, industrials, and assisting if/when a feature film comes to town. It is not, I think, what you are looking for. The biggest area for challenging non-union work is in the lab or shop of a leading makeup artist like Rick Baker. Baker usually has 75 or more on his staff. In England for Lord Greystoke he employed about 75. Others with shops in L.A. are Stan Winston, Tom Burman, Rob Bottin, Greg Cannom, Makeup Effects Lab, Chiodo Brothers. [Many more shops are listed in a separate list]. Some others are springing up but it is too early to tell if they will stick around. In the New York area there is Carl Fullerton, John Caglione, Bob Laden, and Kevin Haney (when he gets his shop set up in LA) and in Pittsburgh, Tom Savini. Los Angeles certainly has the most jobs but also there are more people so it is still terribly hard to get in. Being a union member is an advantage, and virtually necessary if you want to be a makeup artist, that is apply makeup to people, as opposed to being a lab assistant who makes things but rarely gets a chance to put them on. So let me tell you what I can about getting a membership. Aspiring members will be interviewed by a seven member screening Committee. This Committees prime concern is to compare each persons professional backgrounds and select the best of the applicants for the few occasional openings. Aside from professional background, art courses, especially portrait painting and sculpting, are impressive and important. Examples of your work may be presented. Due to the nature of the work cleanliness, grooming and personality are very important. American citizenship and an 18 month residency in the state of your application is a requirement of Local 798. That is the bare bones of it. I would advise you to try to make an appointment to see the business agent or at least go to the office and fill out an application. (Addresses will be listed at the end). I would also attach a concise typewritten summary of your training and experience. Try to get on the Provisional List which is really a pool of prospective apprentices who may be allowed to take a job occasionally if no member is available. Incidentally Provisional people do not pay any union fees. After making application, it is wise to check in every three or four months to remind the business agent that you are still available and to see where you stand. Keep it brief. You want him to remember you, but not as a pest. If you are called in to the Screening Committee, look your best and bring any evidence of your talent, skill and training that you have. Good photos of your makeups are the most impressive. Be respectful to the committee even if someone asks you a dumb question. If you are especially talented or act as if you are, some members may feel threatened, so show some modesty without depreciating your work.

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If you are not accepted, I believe you can re-apply. If you are you will pay over $500 initiation fee and then again when you become a full member. In Hollywood Local 706 has no apprenticeship program, accepts no applications and gives little or no information. The rules are that you must work a total of 120 days during an eighteen month period for a film producer(s) who has a contract with the I.A. unions, in other words, a major producer, not a low budget type. These so-called signatory producers have agreed with the unions to hire only persons who are on a list called the Industry Experience Roster. Those are really the union members but the device gets around the law against union shops. So if you get in the required 120 days, you are entitled to an exam to see if you qualify for the Roster. This set-up presents you with a vicious circle: you cant work on a major film if you are not on the Roster and you cant get on the Roster unless you work on major films. Somehow a few do manage to get in every year. Obviously it helps to have a producer want to help you. Let me rephrase that, it is a miracle but, believe it or not, it has happened. A producer can say to the union, I need a makeup artist who can stand on his head and makeup people with his feet, and unless you have a member so qualified, I have the right to hire Joe, here, who not only does that but also has ambidextrous feet. However, a more likely bit of luck is that you get a job on the first day of a shoot because no one was available. Then you can be hired for the rest of the episode or film in order to preserve the continuity of the makeup even if union members become available. Or you may get a job because no member is available for that time. Of course you must be able to prove your 120 days so keep your pay stubs and get a letter from the producer telling the extent of your employment as a makeup artist (this must be stated). A producer who likes you might even stretch the number of days a little if it would put you over the top. Obviously you have got to have done a hell of a job and been terrific to earn that. There must be other angles but though I work in Hollywood sometimes, I am not really familiar with their politics. I suggest therefore that you make contacts there with other young makeup artists; that you question them about the ways in which people have gotten in. Non-union work is easier to get into. You have only to find a job! But there are several disadvantages. The pay is low, sometimes invisible; the hours and days may be endless (without overtime pay) and meals infrequent. Some of the work may be as repetitive and dull as in a factory. When working on low-budget horror films the hardest part is not getting screwed. Ill have some definite advice about that later. However, if you have the good fortune to find an exciting job, you wont mind the craziness and the small pay because your will be doing what you love to do. The initiation fee for 706 is over $1500, and the basic pay is $145 to $180 a day plus time and a half overtime. The salary depends on your position on the job. There are dues that amount to $300+ a year. In New York, you pay $100 a year in dues to 798 but also assessments of about $8 for every day of salary you receive. Those of you who dont live in either the New York or Hollywood area will face a difficult choice: Which way do you go? If you happen to have a nice relative or friend in either area where you can stay for quite a while, that could be the deciding factor, especially here where its very expensive to live. Another deciding event could be getting a job offer in one area or another. However, in general I think you have a better chance in Hollywood. Now it is very important to plan carefully before you make your move unless money is no problem. First I suggest that you make a trip out there to check it out. Before you go, make as many contacts with makeup artists in L.A. as you can and ask if you can show them your photos when you go there. Dont go there cold. Youll waste time and money. Allow at least three days, more if possible because it is hard to juggle appointments efficiently. Stay in North Hollywood. Thats where everyone it. A room at the Howard Johnsons Motel on Vineland Ave. costs about $100 a day (818-980-8000). Youll

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need wheels to get around so allow for car rental and food. Dress everywhere is very casual. Do not go until you have at least a half dozen very impressive works to show. The ideal thing would be for you to get an offer of a job but that is terribly unlikely. What could happen is that you are offered one on the next film job. Of course I am talking about work in one of the makeup labs. That is your best target for getting started. If that happened, you would return home and keep in touch with the artist who made the offer and pray that he gets that film. Or you might just be told that your work was good and keep in touch. In that case you would keep working back home on new and better stuff and keep sending photos so that you wouldnt be forgotten. Its a terrible gamble to go to L.A. without a job and limited funds. Your money will go quickly. If you do that, as soon as you get there, look for cheap lodging and a job to pay the rent and gas. Of course you have to have enough dough to buy a heap. A car is essential in Hollywood. Well almost. People do get around on busses. Sometimes you can get a job at Don Post Studios, the rubber mask place. Dental labs sometimes hire creative young people who can show they already know something about mold-making. In fact that is a good thing for you to look into where your home is. Its much better than waiting on tables and you learn work that will be valuable later in makeup. On your first trip you should check out where to live, etc. as well as see makeup artists. When you visit a shop, you will probably be able to hang around for a while and chat with the assistants. Ask for suggestions about where to live, buy a car, etc. Dont forget to ask the makeup artist how much he would pay you. $300 a week for unlimited hours was typical a couple of years ago. MAKE-UP PHOTOGRAPHY AND LIGHTING Good photographs of your work are tremendously important to your success. Generally they are the only means by which you can preserve your artistry and prove your talent to others. Therefore you must have a decent camera and learn how to take good photographs with it. Dont rely on the movie still man if you can help it. Of course other people are great for getting pictures of you at work but I am more concerned with close-ups of your completed make-up or creation.

A snapshot camera is not good enough. You need a 35mm camera with at least a through-thelens light meter. You must be able to focus down to two feet with the standard 50mm lens so that you can get just the face. The meter should be able to set for from 100 to 1000 ASA (thats the film speed). You should be able to get such a camera in a discount store for under $150. Theres a list of common cameras of this sort at the end of the lesson with the current prices in the New York discount store. Compare cameras first in a good store to check handling and ease of focusing. The lighting on a film set is at 3200 Kelvin which is colder than incandescent lights at home but warmer than daylight. Daylight is 5400 to 5800 Kelvin. Movie film is rated at 3200 K even when shooting outdoors or with different lights. In daylight the cameraman simply puts an orange filter (#85) over the lens to warm up the light. Obviously if you are going to take pictures on a set you need a film that is rated at 3200 K or you can use daylight film with an 85 filter. The latter is usually not as good because the filter lessens the light and could limit your filming on a dimly-lit set. If you had to shoot outdoors and indoors with the same film, it would be better to use 3200 K film inside and put on the appropriate bluish filter to work in daylight. Of course you could use daylight film and flash indoors but I do not recommend it except as the last resort because of the flatness of the lighting on the face. I have a Minolta X-700 camera which I recommend highly. You can buy one now for about $230. They cost about $300 when they first came out. The next investment to make is in a long lens, about 100mm. That means you can stand farther away from your subject and still get a close-up. Its important because when the actors are performing on the set, you cant get close. Of course in theory a 200mm lens would be better but you cant hand hold it well enough to prevent blurring

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the image. A 100mm lens will cost about $120. A macro lens is useful but much more expensive. It allows you to focus on an eyeball. It is a real luxury. A decent tripod is helpful at times in your studio but after buying a 100mm lens, I would get a good Polaroid. They come in handy in many ways. There are only a couple of films that are appropriate for our work. Kodak Ektachrome 160 Tungsten (tungsten means for artificial light). There is also an Ektachrome 160 for daylight. Dont mix them up. The 160 ASA is slow and insufficient for use on most sets but you can set your camera meter at double, 320 ASA and tell the processor when you have it developed. There are standard developers for that film at that speed. Nowadays with cameramen shooting in almost no light at 320 ASA may not be enough especially if your lens only opens up to f 2. or 2.5. Your 50mm lens should be able to open to f1.4 or at least 1.7. By the way, Ektachrome makes slides as you probably know. There isnt a readily available 3200 K print film by Kodak. There is Kodacolor 1000 which is made for daylight. It actually isnt too bad in artificial provided you dont mix light sources on the same roll. Flesh tones will look rather sunburned. You can also get the same film that is used in movie cameras. A roll may be shot in either daylight or 3200 K and the ASAs are high. You have to buy this kind of film from special companies that put it in cassettes and process it. The great thing about these films is that you get a negative from which either slides or prints or both can be made. The color is less vibrant than Ektachrome 160 Tungsten but very good if handled by a good processor. I sent out test rolls to the leading companies and narrowed it down to the two most reliable which I will list later. These films have a lot of latitude so that one processor may give a different ASA to a film than another processor. Use the rating given by the processor you intend to use. In any case, always tell the processor the ASA that you shot your film at. The two fastest Eastman (Kodak) movie films are now: Eastman Color Negative 5293 (ASA 250) and 5294 (AASA 500). The former can be pushed to 500 and the later to 800. Fuji 8518 is a similar film but I think the color is weaker. Of course films change all the time. I am just now testing a new one with fantastic range to see if the quality is any good. Its a good idea to shoot test rolls of films that interest you so that youll know just what they can do. Generally it is best to use the slowest film that will work in the lighting you have because the color and the grain will probably be better. Thats important when you want 8x10 enlargements. When the lighting can be controlled, I prefer to use Ektachrome 160 T because it gives full color. But even that is affected by the processor you use. For instance when I send it to Kodak I get creamy flesh tones tending toward yellow. When I use a local custom processor the color is cooler, pinker. With Eastman negative movie films, the color of the slides and prints is determined by the operator or computer. The color can be changed if you have them redone, at your cost. Because of this variable, it helps to return a print if you want duplicates, you can tell them to match it. Store your film in the fridge for longer life. Lighting for 3200 K film can be simple. Photography stores carry two bulbs that are 3200 K. ECAs are 250 watts similar to regular light bulbs. They last more than 7 hours. The EAL is a 500 watt reflector bulb that has about a five hour life. I rarely use bigger bulbs. I use cliplight fixtures from a photo or hardware store that have a socket attached to a springy clamp that you can clip onto some convenient projection. Or you can stick it up with gaffers tape, which is two inch wide cloth tape that is very strong and sticky. It comes in silver or black and big rolls are about $15. Fabric Repair Tape is sold by Alcone Co. and is cheaper. Big photo, cine stores, and other theatrical suppliers carry them. Duct tape is a weak substitute. You can pass a loop of tape throught a light clip and hang it on a wall when you cant find something to clip it to. These lights are more important for applying the make-up than photographing it. Light has to be bright and even to see the details and blending. Fluorescent lights will give enough light if there are at least a total of six 40 watt tubes, but they are probably the wrong color. You can get special 3200 K fluorescents from Vita-Lite. Incandescents are too orange and hot. The reason I am fussy about the color of the light I make-up in is that the wrong light can screw up my coloring. For

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instance, rouge and all warmish shadow and lining colors look darker in cold light. If they look fine in the make-up room under cold light, when I get them in the studio light they will look lighter and I will probably have to do them over. If I have the same light in the make-up room as on the set, the colors shouldnt change. But since the light level will probably be lower on the set, some things that I can see in the make-up room may not look the same but should be close. Now the light doesnt matter till I get to the coloring, so I may use the cooler fluorescents for comforts sake until I get to that point. I arrange my two lights on either side of the mirror 2 to 2 feet from the center or 4 or 5 feet apart. I put them up over my head about as high as I can reach. IF the wall is not white, I put a white card or aluminum foil on the wall. Since the bulbs get very hot, be sure the tape extends far enough so the heat doesnt loosen it. When you remove gaffers tape it may take some paint with it. You can use lighter fluid or alcohol to loosen it if it matters. So far we have only lit the face. If there is ordinary light in the room it may be enough for working on the hair, etc. If not, you may want to rig another light above or behind. I always carry 3 clips, 3 or 4 ECAs, plenty of extension cords and 3 outlet plugs, even an outlet that will screw into a light bulb socket and gaffers tape. The above will give enough light for photographing your performer in the make-up chair and that is sometimes the only chance you will have. However, the light is flat and does not enhance your character, so at least have the person turn partially to the side. The third light at the back of the chair may give a nice light on the side where it is or may be moved or held by an assistant. This is a matter of using your eyes to quickly improvise lighting that will show off the make-up. I have found that a good basic plan is to have the number 1 light in front just above the head and enough to the side so that only the cheekbone on the opposite side gets the light. Then put the nd 2 light on the dark side farther away so that it only relieves the shadows or, for more drama, put it on the dark side to the rear so that only the rim of the face gets light. By moving these two lights rd slightly in either direction, you will get all sorts of looks. You can add a 3 light as a fill way in front to relive black shadows and/or high in back to outline the top of the head so it doesnt blend in with a dark background. The background is the next thing to worry about. Try to get clutter out of it. Lighter than the subject or dark is better. Have someone hold a blanket or coat, anything plain and preferably dark if necessary for a background. When you photograph on the set of a feature, you have a problem with the still photographer who is probably union. He is the only one authorized to take pictures on the set. In fact your union, if youre in, may forbid you to encroach on his territory. What I do is feel the guy out in a friendly way to see if he goes by the book. Talk about photography and admire his stuff. Than talk of your excitement about your creation and how you need good photos for your files. If he offers great coverage, be very appreciative. But when you can, ask if he would mind if you take some for your own files. If hes nice hell probably let you. Dont hog the set then and take loads of shots. Check with him from time to time to see how hes handling it. But in all other cases take as many rolls as you can because out of 20 photos you may find only one where everything looks right. What if you want prints from your Ektachrome 160 Tungsten (also called Hi-speed Ektachrome)? There is an inexpensive process which does not require an inter-negative, called a type R print. The only good place for that that I know of are in Los Angeles. The best is A Positive Kolor which charges $2.95 (Note: increased) for an 8x10 glossy of a slide including cropping and color correction. To indicate cropping the size of your enlargement, put lines on the frame to mark the area of the slide to be enlarged. Also write on the slide the number and size of the prints. Shipping is $2.50 or 10% of th e order. For color correction you can describe what you want. You may not get it the first time. I get a Roscogel color swatch book from Alcone Co. and try to find a colored gel that makes my slide look the right color. Then I send a piece of it to American R with instructions to correct the slide with a filter similar to the enclosed sample. That helps. Never lend out your original slides to a magazine, etc. Go to your photo store and order copy slides made by Kodak. Only give those. If you have a great shot that is off in color but for which you found a gel that corrects it, you can buy a sheet of that gel from Alcone Co. and tape it over the slide. Then when copy slides are made they will be color corrected. So will type R prints. Drastic corrections wont work but slight ones are effective. And if you lose the negative to a

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priceless photo, have a good copy negative made of it before you loan it. I lost a lot of stuff before I stopped trusting the editors. Business and Practical Matters You have to know something about handling actors, directors, production managers, etc, and how to design and estimate the costs of a project. The first thing is to get a script, insist on it before you commit yourself to anything. As you read it, mark every reference to make-up or effects that you might have to so. Write out all of it in detail for study. I usually paste index tabs on the script pages with notes for quick reference. Then start the process of studying each item and deciding how you can do it. Write out all the solutions. If its appropriate to make some quick experiments or sketches, do so. This is all preliminary. Now youre ready for your first meeting with the director. Go over the script from beginning to end and find out what he wants and whether it is what you anticipated or can do. Possibly the production manager is listening in. dont quote prices but indicate when one approach will be more costly and if youve though tof a way to so it just as well for less money. Present options, let them make the choice. Incidentally, if you really dont want to do something a certain way because of inexperience, say it will cost a great deal. Dont say you cant do it. Production managers always want to know the cost right away. Dont ball-park it right after the conference. You need time to figure. What I do is figure out how long it will take me by myself. I write down day by day what steps of creation I could manage. Do it in as much detail as possible and be generous. Be especially generous with jobs that you or anybody has never done before. When you finish you can calculate that approximate man-hours of work and how many people you need to do it in the time available, assuming all the assistants can work as fast as you. Again add another 20% to 50% to cover yourself. You can also figure out what payroll would be. Next is estimating materials. Double whatever figure you estimate. Dont forget stuff like wigs, contacts lenses, etc. There are two ways to handle pay for the crew; bill the film company for a certain amount for the job and pay your crew from that, ir have the film company pay salaries directly to each crew member and bill the company only for your services and expenses. I have always done the latter. However, most of the shops work the other way. I do not give firm estimates, I say I estimate it will take up about 10 weeks but may take longer. You will pay the following weekly salaries to my crew for as long as it takes. And you will pay me a weekly fee for as long as it takes. It protects me from a loss because of a bad estimate. If you say Ill do the whole job for $50,000, because you estimate it will take five weeks with your crew costing $500/week and $500/week left for you, you will get $25,000 for the job. However if it takes two weeks more you have to pay the crew and you wind oup with $15,000 for seven weeks work. Another reason I dont like firm bids is that directors have a habit of changing their minds and enlarging or adding things. Then the price you agreed on has to be haggled over again and you are in a weaker position because you are committed. Of course there is the other side. A bid for the whole job keeps the studio from knowing what you are getting out of it. You may be making much more than they would even consider giving you as salary. I do know that makeup men who work for a set figure add 20% to their most generous estimate to protect themselves from unforeseen problems. Another factor here is your reputation. I can get an open-ended deal because of my rep. When you are getting started, it might be more difficult. One area in which you can get some latitude is for materials. Get an agreement the studio pays for all materials and equipment for the job and give a round figure as an estimate. If you go over the estimate, the studio still has to pay the cost. What you do is get a cash advance of, say, $1000. Then be sure to get and save every sales slip (itemized) which you turn in when the money is gone in order to get another advance. Whatever you figure out as the method and amount of payment, spell it out in precise detail in a letter of agreement to the production manager. Simply address it to him and say, This is a letter of agreement regarding the makeup work I am to do for The Turkey. Then state each

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condition. Add also what your credit is to be; how you travel to location, per diem allowance, etc. Another clause I put in is that I have the right to release info and photos of my work to any medium after the film is released. Warner Brothers kept me from releasing any pictures from The Exorcist for years. Of course keep a copy of this letter of agreement because if the employer puts you on the job without questioning anything in the letter, he has implicitly accepted it and it is legally binding. Now he may question some things and write you back his offer. Youll have to argue it out and one of you put the compromise on paper. With big studios, they sometimes send a big bewildering contract. Go through it and cross out anything you dont like and initial that cross-out. Watch out for clauses like force majeure which allows them to lay you off without pay if production is stopped by a hurricane or something but bind you to be available to finish the job whenever they beckon. All the above applies mostly to reputable production companies. Of course with the low-budgets, porno, etc., you get agreements on paper too but you have to be especially careful not to be screwed. First, do not lay out a dime of your own money for materials to get started. Get a cash advance. Make the conditions of your pay very specific and frequent, at least at the end of each week. When you get a check, cash it immediately or better yet, insist on cash because if the check bounces, the bank takes it out of your account. For the last week of filming, insist on cash in advance. When you finish your work there is no way you can make them pay you. The minute you dont get paid on time, stop work no matter how much you want to continue. If any condition of payment is not right, stop work. Of course the shit will hit the fan. How dare you question my word? Ive been in this business before you were born. Who do you think you are? You dont like, get out. None of the rest of the crew has asked forDo you think Im screwing the whole crew? Etc. Etc. It will be horrendous and you will begin to think hes right and you are a stupid, paranoid kid. But stick to you guns. The chances are he needs you and will eventually settle if you walk out. My son, David, had just such an experience with a former Broadway producer and Yale man and he did screw the whole crew. David and one other guy were the only ones who got paid. The producer asked the others not to cash their checks and they trusted him. That situation is not an unusual one. Another ploy is they promise you a better deal on a big film they have coming up. Just do this one for nothing. Promises are meaningless. Just consider any way in which you could be cheated and expect it. Never take deferred payment or percentages in place of pay. Lets assume that youve made your deal and have started. You make a mold of the actors face (and body). Also you take Polaroids or regular photos (if useful) of the actors face and head measurements. (All this will be covered in lesson two). If this is a decent production, you may have time to make clay sketches on the life mask to show the director possible approaches. Or you may make drawings on cel over enlarged photos of the actor. Or you may just plunge into work. Your meeting and molding session with the actor is important. You and he need to get along. Discuss the job with him and listen to his ideas. Try to be on his side but if you dont agree with him, try to get him to see how much better your way will be for him. Never imply that your makeup is more important than his acting. It will all depend on his ego. If he is a pain in the ass, keep the makeup as simple as you can so you wont have him in the makeup chair any longer than necessary. And try to design the makeup so it wont be constantly ruined by his thoughtlessness. Most actors will be cooperative and some will be a joy to work with but there are some possible problems that you may as well be aware of. When you make a life mask, you will have a problem if the actor has claustrophobia but Ill cover that in the lesson on face molding. A common problem is actors who want to have coffee and chat with buddies while you are trying to put on makeup. If it continues after you have asked for cooperation in a friendly way, clear the visitors out. Be firm. If the guy is a star and contradicts you, say you will come back when he is ready for makeup and leave the room. Go to the assistant director and inform him that the star wont be ready on time because there is too much distraction (of the star) in the makeup room for you to work. It is his problem to reason with the star. Fighting with the actors is never your problem, but

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always inform those in charge so you wont be held responsible for delays. If the star takes numerous breaks for phone calls, etc., report it so you dont get the blame for taking an hour extra. The toughest and most agonizing problem is dealing with an actor who is giving you shit. When you are young and inexperienced, you feel you have to take it or lose the job. To some extent that is true but it does depend on how critical the job you are doing is and other circumstances including your own feelings about yourself. Actors or other people who behave this way are bullies and bullies like to pick on people who wont fight back but not on those who do. When an actor or director screams at you, you can overlook it once or twice if he seems to have been under pressure and took it out on you. But you have to draw the line quickly and quietly. If you have wit, use it to disarm the situation. I remember when Otto Preminger, a notorious bully, screamed at a friend of mine, he said, Please Mr. Preminger, you wouldnt want to see a grown man cry. Preminger couldnt help but laugh and he respected the way Saul defended himself and didnt pick on him again. Working with Preminger was indeed a learning experience. You had to learn to stand up to him. Of course, a crew member who was dispensable would get fired if he talked back, but if you would be hard to replace, Preminger would back off. One way to deal with a screaming director is to walk away from him, go to the A.D. (assistant director) and tell him youll be in the makeup room till things calm down. Of course you may be fired but it may be worth it because you will be miserable if you continue to take abuse. However, never tell a director off in front of others (unless you want to quit). Thats mutiny and leaves him no choice. There are many other situations which are more subtle and awkward to deal with. I put them all together and call them disrespect. Like calling you, makeup when they have had plenty of time to learn your name. Just say quietly, The name is Dick Smith or take the guy aside between shots and ask him to use your name. Whenever you stand up for your self-respect, expect to cause some annoyance, maybe anger, but the chances are youll gain respect. Thats all you need. The guy doesnt have to like you. And you will find that as you assert your right to be treated respectfully, you will respect yourself more and it will become easier and more natural. Most production managers act as if the money was theirs personally and you will always hear pleas of poverty when you are making a deal. It is all a bargaining game. When you go in to give your bid, you should have several figures in mind: the best and costliest way to do the job, an economical way and a rock bottom figure below which is not worth it to you. Obviously, start at the top and offer as few concessions as possible. Dont go below your bottom figure. Firmness may win you the job instead of losing it. Money men usually hassle you about details of costs. Dont be buffaloed. They dont know the intricacies of our craft. If you tell them you bought XYZ so you could change lead into gold, theyll have to accept your superior technical knowledge. The best weapons you have are time and money. If you dont get so and so by tomorrow it is going to make the job so much longer or cost more money, etc. And dont forget, you can stop work and hold up the production if you are being screwed. Threats of legal action or seeing that you never work again are usually empty. Since money talks, let me mention another way for it to speak which I hope you have the opportunity to use one day. You have built up a reputation and are in demand. A job comes along which doesnt really appeal to you but it is a bird in the hand. Youd rather take a chance and wait for something more interesting. What should you do? Of course you can say you are too busy. That gains respect. But you can also ask 50% or even 100% more money to do the job. Then if you get it you can moan all the way to the bank and you have put yourself into a higher fee scale. If you are turned down, the guy thinks you must be getting a great rep to charge that much. Lets get back to the creative process. The director has agreed to your designs. You start work. You must insist on film tests of the makeup or effect by an early enough date so that corrections can be made before the work is needed. Tests are vital to doing work both you and the director are going to like. If film tests are impractical, make them on 16mm film or on video tape in your shop and screen them for the director. Incidentally, making your own test footage has the

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advantage that you own it though you cant release it commercially without the studios permission. The other thing that throws havoc into your carefully laid (I hope) plans, is make-up and shooting schedule changes. As Ive said, directors have a habit of changing their minds and some will deny what they said in the first place. Hence my caution that after you get your letter of agreement, you also make a detailed memo of exactly what the director has asked for and when you expect to give it to him. Send copies to him and the production manager. Then if the director adds or changes something, make another memo stating the extra time and cost or why it cant be done under the budget unless something else is scrapped. If you have a set fee, they cant keep adding things. When something is added, something else has to be cut. Keep everything in writing to prevent arguments, lies, and denials. When you do your makeup test, give a choice if possible, for instance, if the makeup involves a false nose, make a large one and a smaller one, or make several. In the test use the one you like best last. Directors and actors feel left out of the creation of the makeup unless they can have a say. If you do one makeup and say, Thats it, you may get a, The whats-it is all wrong, even if it is beautiful. But if you give them a chance to say that the second one is definitely better, they are more likely to like the whole thing. The more choice that is practical in your early sketches and tests, the better. By the way, try to keep track in the tests about how long it is going to take you to apply the makeup, so the first day of shooting can be properly scheduled. There are several other people you have to deal with in a film. The cinematographer is a critical one since he can make your work good and help you in a pinch or ruin it. This is largely a matter of trying to hit it off with him personally. Dont criticize his lighting on the set or at the dailies unless you have to do it to defend yourself. Some D.P.s (director of photography) will blame the makeup to cover up poor lighting or color. Then of course, you have to protest that you havent changed it, etc. What I try to do is praise the D.P.s work whenever I can do it honestly and without kissing ass. And I thank him for any help he gives me when I tell him I have a problem with some defect showing. The ideal situation is where you respect each others work and dont have egos in the way. Remember that the DP feels he is the most important member of the crew and get big bucks to prove it. Size him up and act accordingly. If you cant settle it between you, then raise your problem tactfully before the director and DP together. It is up to the director to say what he wants. The trap comes when the DP says how you would light it. Thats awkward. You need some answers ready that are not technical but make sense. In any confrontation like this, try to keep it professional and not personal. When you are doing an effect is the time when you should be specific about how the lighting and camera should be to make it work. Another person you often have to work with is the costume designer. Some of them think they have the right to design the makeup too, especially if they are the designer (sets and costumes) of the film. If you suspect this may be the case, try to clear it up at the beginning with the Director or as soon as it becomes apparent. Stress that you will coordinate your work with him/her but that you design the makeup and are responsible to the director only. I must admit there are exceptions on films like Star Wars where an art director creates images of all aspects of the production including makeup creatures. You will have to use your judgment and claim as much territory as you can. In most cases of personal differences, it is usually better to try to work them out with the party in question privately before appealing to the director or producer. The assistant director has the job of getting all the elements together on the set so film can be made. You and he will get along if you stick to the makeup schedule with only reasonable delays and inform him promptly of any problems. It is his responsibility to get the actors to you and cater to their needs. When the actors are ready, get on the set with your kit and inform him your job is done so he can call the actors onto the set. If you leave the set, tell the AD or one of his assistants where you will be so he can find you quickly. He has enough troubles without having

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to send out a search party. And dont take off any makeup when you think it is a wrap until you have checked with him. In general establish friendly relations with all the crew and try to learn their names. You never know when one of them will help you out. Always ask the production secretary for a cast list and crew list so you can learn names quickly. Here is a summary of the usual positions in a film crew: Executive Producer: in charge of more than one film production Producer: in charge of all business aspects of one film. May share major artistic decisions with director, such as casting. Associate Producer: shares duties and decisions of producer. Director: in charge of all creative aspects of production including casting, art direction, makeup, direction, photography, etc. Assistant Director: assists director in scheduling filming, actors, crews, etc. Does not share in artistic decisions. Directs personnel on set. Second Assistant Director: helps assistant director get necessary crew on set and handle details of shooting. Production Manager: in charge of shooting schedule and payment for all materials and payrolls. Really in charge of all business aspects. Director of Photography (or Cinematographer or D.P): responsible for all lighting and filming. Operator (cameraman)-operates the camera under direction of D.F Assistant Cameraman: focuses and loads the camera. Responsible for film stock. Gaffer-head electrician: follows instructions of D.P in setting lights. Best Boy: Gaffer's assistant. Electricians: set up lights under Gaffer's direction. Key Grip: is in charge of grips who move scenery, equipment and push the camera dolly. Property Man: obtains and handles objects which are used by actors in their performance (except costumes) such as eyeglasses, dishes, food, pistols, canes, suitcases. Production Designer: in charge of all art work in a production. Only exists on large complex productions. Art Director or Set Designer: Designs and supervises construction of sets. Sometimes is also costume designer. Costume Designer: Designs or finds costumes and supervises wardrobe handlers who dress the actors. Head Make-up Artist: in charge of application and scheduling of all make-up and hairstyling. (Direction of hair stylists should be kept to a tactful minimum.) Head Hair Stylist: in charge of hairstyling and hairdressers. Publicist: handles all publicity for production. Guides still man. Still Photographer: takes all production and publicity photos including Polaroids for matching elements in the film. Sound Men: Recorder does the actual tape recording. The Boom Man: handles the microphones. Special Effects: provides rain, snow, fog, explosions, gunshot wounds and special devices. Teamster Captain: in charge of all transportation. Production Secretary-assists production manager in day to day business problems. (Can help you in many ways.) Accountant: handles payroll and purchase orders. Television positions are similar in most cases except relating to the cameras. Each TV camera has one cameraman who takes directions from the Technical Director (TD.) who in turn takes camera cues from the Director. A Lighting Director supervises the lighting set up. He may, or may not be, the Technical Director. The assistant director is usually called the Floor Manager because his position is on the set responding to the director in the control room speaking into his earphones. In case you haven't yet had much experience working on a set, I'm going to give you some advice. I've already told you to let the A.D. know as soon as you have finished make-up on the actors so he knows when he can get them on the set. Also to let him know if the actors have not

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shown up for make-up or if there are any other delays. Next, get together what you will need on the set and get there as quickly as possible, at least very soon after the actors. It helps to plan ahead what you need for touch-ups so you don't take long to pack it and don't have to run back to the make-up room for something you forgot. Let the A.D. know you are on the set or have gone for coffee, etc. When the actors arrive, stay near the D.P as he lights to check if you see anything wrong. Don't run in and correct it while the D.P is lighting unless you see that you won't be in his way and you ask his permission. After he gets the lights set, ask him if he sees any problems with the make-up and also ask to look at it through the camera. You won't see much detail through the camera but you will see the framing. I prefer to get close to the performer as he stands on the set in the lights to examine his make-up for flaws by eye. If I am satisfied, I feel it will look all right in a close-up. If the camera is not so close, I know that tiny flaws will not show and in long shots I can get away with a lot. Unfortunately, it takes experience to make these judgments correctly. Therefore, you should go to all the "dailies"(or "rushes) you can to observe how much you can see on different shots. Of course the camera operator will tell you when he sees something wrong but don't rely on him because the last thing he worries about is the make-up. Hence he may not notice anything wrong until it is a disaster. There have been times when the D.P or the director said the make-up was OK but I wouldn't stop touching it up till I was satisfied. A.D.s also have a tendency to rush you off the set when time is short. Just yell, "Half a minute;" or something and keep on if you feel you must. During the day, stay close to the cameras. There's a prejudice on film sets about people reading books on the set. They think you are not doing your job. You have to keep up the appearance of being on the job. In order not to die of boredom, I used to have a piece of sculpture wax in my kit and, when the make-up was under control, I would stand near the camera and sculpt one of the actors or crew. Everyone accepted that as legitimate and wanted to be my next subject. Of course I made a point of being right on the spot and not off in some corner. In television the make-up artist should be in the control room as close as possible to a good monitor where he can see the "program" (the selected camera shots). Monitors on the set or other rooms may not be as sharp or well adjusted as those in the control room. Use them only if you have to be on the set. In my experience, I've often found that I couldn't get close enough to the monitor or to the actor on a film set to check the make-up in detail. So I bought a small monocular (half a binocular) which enabled me at a distance to see a monitor or actor's face as if I were only three feet away. Of course some people thought I was a nut but I've never tried to be normal. Recently I ran across some advice that I wrote for apprentices in the early 1960's. The points are still good, so I'm going to add them here. To be sure, I was thinking of regular make-up work rather than special make-up effects (which didn't exist), but many of you will have to do routine make-up work before you can get the tricky jobs. Our union officers are trying to encourage more professional and conscientious behavior among all members. Some old-timers, me included, have been asked to add our viewpoints. I believe that our craft would be much more respected if all our members followed the practices which I will outline, but I realize that individuals seldom change much just for the sake of their group. However, there is a chance that people will change if they realize that they could make more money. Actually, that is my main motive for doing these things: I get more jobs and better pay. It does not even take great talent. A make-up artist who acts professionally will seem more competent than a highly skilled man who goofs off. Acting professionally means the following to me: 1. When you receive an assignment, get as much information about it as possible so that you will be properly prepared. Number of performers ? Type of commercial or show ? Type of make-up that will be appropriate ? Time allowed for make-up ? Any special make-up or hair problems ?, and so forth.

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2. Keep your kit and materials clean and neat, and use sanitary procedures. A decent personal appearance is also essential. Nothing makes a worse impression on a performer than a slovenly make-up artist with a dirty kit who tops it off by offering to apply lipstick with a soiled brush and a pot of rouge that has served a thousand others. You might just as well spit on it! That couldn't make it worse. Dirty combs, sponges, puffs, and other items are almost as unpleasant to most performers, and the chances are that some will insist on putting on their own make-up rather than let you use yours. The rest will silently pray they never see you again. My system for lipstick is to scoop out a small portion from the lipstick jar (or tube) with a clean spatula, and put it on a disposable butter chip. I use a clean lipstick brush for each person, and make it obvious that I am picking up a clean one. If you want to save the lipstick for later use, you can fold the butter chip in two, and write the person's name on it with an eyebrow pencil. I carry plenty of clean sponges, puffs, brushes and towels. The rest is just a matter of cleaning out my kit once in a while when I am waiting around on set. 3. Reporting on time is obviously important. It's also a good practice to try to get your make-up done in the scheduled time. If you find that enough time hasn't been allowed for the job, tell the A.D. as soon as possible, and tell him how long you will take so that he can adjust the work plan whenever possible and explain to the director and so forth. 4. I believe one should do all the make-up he can. No make-up artist should sit around and watch a performer apply any kind of make-up, even hand makeup, if the performer would permit him to do it. Nor should he tell any performer, no matter how unimportant, that he doesn't need any make-up if he has nothing else to do. Of course, this means more work, but that's what we are getting well paid to do. When a job is simple or dull, it's tempting to loaf, but if you do an easy job poorly, why should anyone believe that you could do a difficult job any better? You have to treat all work seriously if you want your work to be respected. 5. Handling performers with courtesy and understanding is obviously sensible. A happy actress may give you good publicity and get you more jobs. The opposite is also true. When your patience is at the breaking point, remember that a performer's face may literally be his or her fortune. How he or she looks is tremendously important both on the emotional and financial levels. 6. It is most important to apply make-up in a way that is suitable to the job. Find out as much as you can before you start. Go on the set and look at the background colors to see if they would affect the make-up. If the director isn't present when you start, keep the make-up natural until you are told otherwise. It is easier to add than to remove. 7. When you finish everyone, tell the A.D. so that he knows the performers are not being kept in the makeup room, and you won't get the blame if they are late getting to the set. If the crew isn't ready to start, tell the A.D. where to find you if you are going out for coffee, etc. In fact, anytime during the day that you want to leave the set, you must tell the A.D. or some other appropriate person. 8. At the earliest opportunity, check with the cameraman to see if the make-up is satisfactory to him. In some cases you should check with the director as well. It is particularly important if you haven't worked with these people before. 9. Putting the make-up on in the morning is only half the job, and often, the easiest half. Keeping it fresh throughout the day can be a lot of work. What makes it harder is that it is very tempting to take it easy and do as little retouching as you can get away with. But you are doing yourself harm if you wait for the cameraman to shout. Some of them are too occupied with other things or not observant to notice the makeup until it's half off. You should be more critical of and more interested in your own work than anyone else. It's a good idea to do your retouching before the camera is ready to roll and the A.D. looks around and yells for make-up. You can usually tell when the time is near for a take and get your work done beforehand. Then you won't be in the position of making everyone else wait while you do a hasty, patch-job. Of course, there are some things that have to be left till the

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last minute, but keep them to a minimum. When there is a long break between scenes, tell the A.D. how many minutes you will need to get the cast ready so that he can warn you when it is time to do the retouching. Retouching after lunch is important, and should be planned with the A.D. before lunch. Sometimes make-up should be done over instead of retouched. If there will not be enough time, explain the problem to the A.D. and perhaps, he will give only a half-hour lunch to certain performers and you. If he doesn't, you can't be blamed for holding up shooting after lunch. What I have outlined above seems obviously business-like to me, and yet, I have found that many artists feel and act otherwise. Many times I have received warm praise for a simple job only because the make-up men who had preceded me had not observed these practices. They disappeared from the set, or they held up production, or they didn't get along with someone, or they failed to keep the makeup fresh. A frequent complaint of directors was that the artist did not follow his instructions. If the director says he wants only a touch of make-up, don't try to prove how great you are by using every trick you know. The chorus-girl make-up you give him will only make him wonder if you understand English. That situation is just one example of not following what is probably the most important rule: Adapt the makeup to the particular requirements. As I said before, always get as much information as you can, do your make-up accordingly, and the director will think you are tops!" A few final thoughts. When you are starting out, one of the things you need fairly quickly is a typewriter and decent business stationery. After all you can't write business letters or letters of agreement without them. In the text that will follow, I mention a number of materials that you can get samples of. You have to have the means to write business letters. Incidentally, some of you may not have learned how to write proper letters in school. If so, get help and learn. A poor letter makes a terrible impression and can cost you a job. I warned you before about the precautions to take with low-budget film companies. It occurs to me to tell you that a big picture production could fold and leave you holding the bag. It has happened. Warner Sisters is doing a twenty million dollar film starring Dusty DeNiro. You have three months extensive preparation. You are so busy that you delay getting in a lot of invoices. Actually the job has an independent producer. The studio is merely the backer or the facility. The star dies in an accident/overdose. The production goes down the drain and you can't collect $30,000. It's rare fortunately, but the lesson is, never let the company owe you more than you can help. Get payments every week. Just before going to press I was able to test a roll of a new Fuji film 8514 (replaces 8512 and is newer than 8518 in spite of the lower number). This film is quite extraordinary. You can expose it at any ASA from 125 to 2000 in daylight or 3200 K artificial light. I shot a roll at 1000 ASA, 3200 K in good and bad lighting conditions. The color is rather grayed but actually it is truer to life than most films. I found that it is better to err on the side of overexposure. In underexposed shots, the shadows take on a grayish grainy look. The other films are still as good for stronger light but this means we can get good photos even in very dim light. Identicolor in California is the only lab I know that sells and processes it. They call it "AX-14". Like the other movie films, you get a negative and slides or prints or both.

REFERENCE BOOKS
Several of these books are old and probably out of print. Any good book store can tell you. If they are out of print you can look in book stores that specialize in old books or you can contact a book finder and pay the added fee for the service. Book finders often advertise in the book section of the Sunday paper or you could try the classified. Stage Make-up by Richard Corson, Prentice Hall, Inc. ISBN 0-13-840539-5 The classic make-up book. Grande Illusions (or Bizarro - same book) by Tom Savini, Imagine Inc. ISBN 0-911137-009. Great info on blood and gore effects.

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Atlas for Human Anatomy for the Artist by Stephen Peck, Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19500052-8. Best book on anatomy for make-up. Art Anatomy by William Rimmer, Dover Publications, NYC. An unusual soft cover book with great drawings of faces. Atlas of Human Anatomy, Vol. 1 by Sobotta and Figge, Urban & Schwarzenberg, Baltimore. Very detailed medical approach. You may find these three art books in a big art store. Drawing With the Right Side of the Brain by Betty Edwards, Houghton Mifflin. ISBN 0-87477-0882. The book teaches how to bring out your natural creativity that may have been lost as you grew up. Helps you to draw and sculpt (presumably). Plaster Mold and Model Making by Chaney and Skee, Van Nostrand Reinhold. ISBN 0-44221511-8. This is a good little book showing how to make plaster piece molds. It's educational but much does not apply to our work. Latex Foam Rubber by E.W. Madge, John Wiley & Sons. Out of print but worth the money to have a book finder get you one. It's the only book which really explains foam latex making. Portraits of Greatness by Yousuf Karsh, Thomas Nelson & Sons. A great book of marvellous photos of famous people. The lighting of the skin is fabulous. It's probably out of print but any of Karsh's books are worth having. American Indian Portraits - Stephen Green Press, Brattleboro, VT 05301. The finest of many books of Indian photos. Like the Karsh book, it's full of wonderful characters and many old wrinkled faces. Almost Ancestors - The First Californians by Kroeber & Heizer, Ballantine Books, soft cover. Next best book of Indian Faces. Orientals - photos by Ernest Rathenau, J.J. Augustine, N Y.C. Probably long out of print. Great photos of oriental faces with some wonderful old ones. After Ninety, Imogen Cunningham, University of Washington Press. ISBN 0-295-05559-7. Imogen is a little old lady who photographs other old folks and she's good. The photos are fine old age reference. Early Man - LIFE Nature Library, Time Life Books. Good reference for prehistoric men.

The Principles and Art of Plastic Surgery, two volumes, very expensive. Publisher, Little Brown, Boston. Excellent reference for wounds, burns, surgery, and hideous faces. Should be in medical libraries. Color Atlas of Forensic Pathology by G. Austin Gresham, Year Book Medical Publishers Inc., 35 E. Wacker Dr., Chicago, IL. All kinds of gore for police work, in color. Order from the publisher and ask for list of their other beauties. Atlas of Legal Medicine by Tomio Watanabe, W.B. Lippincott & Co., Philadelphia, PA. I have not seen it but a friend said it was better than the one above. Necronomicon by H.R. Giger (he designed ALIEN), Big-O Publishing, London. ISBN 0-90566406X. This is a huge soft cover art book of sick, bizarre monstrosities. Great horror reference if you can find it.

UNIONS
Local 706, I.A.T.S.E., 11519 Chandler Blvd., N. Hollywood, CA. 91601. 818/984-1700. Local 798 I.A.T.S.E., 152 w 24st. New York, NY 10011, 212/627-0660, Fax 627-0664 NBC-TV Makeup Dept., 30 Rockefeller Pl., New York, NY 10020 212/664-4093

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MISCELLANEOUS
Don Post Studios, 811 Milford St. Glendale, CA 91203 (800) 874-4087 Alcone Co. Inc, 5-49 49 Ave., L.I.C., N.Y. 11101 718/361-8373. Fax 718/729-8296
th

FILM LABS FOR MOVIE FILM FOR PHOTOGRAPHY

Dale Laboratories, 2960 Simms Street, Hollywood, FL. 33020. 305/925-0103. Negative development & slides, 36 exp. roll Identicolor Laboratory, Inc., 10950 Burbank, CA. 91603. 818/980-9730. Negative development & slides, 36 exp. roll (I think Dale is a bit better.) TYPE R PRINTS (from slides) Spectra American Color Lab (formerly American R Corp.) 11037 Penrose St., Sun Valley, CA. 91352. 818/768-5700.

CAMERAS (recomennded) old, discount prices August 1985

Minolta X-700 with 50mm/1.7 lens - $190 Minolta X-700 with 50mm/1.4 lens - $230 Minolta X-370 with 50mm/1.7 lens - $160 Minolta X-370 with 50mm/1.4 lens - $210 Pentax ME Super with 50mm/2 lens - $135 Pentax ME Super with 50mm/1.7 lens - $145 Pentax Me Super with 50mm/1.4 lens - $175 Pentax K-1000 with 50mm12 lens - $120 Pentax K-1000 with 50mm/1.7 lens - $130 Pentax K-1000 with 50mm/1.4 lens - $155

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HAZARDOUS MATERIALS IN MAKE-UP WORK

In May 1983 my son David was diagnosed as a "universal reactor." That's a person who suffers an allergic reaction to everything - water, foods, materials, cigarette smoke, perfume, all chemicals, etc. In its worst form, the condition renders the individual an alien on this planet, unable to engage in most normal human life. Fortunately David was diagnosed early and though he went through more than a year of hell, he is now 90% well. David's experience is a lesson for all of us, especially those who work a lot with plastics and chemicals. We start by living in polluted environments: air, food and water, which stress our immune systems. Some people are born with weaker than average immune systems. Blue-eyed people are often in this category and anyone who has had any allergies as a child or adult has a weak immune system. Such people should be especially careful to avoid further exposure. There are a growing number of people who suffer from "environmental illnesses." There are four principal causes: antibiotics, birth-control pills, steroid hormones, and chemicals. For instance, antibiotics given to a child with ear infections, or a youth with acne, can disrupt the intestinal flora, thus allowing yeast cells in the gut to flourish and produce toxins which debilitate the immune system. An immune system in this state often can't take further abuse without collapsing. In make-up work we often expose ourselves to chemicals. Some may cause specific allergic reactions such as skin rashes or respiratory problems but all have some effect on the immune system. Of the solvents we commonly use, acetone fumes are the least harmful. Alcohol is next. Trichloroethane is harmful and carbon tetrachloride is deadly. Ammonia from foam latex is harmful. Epoxies, urethanes, polyester resins, polyurethane foams, isocyanates are all dangerous if not handled with great care and excellent ventilation. It was my son's exposure to epoxies and urethanes in unventilated basement shops which probably overwhelmed his weak immune system. The absolutely essential precaution which people who work with such chemicals must take is proper ventilation. An open window is not enough! The basic rules of good ventilation are: 1. Direct the air away from the worker. 2. Exhaust the contaminated air from the workspace. 3. Place the exhaust opening close to the work. 4. Avoid cross drafts which interrupt air flow to exhaust. 5. Supply air to replace exhausted air. The above are summarized from an excellent book which I recommend, "Ventilation, A Practical Guide," published by Center for Occupational Hazards, 5 Beekman St., NY, N .Y. 10038, 212/227-6220, for $7.50 Exhaust systems are expensive but it is foolhardy not to have one if you are working frequently with chemicals. For infrequent work, at least create an air flow with open doors and windows and use a fan to blow the contaminated air away from your face. If at any time after working with chemicals you feel weak, dizzy, have headaches, eye pain, temple pain, respiratory problems, skin rashes, digestive disturbances or joint pains, stop work even if it means losing your job. The longer you expose yourself, the longer and more costly your recovery may be. Furthermore, few doctors are equipped to diagnose or treat environmental illnesses, so getting well can be exceedingly difficult and expensive. If you stay away from the materials that affected you for a month or more, you will give your immune system a chance to recover. If you gamble that further exposure won't hurt you, you may in the end have find another profession, or even be disabled for life. I have obtained permission from The Center for Occupational Hazards to provide you with four of their papers that have very important information for laboratory make-up artists. Please read them very carefully and keep them for reference. Note that no mask protects you from polyurethane foam. I learned recently of three more people who have become sick from lab work. It is now believed that left-handed people usually have weaker immune systems. Be warned.

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Center for Occupational Hazards

5 Beekman Street, New York, New York 10038 Area 212/227-6220

Solvents Used in Theater Crafts

By Monona Rossol, M.S., M.F.A. What are Solvents? Solvents are probably the most widely used chemicals in the theater. Solvents are used to dissolve resins, oils, plastics, and grease; to thin paints, varnishes, and lacquers; and to clean brushes, tools, metals, and even hands. By definition, a solvent is a liquid which can dissolve a solid material. Strictly speaking, water is a solvent because it can dissolve many solids such as sugar and salt. But the term "solvent," as it is used in connection with paints and other art materials, means "organic solvent." Organic solvents are liquid organic chemicals. These organic chemicals should not be confused with those used in organic gardening or found in natural foods. For example, many of the organic solvents used in art materials can be distilled from petroleum crude oil, and there is nothing particularly healthful or natural about a barrel of crude. Petroleum Solvents Some of the most common solvents come from crude oil. Crude oil is a thick, viscous mixture of thousands of different organic chemicals with varying molecular weights. To separate solvents of similar molecular weights from this mixture, refiners heat 'and distill the crude oil. During this process the lighter solvents boil off (distill) at lower temperatures, while the heavier solvents boil off at higher temperatures. For example, one of the first fractions to boil off are "petroleum ethers" which can be collected when the oil is heated from 20 to 60 degrees Centigrade. Other fractions which can be collected during distillation are: ligroin or light naptha (b.p. 60-100 C, gasoline (b.p. 40205'C), mineral spirits Ib.p. 150-200 C, and kerosene (b.p. 175-325G. Further distillation yields lubricating oils and asphalt. Common petroleum fractions found in paints and other solvent-containing products are VM&P Naphtha (Varnish Makers' and Painters' Naphtha), rubber solvent, benzine, and Stoddard solvent. Each of these fractions is composed of a mixture of different chemicals. For instance, "mineral spirits," which is listed on the label of many solvent-based art materials, is a mixture of organic solvents. Theoretically, mineral spirits could be further distilled to isolate individual chemicals in it. Other Solvents Other Solvents In addition to solvents which can be distilled from petroleum, there are solvents from other sources such as turpentine from pine tree sap, ethyl alcohol from the action of bacteria on grain or plant material, and vast numbers of complex new solvents synthesized in laboratories. Whether synthesized in a laboratory or distilled from petroleum, all solvents fall into several classes of chemicals. A class is a group of chemicals with similar molecular structures and chemical properties. Important classes of solvents are aliphatic, aromatic, and chlorinated hydrocarbons, alcohols, esters, and ketones. Usually, more than one member of a class of solvents can be used for similar purposes. In these cases it is wise to choose the least toxic solvent to do the job. For example, both highly toxic wood alcohol (methanol) and less toxic grain alcohol iethanol) can be used to dissolve shellac. Common sense would dictate choosing denatured grain alcohol.

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Hazards of Solvents Although some solvents are less hazardous than others, all solvents are poisonous. There are no safe solvents. All solvents can damage skin, eyes, respiratory tract, nervous system, and internal organs.

Skin Diseases All solvents can cause skin disease (dermatitis) by dissolving the skin's natural protective barrier of oils. If the skin experiences enough direct contact with a solvent, it can turn dry and white, and can develop cracks and fissures. ln addition, some solvents are sensitizers and can produce allergic (contact) dermatitis. For example, turpentine is a solvent to which many people become sensitized. The longer and more often a sensitizer like turpentine is used, the greater are the chances of the user's becoming sensitized to it. Once a user is sensitized to a particular solvent, further exposure will only worsen the dermatitis. Allergic dermatitis can be prevented by avoiding excessive contact with solvents. An additional reason to avoid skin contact with solvents is that many solvents can penetrate the skin, enter the blood stream, and travel throughout the body where they can attack internal organs. Examples of skin-penetrating solvents are toluene, xylene, and methyl alcohol (wood alcohol). Respiratory System Damage. All solvents can irritate the sensitve membranes of the eyes, nose, and throat. The amount of solvent present in the air necessary to cause damage varies from solvent to solvent. Sometimes mixtures of several solvents can cause damage at very low levels. Do not rely on the sense of smell to create an awareness of this hazard, because some solvents are hazardous despite being hardly noticeable, whereas others may be relatively less irritating despite their noticeable odors. In addition, solvent exposure can dull the sense of smell (olfactory fatigue) so that odors are not noticeable after a while. Solvent concentrations which can irritate eye, nose, and throat membranes also may be capable of damaging sensitive lung tissue. Acute lung disease (pulmonary edema, chemical pneumonia) can be produced by extremely heavy concentrations oi some solvent vapors, but solvents in these concentrations usually are so offensive that people flee their presence. More common v. lower solvent doses are tolerated in the work environment a-^ after years of exposure, they may produce chronic lung procie^ such as chronic bronchitis and emphysema. In addition to damaging the lung tissue, inhaled solvents commonly enter the blood stream where they can attack other internal organs and the nervous system. Damage to Internal Organs. For many years, it has been known that solvents can damage internal organs, primarily the kidneys and liver. These organs often are damaged during their attempts to detoxify and eliminate solvents. Solvents in the class called chlorinated hydrocarbons are especially capable of damaging the kidneys and liver. These solvents usually can be identified by reading the lists of ingredients on a product label. ~lihen the designations "chioro" or "chloride" are found among the names of the compounds, the solvent very likely can damage the kidneys or liver. Examples are perch loroethylene and carbon tetrachloride. (These two solvent examples also are suspected of

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causing liver cancer. They should be avoided.) In general, the chlorinated hydrocarbon solvents are among the most hazardous, and every effort should be made to avoid products containing them. Other internal organs also can be affected by solvents. A number can damage the heart. One example is methylene chloride which has been known to contribute to heart attacks because the body metabolizes it to form carbon monoxide. The carbon monoxide then ties up the blood's hemoglobin, thus depriving the heart of sufficient oxygen. Freons and methyl chloroform at high concentrations Can provoke heart attacks by producing arrhythmias (irregular beating) of the heart. Trichlorcethylene, toluene, and gasoline also have been known to produce arrhythmia. Other solvents which can damage organs are benzene (it attacks bone marrow, causing aplastic anemia and leukemia), and carbon tetrachloride (even small amounts can cause kidney and I iver damage). Brain and Nervous System Damage. The most commonly experienced symptom of solvent inhalation is narcosis or a "high" feeling. This solvent intoxication results from the solvent in the blood stream acting directly on the brain to depress the central nervous system (CNS). Drinking alcohol (ethyl alcohol is one of the least toxic solvents) produces. similar results. CNS depression can produce varied symptoms, including irritability, fatigue, headaches, dizziness, sleepiness, drunkenness, nausea, impairment of intelligence and memory, and staggering gait. These effects are reversible if exposure to the solvent is discontinued. However, if solvent exposure is instead increased, further depression of the CNS can lead to unconsciousness and death. . Recent studies have indicated that repeated exposure to some solvents also may temporarily damage the peripheral nervous system (PNS) which is the system of nerves leading from the spinal cord to the arms and legs. Symptoms of this nerve damage are numbness and tingling sensations which may progress to weakness and paralysis of the arms and legs. Hexane, methyl butyl ketone, and carbon disulfide are solvents known to produce this effect. In some instances, repeated solvent exposure can cause permanent CNS damage. The symptoms of this solvent-induced disease are similar to those of multiple sclerosis, and victims can become disabled permanently. Two solvents known to produce this kind of damage are hexane and methyl butyl ketone. Hexane is a common solvent found in aerosol spray cans, rubber cement and its thinner, contact adhesives, some lacquer thinners, cleaning and sanitizing agents, and in low-boiling naphthas. Methyl butyl ketone is found in some lacquers. Fire Hazards. Solvents' fire hazards are usually indicated on product labels as one of three categories: "extremely flammable," "flammable," or "combustible." Solvents are placed in these categories on the basis of their flash points. The flash point of a solvent is the lowest temperature at which the solvent gives off enough vapor to cause a flash fire (a fire which spreads away from its source of ignition) in the presence oi a flame, spark, static electricity or other source of ignition. If a solvent is extremely flammable, its flash point is b low 20 F. This means that even in very cold weather, the presence of a flame, spark, or even static electricity can cause these v sol ents to explode into flame. Examples of extremely flammable solvents include acetone, hexane, gasoline, and benzene.
e

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A flammable solvent is one whose flash point is above 2 0 and below 80 F. These solvents can cause a flash fire in the range of room temperature. Examples of flammable solvents include lacquer thinner, ethyl alcohol, toluene, VM&P Naphtha, and methyl alcohol. A combustible solvent (flash point between 80 and 150 Degrees F) will I I explode into flame only at temperatures above room temperature. Some combustible solvents such as turpentine, styrene, and xylene, can catch fire on a very hot day, but most combustible solvents need to be heated above 100 F to catch fire. Examples of these are isomalyl alcohol, kerosene, and mineral spirits. Some solvents are too hazardous to be used or stored safely in ordinary shops or studios. Ethers (such as ethyl ether) fall into this category. In addition, ethyl ether, isopropyl ether, dioxane, and tetrahydrofuran absorb oxygen from the air to form explosive peroxides. When containers of these solvents and small amounts of their peroxide residues are heated (for example, by storing them near a radiator or in sunlight), they can be very explosive. Friction from screwing on container lids for these solvents has been known to cause explosions. Rules For Solvent Use 1. Try to find replacements for solvent-based products. more and better water-based materials are being developed as technology improves. Keep abreast of developments in new materials and eliminate old materials in favor of new and safer ones when- ever possible. 2. Use the least toxic solvent possible. Substitute safer solvents from the same class whenever possible. 3. Avoid breathing vapors. Use solvents in areas of local exhaust ventilation. When you use small amounts of solvents, good general dilution ventilation may be satisfactory. Use selfclosing waste cans for solvent-soaked rags. Don't allow open solvent containers or soaked rags to remain where evaporation will contaminate air. Keep a respirator.with an organic vapor cartridge at hand to back up the ventilation system or for emergencies. 4. Avoid skin contact. Wear gloves when it is impossible for you to avoid skin contact with solvents without them. You should rely on barrier creams to protect your hands only in the instances of intermittent, accident, or very light solvent exposure. Wash out splashes on the skin immediately with water; do not let them dry Do not wash your hands with solvents. 5. Avoid eye contact. When you pour solvents or whenever there is a chance that an accidental splash may occur, wear protective goggles. Do not rely on regular glasses for protection. Some solvents can damage eye tissue permanently. In case or eye contact, flush eyes with water for 13 minutes and seek medical advice. 6. Protect against fire and explosion h a z a r d s . Never smoke or use open flames near solvents. Heat or ultraviolet light near some chlorinated hydrocarbon solvents can produce highly toxic phosgene (a gas used in World War It) which is much more dangerous than the solvent itself. Ventilation fans for solvent vapors must be explosion-proof. Follow all rules for storage use, and disposal of solvents mandated by local and state codes. , If spills are likely to be frequent, use the chemical solve- absorbers sold through most major chemical supply houses (Some suppliers list these materials under "spill control.") `to, of these materials will absorb and greatly reduce the solvent rate of evaporation which in turn greatly reduces the fire hazard.

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Center for Occupational Hazards Plastics Used In Theater Crafts

Plastics have become an important part of theater crafts. Many plastics chemicals, however, are highly toxic and can cause serious health effects, even death. Information about the hazards of plastics chemicals gathered from industrial experience can be applied well to theater crafts. For example, it is known that about 50 per cent of workers exposed to epoxy chemicals become sensitized, and developed responses such as allergic dermatitis or asthma. Once developed, this allergy persists for life and will flare up at the least exposure to epoxy. Persons in theater crafts can expect similar experiences. For example, a theater shop employee recently developed dermatitis after molding epoxy putty by hand. Many plastics chemicals also are explosion and fire hazards. Take, for example, benzoyl peroxide, a common hardener for acrylic, silicone, and polyester resins. When left near a radiator or in the sun, this chemical can become so reactive that simply screwing the lid on the container can cause it to explode. Working with precast sheets and blocks of plastic also is hazardous. Sawing, sanding, or machining often produces enough friction heat to release toxic gases from plastics. For example, highly toxic hydrogen cyanide gas can emanate from polyurethane plastic.

What Is Plastic?
A plastic or "polymer" is created when a chemical called a "monomer" reacts with itself to form long chains. This reaction is called polymerization. For example, when a monomer called methyl methacrylate is polymerized, it becomes ploymethyl methacrylate, better known as Lucite. Some plastics are capable of a second reaction in which the long chains are linked together laterally (side by side). This reaction is called crosslinking. For example, liquid polyester resin becomes a solid material when it is reacted with a crosslinking agent such as styrene. Besides differences in the processes that form them, longchain polymers and crosslinked polymers possess different properties, especially when exposed to heat. Heat can usually deform or mold long-chain polymers into new and different shapes. These types of polymers are called thermoplastics. On the other hand, heat will not deform crosslinked polymers, and these polymers are called thermoset plastics. Chemicals which can cause monomers and resins to react are given various names such as actuators, curing agents, hardeners, crosslinking agents, initators, or catalysts. (The word "catalysts" really should not be used because it is technically incorrect. A catalyst by definition should emerge from a reaction unchanged. However, hardeners or crosslinkers become, instead, part of the plastic.) The Hazards and Precautions, of Working with Plastics Creating plastics from raw materials (as in casting, laminating, or foaming) is highly hazardous because most monomers, hardeners, crosslinkers, and solvents used in these processes are toxic. Working with sheets or blocks of finished plastic is less hazardous than making plastic. However, decomposition or trapped monomer gases may be released when the finished plastic is heated. Processes during which this can occur include cutting with hot knife or wire, press molding, sawing, drilling, machinging sanding, or heat shrinking. In addition, dusts produced during during some of these processes may cause lung problems. The types of gases produced on heating and the hazards of the dusts will vary with each plastic. Hazards of Polyester Resins One of theater crafts' most common laminating and casting systems is polyester reinforced with fiberglass. In most polyester resins, styrene is used as the crosslinker. Other crosslinkers include methyl methacrylate (MAA), vinyl toluene, and a-methvl styrene. Ketone solvents are sometimes included as diluents. Methyl ethyl ketone (MEK) peroxide is commonly used to initiate the reaction, although benzoyl peroxide, 2, 4pentanedione peroxide, and cumene hydroperoxide are also sometimes used. (See the Hazards of Peroxides.) Promoters or accelerators added to speed up polymerzation include cobalt naphthenate and dimethylaniline.

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Styrene is a aromatic hydrocarbon which is moderately toxic by skin contact and highly toxic by inhalation. It is also a potent narcotic and can cause respiratory and eye irritation. Coughing and burning of the eyes and nose are common symptoms of exposure. Liver and nerve damage also have been reported from exposure to styrene. Vinyl toluene and a-methyl styrene are similar in toxicity to styrene. MMA hazards include skin, eye, and respiratory tract irritation and, when inhaled, it can cause headaches, irritability, narcosis, and may cause allergic responses. Cobalt naphthenate is moderately toxic by skin contact and inhalation and may cause allergies. Dimethylaniline is highly toxic and can enter the blood stream after being inhaled or by being absorbed through the skin. Once in the blood it can cause methemoglobinemia, a condition in which hemoglobin cannot release its oxygen resulting in cyanosis (oxygen starvation). Styrene, vinyl toluene, a-methyl styrene, and clean-up solvents such as acetone and MEK are all flammable. Acetone is extremely flammable and care should be taken not to mix it directly with MEK-peroxide because it forms an explosive mixture with acetone.
The type of fiberglass used for reinforcement is a skin and respiratory irritant. Inhalation of the dust of polyester and fiberglass from sanding and finishing can cause respiratory problems. Precautions Used With Polyester Resins l. Wear gloves and protective goggles when pouring and handling polyester resins. 2. Wear clothing that covers the arms and legs. Remove clothing immediately if splashed with the resin or curing agents. Remove clothing after work, then shower. 3. Cover exposed areas of the neck and face with a protective barrier cream in case of splashes. 4. Wear heavy neoprene rubber or polyvinyl chloride gloves when handling dimethylaniline accelerator. 5. For correct handling of peroxides, see the section on Organic Peroxides. Be especially careful with MEKperoxide since it can form an explosive mixture if it is mixed with acetone and it can cause blindness when splashed in the eyes. 6. Wear a NIOSH-approved dust respirator when handling fiberglass or when sanding the cured polyester. 7. Work in a local exhaust hood or near a window exhaust fan with a NIOSH-approved respirator rated for organic vapors. 8. Use acetone, not styrene, for clean up. 9. Clean up any spills immediately. Cover the work area with disposable materials such as paper towels or newspaper. Store solvent or resin-soaked rags and paper in an approved, selfclosing waste can which is emptied every day. 10. Store flammable solvents safely. Do not use solvents or resin near an open flame or a lit cigarette. 11. When mixing small amounts of resin, use disposable containers and agitators such as paper cups and wooden sticks. Otherwise, use polyethylene or stainless steel containers. Soak all tools and containers before disposing of them. Hazards of Silicone and Natural Rubbers Silicone and natural rubber can be used to make molds and mold releases. There are two basic types of silicone resin systems. The first is a single-component system which cures by absorbing atmospheric moisture. The second is a two-component system which cures by means of a peroxide. (See Hazards of Peroxides.) Both systems contain solvents such as acetone or methylene chloride. Water-based natural rubber latex also can be used to make molds. It is one of the safest methods to use. Rubber cement and contact cements are natural rubber dissolved in solvents such as hexane and naphtha. All these rubber latexes dry through evaporation. Single-component silicone systems, including sprays, release acetic acid or methanol into the air. Acetic acid is highly irritating to the eyes and respiratory system. Methanol is a nervous system poison and is moderately toxic when inhaled. The two-component silicone system often contains irritating chemicals and is moderately toxic to skin. If methylene chloride is present, it may cause narcosis and changes in heart rhythm. Methylene chloride is converted to oarh<m monoxide in the blood stream, and when used in the presence of flames, lit cigarettes, and ultraviolet light, it will produce highly toxic phosgene gas. Some natural rubbers contain chemicals that are skin irritants. Still, natural rubber is one of the safest systems to use. Rubber cement and contact cement solvents can be very hazardous, especially if hexane is present in them. Hexane is extremely flammable and highly toxic if inhaled repeatedly over a long period of time. It can cause temporary peripheral and permanent central nervous system damage.

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Precautions Used with Silicone and Natural Rubbers

1. Use a silicone single-component system with sufficent ventilation to remove the acetic acid or methanol fumes. 2. People with heart problems should not use methylene chloride-containing silicone resins. 3. Wear gloves when handling silicone resins, rubber latex, or solvents. 4. See the section on Organic Peroxides for general precautions. 5. If you use rubber cements containing hexane, use them only with good ventilation. Do not allow smoking or open flames when hexane or acetone is present. Store amounts greater than one pint in approved safety containers. Hazards of Epoxy Epoxy resins can be used for casting, laminating, and molding. They also are common adhesives and putties. Epoxies are always two-component systems, and their initiators are usually amines. After mixing, epoxies' curing process gives off heat which can vaporize any solvents in them. An excess of amines can cause the epoxy to heat to the point of decomposition. The resins themselves are moderately toxic to the skin and are respiratory irritants and sensitizers. They are similar in structure to some suspected carcinogens; therefore they are suspect themselves. The resins also may contain varying toxic solvents. Common solvents in epoxy include the glycidyl ethers which have induced testicular atrophy with decreased sperm activity and hemopoietic abnormalities (alterations in leukocyte count, atrophy of lymphoid tissue, and bone marrow cytotoxicity, often associated with pneumonia) in several animal species. The amine curing agents in epoxies are moderately toxic to skin and highly toxic upon inhalation. They are potent skin sensitizers and irritants, causing dermatitis in almost 50 per cent of workers regularly exposed to them. They also can cause asthma, coughing, bronchospasms, and other breathing problems. Precautions Used with Epoxy Resins 1. Goggles and either gloves or barrier creams should be worn when using large amounts of epoxy resins. Do not hand mold epoxy putties without gloves (barrier creams are not sufficent). 2. When casting large amounts of epoxy, work either with local exhaust la hood or spray booth), or work next to a window exhaust fan while wearing a NIOSH-approved organic vapor respirator.

Hazards of Polyurethane Resins These casting systems usually have two components. One component consists of the polyol polymer; the other consists of diisocvnates which crosslink the polyol. The polyol also contains other materials such as metal salts or amine catalysis. Foaming svstems also contain blowing agents such as freon. (Urethane varnishes and paints are not as hazardous as the polyurethanecasting systems because they contain the finished polyurathane dissolved in solvents and this polyurethane hardens when the solvents evaporate.) For several reasons, it is recommended that theater shops avoid using urethane casting and spray systems. The first and most important reason is that the diisocyanates in these systems present too many problems for the average theater shop. They are highly toxic when inhaled. In very low concentrations they can cause both severe acute and chronic asthma, even in people without a history of allergies. Other serious lung problems caused by diisocynates include bronchitis, bronchspasm, and pulmonary edema. Second, organic vapor cartridges and filters in respirators cannot protect workers adequately against diisocyanate vapors. Nor can diisocyanates be smelled until the air concentration is several times the recommended level. Besides the diisocyanate hazards, the final product of these systems can produce highly toxic decomposition gases if heated or if there should be a fire. The decomposition products include carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides, acrolein, and hydrogen cyanide gas. Finally, cutting and sanding the final product has been associated with skin and respiratory problems which are probably due to release of unreacted chemicals and toxic decomposition products. With care, urethane resin can be used as a mold material, but it would be better to replace urethane resin with other systems such as silicone or natural rubber. Theater shops might foam cast polyurethane if extreme precautions are taken. However, in addition to diisocyanates, foam systems contain other hazardous chemicals. For example, fluorocarbon blowing agents in these systems can cause narcosis at high concentrations and have been known to produce changes in heart rhythm and even cardiac arrest under certain conditions. In addition, the metal salts in foam systems (organotin compounds) when absorbed through the skin can damage the liver and nervous system, and can produce both skin allergies and irration. The amines are sensitizers and irritants. Sanding and cutting the finished foam may cause skin and respiratory problems.

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Precautions Used with Polyurethane Resins l. Persons with any history of allergies, heart problems, or respiratory difficulties should not be involved in using the foam system. 2. Workers should wear a respirator (equipped with an organic vapor and acid gas cartridge and dust prefilter) while sanding, sawing or finished these plastics. 3. When using a urethane spray casting system, plan to equip the shop with a local exhaust system large enough to enclose the entire project. OSHA would require that operators be equipped with air-supplied respirator-with full-face-mask, air-supplied, or SCBA (Self-contained breathing apparatus) respirator. Other Plastics Methyl methacrylate (MMA) alone or combined with methyl acrylate can be used in casting and laminating (usually under pressure and at elevated pressures). Benzoyl peroxide is used as the initiator. (See Hazards of Peroxides.) A number of commercially manufactured plastics are available as film, sheet, block, beads, and the like. These products can be cut, sawed, drilled, deformed by heat, press molded, andvacuum formed. Plastics used for these purposes includes include acrylics (Lucite and Plexiglas), polyvinyls, polystyrene, polyethylene, polypropylene, and foamed plastics such as polystyrene and polyurethane. Hazards of Other Plastics The MMA monomer is moderately toxic and can irritate the skin, eyes, and respiratory tract. It can cause headaches, irritability, and narcosis when inhaled. Cutting or tooling solid acrylic sheets or blocks can result in inhalation of both the dust (which may include MMA monomer, methyl formate, and other gases). These decomposition products can cause allergic responses and respiratory irritation. Tooling or heating polyvinyl chloride (PVC) can release highly toxic hydrogen chloride gas and other vapors. The respiratory disease caused by inhaling these gases is called "meatwrappers asthma" because if was first noticed among meatwrappers who cut PVC film with a hot wire. A number of other plastics produce toxic fumes when heated to decomposition. Decomposition products of polystyrene (styrofoam) or polyurethane can include nitrogen oxides, hydrogen cyanide, carbon monoxide, and monomers. Additional hazards from tooling or heating finished plastics occur because of the additives which are either present in the resin when it is purchased or which are added during the forming process. Many of these additives are complex chemicals whose hazards are either unknown or not well studied. Included among these additives are plasticizers (used to achieve a desired softness), stabilizers (including ultraviolet light absorbers and antioxidants) colorants (such as dyes and pigments), fillers (may include asbestos, talc, quartz, clay, fused silica), reinforcements (often fiberglass), fire retardants, inhibitors. accelerators, and Solvents. There may be hazards, which are at present not known, associated with some of these chemicals. Hazards of Plastic Cements and Glues Special glues and cements are used to bond pieces of plastic together. In general, these cements contain highly toxic solvents and should be used where there is good ventilation. There are three types of cements used to bond acrylics. One is a two-component system made of MMA monomer and an initator (see Hazards of Other Plastics and Organic Peroxides). The other two are made of pure solvents or of acrylic chips dissolved in these solvents. Solvents commonly used for this purpose are methylene Chloride Idichloromethanel, ethylene dichloride (1.2-dichloroethane), and methyl chloroform (1,1,1-trichlorcethane). Although all of these solvents are highly toxic, cements containing ethylene dichloride should be avoided. This solvent can be absorbed through the skin, cause cancer in animals, is a potent narcotic, and causes liver damage. Precautions For Working With Finished Plastics And Cements Since the hazards for tooling and forming plastics can be many and varied, and since there are many plastics additives whose hazards may still be unknown, there are certain common sense rules that should be followed when working with finished plastics.

1. 2. 3.

Use good general ventilation or local exhaust ventilation when working on plastics. Use water-cooled or air-cooled tools, if possible, to keep decomposition of the plastic to a minimum. When heat forming plastics, use the lowest temperature possible. For additional or back-up protection, use a respirator with an organic vapor cartridge. When tooling acrylic, PVC, or urethaneplastics, a combination acid gas/organic vapor cartridge should be used.

Equip sanders, saws, and other electric tools that generate a lot of dust with vacuum attachments.

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4. 5.

Clean up all dust carefully by vacuuming or wet mopping. Do not sweep. Wear gloves and goggles when handing solvent cements. Use a solvent with the lowest toxicity possible. For example, use acetone instead of chlorinated solvents. (Chlorinated solvents can be identified by the syllables "chloro" or "chloride" in the names of ingredients. See also the Solvents Used in Theater Crafts data sheet.)

Organic Peroxides
This is a class of compounds some of which are used to initiate polymerization in polyester, acrylic, and some silicone resins. Hazards of Organic Peroxides In general, organic peroxides burn vigorously and are both reactive and unstable. When heated, some are shock sensitive and can explode. They are also capable of burning without air, because they can release the oxygen needed for burning. This makes it dangerous to mix them with flammable materials or to pour them on materials which can burn. For example, if peroxides ignite after being spilled on clothing, the fire cannot be put out with a fire blanket. Instead, copious quantities of water must be used. Fires even have occurred spontaneously in waste containers holding resin mixtures that include organic peroxides. To decrease their fire and explosion hazards, organic peroxides are usually sold premixed with diluent and inhibitors. However, these mixtures have been known to burn quietly until all the inhibitor has burned off; then the fire intensifies suddenly. The toxic hazards of organic peroxides are largely unknown. In general, the vapors may cause eye, nose, and throat irritation. At high concentrations, organic peroxides have produced symptoms similar to intoxication. Many are also skin sensitizers. Benzoyl Peroxide Benzoyl peroxide can cause slight skin and eye irritation and is highly flammable and explosive. It should not be stored near ' heat sources or in strong sunlight because if it drys out and is heated to 120 F, it becomes a shock-sensitive explosive; about 176 F it will explode. It can also decompose explosively when mixed with materials such as mineral acids, other initiators and peroxides, and many combustible materials. Benzoyl peroxide should be stored well away from any of these materials.

MEK Peroxide
Sunlight can decompose MEK peroxide. It is also extremely shock-sensitive, will explode above 230 F, and forms an explosive mixture with acetone. It is a skin irritant with cumulative effects, and has caused blindness when splashed in the eyes. General Precautions for Handling Peroxides 1. Store peroxides separately from each other and from other combustibles. Always keep peroxides in their original containers. Never store them in glass containers or put them high up where they can fall a large distance. Do not store large amounts of peroxides or keep them for a long time. Do not heat peroxides or store them near sources of heat or sunlight. Never dilute peroxides with other materials or add them to accelerators. Wear goggles when pouring or mixing peroxides. When mixing small amounts of peroxide and resin, use disposable containers and agitators such as paper cups and wooden sticks. Soak all tools and containers in water before disposing of them. Clean up liquid peroxide spills immediately by soaking them up with unmilled fire clay or vermiculite. If the peroxide is in powder or paste form, use wet unmilled fire clay or wet vermiculite. If vermiculite is used, avoid breathing the dust as it commonly is contaminated with asbestos. Clean up the peroxide soaked material with non-sparking, non-metallic tools; do not sweep the mixture because fires have resulted from the friction produced by sweeping. If peroxide spills on clothing, remove the clothing immediately and launder it well before wearing it again. Do not discard unused peroxide or fire clay-vermiculite/peroxide mixtures since they too can be a fire or explosion hazard. Instead, react peroxides with a 10 per cent sodium hydroxide solution before discarding them.

2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.

8. 9.

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Further Information Written and telephone inquiries about health hazards in the theater will be answered by the information Center of the Center for Occupational Hazards. The Information Center has a variety of written materials on this subject for dissemination. Permission to reprint this data sheet may be requested in writing from the Center. Enclose a self-addressed stamped envelope for our publications list. Write: Theater Hazards Project, Center for Occupational Hazards, 5 Beekman Street, New York, NY 10038. Telephone 212/227-6220. This data sheet was prepared with financial assistance from the New York State Council on the Arts. Copyright Center for Occupational Hazards 1980.

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Center for Occupational Hazards Air-Purifying Respirators for Theater Craftspeople

By Monona Rossol, M.S., M.F.A. Theater craftspeople often incorrectly assume that it is simple to choose respiratory protection, and it is common to see someone confidently wearing an improper respirator which is offering little or no protection. Sometimes one sees workers wearing damp handkerchiefs, old army surplus gas masks, or surgical masks which may actually make the situation worse. Some general information about respiratory protection should clear up misconceptions like these and help theater people choose proper equipment. Types of Respirators Respirators are of two basic types: air supplied and airpurifying. Air supplied respirators have systems for bringing fresh air to the wearer by means of pressurized tanks, compressors, motors, or the like. These are usually very complex and expensive pieces of equipment. Air purifying respirators, on the other hand, use the wearer's breathing to draw air through filters or chemical cartridges in order to purify it before it is inhaled. (There are also airpowered respirators which draw air through the filters for the wearer.) Most air-purifying respirators are priced in a range that theater craftspeople will find practical. When Should Respirators Be Used? Air-purifying respirators should be used only as a backup to ventilation. Adequate ventilation, not respirators, should be the primary means of controlling airborne toxic substances. The Occupational Safety and Health Act (OSHA) regulations expressly forbid the use of air-purifying devices as primary protection, except during those brief times when ventilation is being installed, maintained, repaired, during emergency situations or if engineering controls are shown not to be feasible. Respirator Programs If controls are not feasible, the employer is required by OSHA to provide appropriate respiratory protection for employees. However, providing protective equipment is only one aspect of the employer's responsibility. A written respiratory program must be implemented (except in cases where respiratory protection is only needed very infrequently). A respirator program should have the following components: The basis for selection of a specific type of respiratory protective equipment. Provision for medical screening of each employee assigned to wear respiratory equipment to determine if he/she is physically or psychologically able to wear a respirator. Provisions for assigning respiratory protective equipment to employees for their exclusive use, where practical. Provision for testing for the proper fit of the respiratory protective equipment. Provisions for regularly cleaning and disinfecting the respiratory protective equipment. Provisions for proper storage of respiratory protective equipment Provisions for periodic inspection and repair of respiratory protective equipment. A periodic evaluation by the administrator of the program to assure its continued functioning and effectiveness. An employee training program in which the employee can become familiar with the respiratory protective equipment, and be trained in the proper use and the limitations of the equipment." **Respiratory Protection . An employer's manual, DHEW (NIOSH), Publication No. 78-193A, p.2

Who Can Wear Respirators

Some people should not use respirators, including people with physical or psychological problems. A medical opinion should be obtained if you have lung problems such as emphysema, asthma, or breathing difficulties; heart problems such as high blood pressure or artery disease; facial skin

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problems such as dermatitis; or psychological problems such as claustrophobia. There may also be temporary problems which would curtail respirator use, such as head colds, infections, etc. Other people may not be able to wear a respirator because it will not form a good seal between the facepiece and their faces. This group includes those with facial hair (beards and sideburns), scars, hollow temples, prominent cheekbones, broken facial bones, and a lack of teeth or dentures. Without a good seal or fit, air will bypass the respirators filters or cartridges, rendering the respirator ineffective. In addition to fitting well, respirators must be comfortable. Respirators which pinch or bind usually end up on the shelf, not on the face. When purchasing a respirator, buyers should try them on first. A helpful dealer or package insert will show buyers how to test respirators for fit and how to adjust them for comfort. Some faces are too small for respirators. Most respirators do not fit children and women with small faces. Some companies now make smaller sizes in response to the growing market among women. However, children participating in theatercrafts should never be allowed to use respiratory protection. Not only will the respirator probably not fit their smaller faces, but children should not work with substances which are so toxic that respiratory protection is needed.

What Respirators Protect Against

It is important to know something about the different kinds of hazardous atmospheres which may require respirator use. 1. Vapors and Gaseous Contaminants These contaminants add invisible material to the air we breathe. They can be of two types: vapors formed by the evaporation of substances such as solvents (for example turpentine or mineral spirits), and gases such as chlorine.

2. Particulate Contaminants
These contaminants consist of tiny particles or droplets of a substance. Many of these particles are so small that they can float indefinitely on air currents and some may also be invisible to the eye. There are three types of particulate contaminants: dusts, which are fine particles produced by mixing powdered materials or by grinding, crushing or sanding processes; mists which are tiny liquid droplets given off whenever liquids are sprayed, air brushed, or vigorously mixed; and metal fumes which are solid particles too small to be visible to the eye that are given off during soldering, welding, brazing or metal casting operations.

3. Combinations of Contaminants
Sometimes two types of contaminants are produced by the same operation. Examples include solventcontaining spray painting in which both paint mist (particulate) and solvent vapors are given off, and welding where metal fumes and welding gases may be present.

4. Oxygen Deficient Atmospheres

Oxygen deficient atmospheres can occur when a gas or vapor is released in a confined space in quantities large enough to result in a lower amount of oxygen in the air. Examples of this situation would include a release of large amounts of acetylene or helium or a fire burning in a closed room. Air purifying respirators are useless in these life-threatening circumstances. Air-supplied equipment must be used in these cases.

How Air-Purifying Respirators Work

When air is drawn through a properly fitted respirator, it passes through an air-purifying material before reaching the nose and mouth. This material can be contained either in a filter or a chemical cartridge. Filters are designed to trap particles such as silica dust, metal fumes (a very fine particle), and other dusts. Filters are made of different types of materials, each of a proper and specific density, so that they trap specific types of dusts or particles. For example, a filter approved only for silica dust will not protect users from lead glaze dust, solvent vapors, metal fumes, and many other contaminants. Cartridges, on the other hand, trap vapors or gases by absorbing or reacting chemically with them. Different chemical cartridges are needed to trap different chemical gases or vapors.

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In some cases, multiple cartridges and filters can be used to protect against more than one type of contaminant. However, each additional filter or cartridge adds to the breathing stress of the wearer, limiting comfort and wearing time. No filter or cartridge is perfect: none can remove all of a contaminant from the air. Instead, respirators are intended to reduce the amount of a particular substance to a relatively safe level, as determined by the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH). NIOSH certifies respirators after their capacity to reduce contaminant levels has been proved satisfactorily. NIOSH gives an approval number to all models of respirators and respirator parts which it certifies. This approval number consists of the letters "TC" followed by two sets of three digits. These numbers can be found on all approved respirators and parts. Buyers should not purchase or use equipment which does not have a TC number. When to Replace Filters and Cartridges Both filters and cartridges wear out and become ineffective with use. Filters clog progressively until breathing through them becomes difficult. Chemical cartridges, on the other hand, will not show signs of being used up. Worn-out cartridges can be identified by various tests which are sometimes described in product literature. Otherwise such information can be requested from the manufacturer. Such tests should be performed each time before the respirator is used, and to replace worn-out cartridges it is wise to purchase a supply of cartridges with a respirator or to purchase a supply of the disposable respirators. Chemical cartridges also wear out with time, even if they are not used. For this reason, an expiration date stamped on each cartridge indicates the date when it will no longer be effective. No filter or cartridge is designed to be effective when contaminants reach very high concentration. When they are used where contaminant concentrations exceed the levels at which they are designed to work, they will let more of the contaminants pass through than they are supposed to. And, when used under these conditions, they also can be exhausted in a very short time, sometimes in minutes. Some situations where concentrations of contaminants can exceed respirators' capacities are heavy dust concentrations from incautious mixing of powdered substances, heavy paint spraying, and large solvent spills. In some of these instances full face respirators with larger capacity canisters might be sufficient. Chemicals Against Which Respirators Are Effective Filters and cartridges are tested and approved by NIOSH only for specific kinds of air-borne contaminants. The following is a list of abbreviations for some of the filters and cartridges which theater craftspeople might use. Contaminant Cartridge Filter Acid gas AC Ammonia NH3 Organic Vapor OV Formaldehyde FOR Paint, lacquer, enamel mist PLE* Pesticide PEST A Asbestos Dusts** D Mists** M Fumes** F *An organic vapor cartridge with a spray paint pre-filter **Designed as respiratory protection against dusts, mists, and metal fumes having a permissible exposure level (measured as time weighted average) not less than 0.05 milligrams per cubic meter or dusts and mists having an air contamination level not less than 2 million particles per cubic foot of air. Choosing a Respirator It is important to know precisely what is in the materials you use and in what form (gas, vapor, particle, fume) they are airborne before choosing filters and cartridges.

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Air-purifying respirators can not be used to protect against life-threatening or oxygen-deficient atmospheres. In these instances, air-supplied respirators are required. For protection against chemical that are eye irritants, use a full face respirator instead of a half-face respirator. The following chart lists many substances and processes used in theatercrafts and the proper cartridge or filter to be worn while working.

Selection Chart for Filters and Cartridges Substance or Process Cartridge Filter . Aerosol Sprays See Spraying Air Brush Solvent-containing PLE Water Based M Ammonia NH3 Asbestos (Protects only against asbestos) A Dusts: wood, plaster, clay, fiber & other dusts D or DM Dye Powders D or DM Fiberglass wool or insulation D or DM Formaldehyde FOR Hydrochloric (muriatic) acid AG Lacquers and fixatives If evaporating OV If sprayed PLE Metal melting or casting F or DMF Metal fumes from welding (will not protect wearer from welding gasses) DMF Metal Powder D or DM Paint Strippers (solvent-containing) OV Photo-printmaking solvents (evaporating) OV Pigments (powdered) OV Plastic cements and glues OV Plastic resin casting (except for urethane) OV Plastic sanding, grinding, and cutting (except for Urethane and PVC) OV and D or DM PVC (polyvinyl chloride) sanding and grinding AG/OV and D Silk screen wash ups OV Soldering DMF With acid, fluoride, and zinc chloride fluxes AG and DMF Solvents (evaporating) OV Spray Adhesives PLE Spraying toxic water-based paints, dyes, & other materials DM Spraying Solvent-containing paints, dyes, etc PLE ________________________________________________________________________ Chemicals Against Which Air-Purifying Respirators Are Ineffective There are a number of chemical compounds against which air-purifying respirators and masks should never be used. These chemical compounds are of an extremely hazardous nature, lack sufficient warning properties (smell or test), 'are highly irritating, or are not effectively absorbed on filter and cartridge material. Included among these are hot or burning wax vapors, carbon monoxide, isocyanates (from foaming or casting polyurethane), nitric acid, ozone, methyl ethyl ketone peroxide (used to harden polyester casting systems); phosgene gas (created when cholorinated hydrocarbon solvents come in contact with heat or flame). Since air-purifying respirators only reduce contaminants, they also do not offer sufficient protection against cancer-causing substances.* For example, respirators which are designed for asbestos dust protect users only against asbestosis (a fibrotic lung disease caused by

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inhaling considerable amounts of asbestos), but not against lung cancer or mesothelioma (canters which can be caused by much smaller amounts of asbestos). Reducing the amount of inhaled asbestos, of course, reduces the risk of these cancers, but does not eliminate it. ________________________ *Some sources of asbestos in the theater might include dust from electric cord insulation, asbestos gloves, damaged or old asbestos tire curtains, vermiculite, some white clays and talc powders, and old asbestos ceiling treatments and tiles. In the past, bulk asbestos was used on occasion to texture glues and scene paints and asbestos powder was even suggested as a make-up ingredient. (There are now substitutes for asbestos products used in the theater.) Other carcinogens found in the theater against which airpurifying respirators are only partly effective include some pigments and dyes, some chlorinated hydrocarbon solvents (such as carbon tetrachloride, tetrachlorethane, and ethylene dichloride), and arsenic (some wood preservative and adhesives contain small amounts of arsenic.) Respirator Care At the end of a work period, a respirator should be cleaned and stored in a convenient, clean location. If the respirator is shared, it should be cleaned and disinfected between users. The following method may be used: Wash with a detergent or a combination detergent and disinfectant, in warm water using a brush. (Safety equipment companies usually sell detergents and disinfectants suitable for these purposes.) Rinse in clean water, or rinse once with a disinfectant and once with clean water. (The rinse is important because traces of detergent of disinfectant left on the mask can cause skin irritation or dermtitis.) Dry on a rack or hang from a clothes line. In either case position the respirator so that the facepiece won't "set" crooked as it dries. Once the respirator is dry it should be stored properly. The law requires that respirators be protected from dust, sunlight, heat, extreme cold, excessive moisture, and damaging or con, contaminating chemicals. One solution is to store the respirator in a sealable plastic bag in a storage cabinet Respirators should be carefully inspected for wear, cracks, - distortion from improper drying or storage, loss of elasticity in face pieces, straps or other plastic or rubber parts, damage to the inhalation and exhalation valves, worn out filters and car' cartridges and more. Should defective parts be found they should be replaced by parts from the same brand of respirator. NIOSH , approval of a respirator will not hold if any part has been replaced by one from a different brand because respirator parts are not interchangeable. Where to Buy a Respirator The yellow pages of any good-sized city's telephone book will list distributors under the heading of safety equipment. Theater craftspeople in towns without local distributors can get in touch with major safety equipment companies for information about their products and the nearest dealer. Some major manufacturers are: American Optical Corp. Safety Products Division 100 Canal Street Putnam, CT 06260 Scott Aviation Division of ATO, Inc. Lancaster, NY 14086

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Mine Safety Appliances Co. 400 Penn Center Blvd. Pittsburgh, PA 15235 Norton Safety Products 200 Plainfield Pike 1 Cranston, RI 029 0 (also makes small sizes) Other Types of Respirators

3M Company 3M Center St. Paul, MN 55101 Wilson Products Division ESB, Ind. Box 622 Reading, PA 19603

For those people (like those with beards) who cannot wear air-purifying respirators, or for special circumstances (like extremely dusty conditions) there are more complex and expensive solutions. Such alternatives include motor-powered airpurifying respirators (a motor draws air through the respirator) and air-supplied respirators, such as those with independent air supplies in tanks or compressors. Summary Protection against most airborne chemicals can be had with the right respirator. But finding the right one requires knowledge about the contaminants to which you are exposed, and just as much knowledge about respirators. It is easier and better, in almost every case, to try to eliminate hazardous procedures, to find substitutes for some of the more toxic chemicals, and above all to install proper ventilation. Sources of Additional Information Respiratory Protection... A Manual for the Employer, DHEW (NIOSH), Publication No. 78-193A Respiratory Protection... A Guide for the Employee, DHEW (NIOSH), Publication No. 78-1938. NIOSH Certified Equipment List, DHEW (NIOSH), Publication No. 80-144 October 1980. Supplement to the NIOSH Certified Equipment List, DHEW (NIOSH), Publication No. 82-106, October 1981. A Guide to Industrial Respiratory Protection, NIOSH Technical Report, DHEW (NIOSH), Publication No. 76-189. Patty, Frank (ed.) Industrial Hygiene and Toxicology, Vol. 1, 3rd Ed. New York: Interscience Publishers, 1977, Chapter 21. McCann, Michael. Artist Beware: The Hazards and Precautions in Working With Art and Craft Materials. New York: WatsonGuptill Publications, 1979. General Industry Safety and Health Standards; US Department of Labor, Occupational Safety and Health Administration, OSHA 2206. Written and telephone inquiries about health hazards in the theater will be answered by the Information Center of the Center for Occupational Hazards. The Information Center has a variety of written materials on this subject for dissemination. Permission to reprint this data sheet may be requested in writing from the Center. Enclose a self-addressed stamped envelope for our publications list. Write: Theater Hazards Project, Center for Occupational Hazards, 5 Beekman Street, New York, NY 10038. Telephone 212/227-6220. This data sheet was prepared with financial assistance from the New York State Council on the Arts.

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Center for Occupational Hazards Ventilation for Theater Arts

By Nancy Clark, M.A. Industrial Hygienist And Monona Rossol, M.A., M.F.A. Good ventilation can save your health. It is an important protection against toxic dusts, fumes, gases, and vapors in theater and shop air. Ventilation has been used for years to control toxic materials in industrial processes. But it is only recently that the same protection has been recognized as crucial for craftspeople working in theaters and prop, scene, lighting, and costumes shops at all levels of theater, school, university, community and regional theater, professional and amateur theater. Workers in small theaters are especially at risk because scene- and prop-making may occur in the theater itself. Dust, fumes, and vapors from these processes may remain in the air for many hours in which case not only the crafts people, but the actors and the audience may be exposed. Workers in large scene, lighting, or prop shops, on the other hand, are more at risk of developing chronic occupational illnesses occasioned by repeated exposures to the same chemicals over long periods of time. Yet, many of these places are equipped with inferior ventilation systems or no systems at all. This is particularly unfortunate because theater shops should have better than ordinary ventilation since extraordinary jobs will be done there. For example, scene and propmaking jobs are likely to employ an incredibly wide and unpredictable range of materials, are likely to differ vastly in size (from miniature sets to gigantic backdrops for instance), and it is likely that the job will be too rushed to allow time for installation of ventilation to fit the situation. This datasheet will help you understand how a well designed and maintained ventilation system should perform. If your workplace does not have a system, it will tell you or your employer what you need; if it does have one, it will give you pointers on how to assure that it is operating properly. What is Ventilation? Many materials, like paints, solvents, and aerosols used by theater and craftspeople are labeled "Caution: Use with adequate ventilation." To many people, adequate ventilation means working in a large open room, a room with air-conditioning, or near an open door or window. This is only adequate if very small amounts of the material are used over a very brief period of time. Any time toxic materials are used in large quantities, in closed spaces, or over a long period of time, proper ventilation is necessary. There are two types of ventilation systems: 1) general or dilution ventilation, and 2) local exhaust ventilation. General ventilation dilutes the concentration of toxic are you breathe with fresh uncontaminated air. Local exhaust ventilation, on the other hand, captures the toxic materials at their source before they contaminate the air in the workplace. Dilution Ventilation Dilution ventilation systems consists of inlets, sometimes equipped with blowers to bring fresh air in to dilute concentrations of toxic vapors or gases. This diluted air mixture is then

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moved out of the shop through outlets equipped with exhaust fans. Very often the system also has heaters or coolers to make the air comfortable. When using dilution ventilation, it is important to know how much air is required to dilute toxic vapors and gases to safer levels. This ventilation rate depends on the toxicity of the substance, the amount evaporated, and the time over which it evaporates. Dilution ventilation should never be used for dusts and metals because some dusts are too heavy to be moved by general air flow and others are so light they will be stirred up from floors, shelves, and other sources creating more dust than you remove. Dilution ventilation is recom mended only for moderate amounts of low-toxicity solvents. The following rules should be observed when using dilution ventilation: 1. Do not use dilution ventilation with highly toxic materials or with large volumes of toxic materials. It will not give adequate protection. 2. Enough fresh or "make-up" air must be provided to replace all the air that is exhausted. Beware the use of air conditioners to bring in fresh air. Usually they only recirculate contaminated air causing a build-up of toxics, not a dilution! 3. When large quantities of make-up air are required, a fan should be used as a blower to t supply air to avoid negative pressure build-up. You can check easily for nega ive pressure by opening the door to your studio or shop. It it opens outward and is difficult to push open or if it opens inward and it opens too easily, enough make-up air is not being provided. 4. Make sure that the air inlets are positioned far enough away from air outlets to prevent exhausted contaminated air from re-entering through the inlets. 5. The system should be designed so that the incoming air passes through the breathing zones of workers before being contaminated. For this reason, overhead ceiling fans are usually not recommended. 6. Make sure that fresh air reaches all parts of the studio and that there are no uncomfortable drafts. 7. Heat or cool the air to comfortable temperatures if necessary. Dilution ventilation may not seem to be such an inexpensive solution when the cost of energy to heat or cool large amounts of air is considered. 8. Inspect and clean all component parts regularly. 9. Make sure the fan is of the proper capacity. See more about fans in the local exhaust ventilation section. Local Exhaust Ventilation Local exhaust ventilation should be used when highly toxic substances are used or when large amounts of toxic materials are emitted into the air. Processes that often require local exhaust ventilation are those that use aerosols, sprays, or air brushes, solvents (such as costume cleaning or silk screen wash up), polyester resin casting and molding, and silk screen print drying. Dusts and fumes from processes like welding, mixing dry pigments or dyes, woodworking, and grinding operations are also best controlled by local exhaust ventilation. Since many products used in theatercrafts are poorly labeled, caution dictates that shops have good local exhaust systems for any process which creates airborne materials of unknown or doubtful toxicity.

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Local exhaust ventilation systems consist of a hood enclosing or positioned very close to the source to suck in the contaminated air, ductwork to carry the contaminated air away, an air cleaner to purify the exhausted air before it is released to the outside, and a fan to suck the air through the system. (See figure 1.) Here are a few simple rules to follow for good exhaust ventilation: 1. Enclose the process as much as possible. The more the process is enclosed-that is, the closer the hood is to it or the more completely the hood surrounds the process-the better the system will work. For example, spray painting should be done inside the face of a spray booth. If it is done a few feet back, the spray booth's air flow will not pick up all the spray. 2. Make sure the air flow at the source of the contamination is great enough to capture the contaminant. If this capture velocity is inadequate, the contaminant will escape into the studio or shop air. Keep in mind that dusts require a much higher capture velocity than vapors and gases. 3. Make sure that the flow of contaminants is away from the face, not past it. 4. Make sure that the exhausted air cannot re-enter the shop through the make-up air inlets, doors, windows, or other openings. 5. To keep the system operating efficiently, make sure enough make-up air is provided. Hoods The hood of a local exhaust system captures the contaminant. No exhaust ventilation system can succeed unless the toxic dust, fumes, gases, or vapors are drawn into it. Hoods vary widely, depending on the type of process and the hazard it generates. There are basic designs (see figure 2, p. 2) and a few fundamental principles apply to all of them. Spray booths are one type of hood that should be used anytime materials are applied in an aerosol form, as in spray painting, air brush techniques, staining, lacquering, and glazing. Spray booths are commonly used to control the flammability of materials as well. If a spray booth is used for flammables make sure all component parts are fire and explosion proof. Canopy hoods are used when the natural movement of pollutants is upward. Heated operations like heating a dye bath on stove is an example of a good process for a canopy hood. However, these hoods should only be used when the operator does not work directly under the hood. This situation would pass the contaminant through the breathing zone of the worker. (See figure 3). Another type of hood that could eliminate toxics in studio air is the portable hood, sometimes called an elephant trunk hood. This type of hood is very useful for welding or soldering when it is much easier to move the ventilation to the source of fumes and gases. The ductwork on these hoods is made of some type of flexible material. No matter what type of hood is needed, the following principles must be adhered to: 1. The hood should be placed as close to the source of toxic material as possible. Total enclosure is the best way to capture all the contaminant. The reach of a hood, the distance over which it can pull air, is very short. Because air is sucked in from all directions, enclosures, side curtains, and flanges reduce the amount of uncontaminated air drawn into the system and increase the reach of the hood. (see 4.)

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2. Hoods should be designed to take advantage of the natural movement of contaminants. For example, heated processes should be ventilated from above and grinding and sanding operations should be fit with a hood enclosing part of the wheel. 3. The hood should be placed so that the contaminant is drawn away from the breathing zones of people in the area. Ducts Ducts carry contaminated air away from the work area. Round ducts are preferable to rectangular or square ducts. It is very important that the ductwork be free of any holes or leaks around joints to keep the contaminants out of the shop air. Like the other parts of a local exhaust ventilation system, there are a few good rules to follow for effective ducts. They are as follows: 1. Ducts should be designed with as few bends and turns as possible. Right angle elbows or drastic changes in duct diameter size should be avoided. When turns or diameter changes are necessary, they should be done as soft and as gradual as possible. Like round cuts, these features reduce friction and turbulence in the system and keep the air moving smoothly with minimum losses in velocity. 2. When dusts are being carried by the ductwork, duct velocity must be maintained to prevent the dusts from settling out. Clogged air ducts restrict air flow and can be a fire hazard if flammable materials are being carried through the ducts. 3. Each time new ducts (or hoods) are added to the system, ` the entire system should be redesigned to assure that the system remains in balance. Otherwise the different components may not have enough power to keep the air flowing efficiently. 4. Ducts should be cleaned and inspected regularly.

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Fans The fan moves the air. It must be powerful enough to do the job. Many fans are inadequate, especially in systems that have been expanded or changed. There are two basic types of fans: axial flow fans and centrifugal fans (see figure 5.) The axial flow fan moves air parallel to its axis of rotation. The standard propeller fan is a good example. It is used in dilution ventilation system and in spray booths. The centifugal fan moves air perpendicular to its axis of rotation. Centrifugal fans, like the squirrel-cage or paddle-wheel fan, are the workhorses of local exhaust ventilation system. It is always used for control of dusts from grinding, mixing clay, and sanding. For any local exhaust ventilation system, the fan should be selected based on the following factors: 1. Required air flow. For example, removing dusts requires high fan velocities; therefore centrifugal fans should be used. 2. Flammability and explosion hazards. Special fans are needed for use with flammable materials. See section below. 3. Noise level. High speed fans are very noisy. Larger capacity, slower speed fans should be used if noise is a problem. If vibration of the fan motor is the cause of the noise, the fan should be mounted on rubber shock absorbers.

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Air Cleaners Air cleaners, such as filters, precipitators, scrubbers, and settling chambers should be a part of the ventilation system, especially for particulates. These devices keep the contaminants from polluting the neighborhood around the shop. To be properly maintained, air cleaning devices should be cleaned and inspected regularly. Fire and Explosion Hazards If flammable solvents evaporate in an enclosed space, there is the possibility of explosion. This can happen when the lower explosion limit (LEL) is reached. The LEL is the minimum concentration of flammable vapors in air to cause an explosion if ignited Local exhaust ventilation can keep vapor levels below the LEL in storage rooms and cabinets. If the shop or studio is already being ventilated for health hazards of the solvent, protection against explosions is automatic. This is because the level of solvent vapors that cause health hazards is far below the level that causes a fire or explosion hazard. Be aware that local exhaust systems that are venting flammable solvents require special equipment. To eliminate fire and explosion hazards, explosion-proof fans, spark-proof fan blades, and enclosed fan belts (if fan is belt driven) must be selected. All fan parts must be electrically grounded and conform to the National Board of Fire Underwriters and the National Fire Protection Association. Fans and other electrical equipment used in dilution ventilation system should be explosionproof if large amounts of flammable solvents are being used. What You Can Do Since ventilation is not a production cost, many employers and individual theater artists and craftspeople do not install systems, maintain them, or keep them running at needed capacity But since the exposed workers pays the cost of contaminated work areas with his/her health, ventilation should be installed and maintained! Work with your employer and fellow workers to try to get ventilation installed. If you belong to a union, try to get the union to help. Once ventilation is installed, be vigilant about its maintenance and repair. If you are covered by OSHA, find out what standards apply to your workplace. Threshold Limit Values (TLVs) are the OSHA standards for safe levels of hazardous substances. The TLVs and required ventilation air flow rates are published in the OSHA 1910. General Industry Standards. TLVs are listed in Table Z-1000. and the ventilation standards are in Table G-10 for spray booths and Table G-14 enclosing and canopy hoods. Testing the System The best test of a ventilating system is whether the air is fit to breathe. Air sampling instruments can be used to check the level of contaminants in the work area air. But even without equipment, you can use common sense to make a few simple observations. Can you see dusts or mists in the air or settling on surfaces? Can you smell any gases or vapors? If you can smell them, you are breathing them. These are indications that contaminants are escaping the draw of the system. Unfortunately, many dusts, fumes, gases, and vapors are odorless and invisible to the naked eye. So these simple observations are only useful to prove a system inadequate. Not seeing or smelling chemical pollutants does not mean the system is working properly. You can also test the air flow into the hood. Smoke-tubes (available from safety supply houses) emit a highly visible and safe smoke. These tubes can be held up to a hood to see if the smoke is drawn into the hood completely and quickly. There are also meters available to measure the air velocity throughout the ventilation system.

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If the System Breaks Down Have new hoods or ducts been added recently without increasing the capacity or balancing the system? Are ducts or air cleaners clogged? Clogged ducts sound dull when tapped. Are there any leaks in the hood, ducts or joints? 'Has the process changed? Is the system running at full capacity? Has power been reduced or shut off? Are dampers closed? Are fan belts slipping? Is sufficient make-up air supplied? Has the fan or its wiring been installed backwards? Centrifugal fans operate at half speed in a backwards position.

Ventilation Is Only Part of the Picture Local exhaust ventilation can help keep toxic dusts, fumes, gases, and vapors out of the air you breathe. But it is even better to eliminate these hazards at the source. Less dangerous art materials can be substituted for more dangerous ones. This is especially practical in the selection of solvents. Anytime you can use solvents such as acetone or mineral spirits instead of toluol or perchlorethylene, you are working more safely. Or working differently with toxic materials can eliminate hazards, such as not using dry pigments and dyes or spraying paints when they could be brushed on. Enclose the process if you can. When handling fine dusts such as dye powders, use a box with a removable glass or Plexiglas top and small holes on the sides for hands. You can see what you're doing without spreading dust around in the air. These are only some examples. You can probably think of others in your own shop or studio. Substitution, changes in the process, and local exhaust ventilation are good solutions to airborne health hazards. Respirators are a bad one. They are hot, uncomfortable, and difficult to use. A lot of effort must be used to select proper respirators and maintain them adequately. Sources of Additional Information *Artist Beware: The Hazards and Precautions in Working with Art and Craft Materials, by Michael McCann. New York: Watson-Guptill, 1979. Available from C.O.H. 'Industrial Ventilation: A Manual of Recommended Practice, ACGIH. Also available from C.O.H. *OSHA 1910. General Industry Standards. Available from nearest OSHA office. *Factsheet on Ventilation. Cambridge, MA: Urban Planning Aid. (Revised by the PHILAPOSH Health/Technical Committee. Available from the Philadelphia Area Project on Occupational Safety and Health, 1321 Arch St., Philadelphia, PA.) Written and telephone inquiries about health hazards in the theater will be answered by the information Center of the Center for Occupational Hazards. The Information Center has a variety of written materials on this subject for dissemination. Permission to reprint this data sheet may be requested in writing from the Center. Enclose a self-addressed stamped envelope for our publications list. Write: Theater Hazards Project, Center for Occupational Hazards, 5 Beekman Street, New York, NY 10038. Telephone 212-227-6220. This data sheet was prepared with financial assistance from the New York State Council on the Arts.

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