The study of light based on

the assumption that light

travels in straight lines and
is concerned with the laws
controlling the reflection
and refraction of rays of
light.

UNIT 1:Geometrical Optics

SF027 1
 1.1 Reflection of Plane Mirror and Refraction
1.1.1 Reflection of Plane Mirror
 Definition – is defined as the return of all or part of a beam of particles
or waves when it encounters the boundary between two
media.
 Laws of reflection state :
 The incident ray, the reflected ray and the normal all lie in the
same plane.
 The angle of incidence, i equals the angle of reflection, r as
shown in figure below.

i r i=r

Simulation Plane mirror

SF027 2
  Image formation by a plane mirror.
 Point object
where
u : object distance
v : image distance
ho : object height
hi : image height
r
i
i i A'
A
u v
 Vertical (extended) object

i
ho hi
i r
Object r Image

u v
Simulation
SF027 3
  The properties of image formed are
 virtual
 upright or erect
 laterally reverse

the object distance, u equals the image distance, v
 the same size where the linear magnification is given by
Image height, hi
M= =1
Object height, ho
 obey the laws of reflection.

 Example 1 :
Find the minimum vertical length of a plane mirror for an observer of
2.0 m height standing upright close to the mirror to see his whole
reflection. How should this minimum length mirror be placed on the
wall?

SF027 4
 Solution: By using the ray diagram as shown in figure below.
H (head) A
E (eyes)
L
h

1
B AL = HE
2
1
LB = EF
2
F (feet )
The minimum vertical length of the mirror is given by
h = AL + LB
1 1
h = HE + EF
2 2
1
h = ( HE + EF ) h = 1.0 m
2
SF027 Height of observer 5
 The mirror can be placed on the wall with the lower end of the mirror is
halved of the distance between the eyes and feet of the observer.

 Example 2 :
A rose in a vase is placed 0.250 m in front of a plane mirror. Nagar
looks into the mirror from 2.00 m in front of it. How far away from
Nagar is the image of the rose?
Solution: u=0.250 m

2.00 m
x
From the properties of the
image formed by the plane
mirror, thus v = u
v = 0.250 m
u v
Therefore, the distance between Nagar and the image of the rose is
given by x = 2.00 + v x = 2.25 m
SF027 6
 1.1.2 Refraction
 Definition – is defined as the changing of direction of a light ray and its
speed of propagation as it passes from one medium into
another.
 Laws of refraction state :
 The incident ray, the refracted ray and the normal all lie in the
same plane.
 For two given media,

sin i n2
= = constant
sin r n1
Snell’s law
Or

n1 sin i = n2 sin r
where
i : angle of incidence
r : angle of refraction
n1 : refractive index of the medium 1
(Medium containing the incident ray)
n2 : refractive index of the medium 2
SF027
(Medium containing the refracted ray) 7
  Examples for refraction of light ray travels from one medium to
another medium can be shown in figures below.
(a) n1 < n2 (b) n1 > n2
(Medium 1 is less (Medium 1 is denser
dense than medium 2) than medium 2)

Incident ray
Incident ray
i i
n1 n1
n2 n2
r r
Refracted ray
Refracted ray
The light ray is bent toward the The light ray is bent away from the
normal, thus normal, thus
r <i r >i
SF027 Simulation-1 Simulation-2 8
 Refractive index (index of refraction)
refraction
sin i

 Definition – is defined as the constant ratio for the two
given media. sin r
 The value of refractive index depends on the type of medium and
the colour of the light.
 It is dimensionless and its value greater than 1.
 Consider the light ray travels from medium 1 into medium 2, the
refractive index can be denoted by
velocity of light in medium 1 v1
1 n2 = =
velocity of light in medium 2 v2

(Medium containing (Medium containing

the incident ray) the refracted ray)

 Absolute refractive index, n (for the incident ray is travelling in

vacuum or air and is then refracted into the medium concerned)
concerned
is given by
velocity of light in vacuum c
n= =
velocity of light in medium v
SF027 9
  Table below shows the indices of refraction for yellow sodium light
having a wavelength of 589 nm in vacuum.

(If the density of medium is greater hence the refractive index is also greater)

SF027 10
  The relationship between refractive index and the wavelength of light.
 As light travels from one medium to another, its wavelength, λ
changes but its frequency, f remains constant.
constant
 The wavelength changes because of different material.
material The
frequency remains constant because the number of wave cycles
arriving per unit time must equal the number leaving per unit time
so that the boundary surface cannot create or destroy waves.
waves
 By considering a light travels from medium 1 (n1) into medium 2
(n2), the velocity of light in each medium is given by
v1 = fλ1 and v 2 = f λ2
then
v1 fλ1 c c
= where v1 = and v2 =
v2 fλ2 n1 n2
c
 
 n1  = λ1 n1λ1 = n2 λ2
 c  λ2
  (Refractive index is inversely
 n2  proportional to the wavelength)
SF027 11
  If medium 1 is vacuum or air, then n1 = 1. Hence the refractive
index for any medium, n can be expressed as
where
λ0 λ0 : wavelength of light in vacuum
n=
λ λ : wavelength of light in medium
 Example 3 :
A fifty cent coin is at the bottom of a swimming pool of depth 2.00 m.
The refractive index of air and water are 1.00 and 1.33 respectively.
What is the apparent depth of the coin?
Solution: na=1.00, nw=1.33
r
Air (na) A
Water (nw) r D
B i
2.00 m i

where
C
AB : apparent depth
SF027
AC : actual depth = 2.00 m 12
 From the diagram, AD
ABD tan r =
AB
AD
ACD tan i =
AC
By considering only small angles of r and i , hence
tan r ≈ sin r andtan i ≈ sin i
 AD 
then
 
tan i sin i  AC  AB
= = =
tan r sin r  AD  AC
 
From the Snell’s law,  AB 
sin i n2 na Note : (Important)
= = Other equation for absolute
sin r n1 nw refractive index in term of
AB na depth is given by
= real depth
AC nw n=
AB = 1.50 m apparent depth
SF027 13
  Example 4 :
A light beam travels at 1.94 x 108 m s-1 in quartz. The wavelength of
the light in quartz is 355 nm.
a. Find the index of refraction of quartz at this wavelength.
b. If this same light travels through air, what is its wavelength there?
(Given the speed of light in vacuum, c = 3.00 x 108 m s-1)
No. 33.3, pg. 1278, University Physics with Modern Physics,11th edition,
Young & Freedman.

Solution: v=1.94 x 108 m s-1, λ=355 x 10-9 m

a. By applying the equation of absolute refractive index, hence
c
n=
v
n = 1.55
b. By using the equation below, thus
λ0
n=
λ
λ0 = nλ
SF027
λ0 = 5.50 x10 −7 m @ 550 nm 14
  Example 5 : (exercise)
We wish to determine the depth of a swimming pool filled with water
by measuring the width (x = 5.50 m) and then noting that the bottom
edge of the pool is just visible at an angle of 14.0° above the
horizontal as shown in figure below. (Gc.835.60)

Calculate the depth of the pool. (Given nwater = 1.33 and nair = 1.00)
Ans. : 5.16 m
 Example 6 : (exercise)
A person whose eyes are 1.54 m above the floor stands 2.30 m in
front of a vertical plane mirror whose bottom edge is 40 cm above the
floor as shown in figure below. (Gc.832.10)

Find x.
SF027 15
Ans. : 0.81 m
 1.2 Reflection of Spherical Mirrors
1.2.1 Spherical mirror
 Definition – is defined as a reflecting surface that is part of a sphere.
 There are two types of spherical mirror. It is convex (curving
outwards) and concave (curving inwards) mirror.
 Figures below show the shape of concave and convex mirrors.
(a) Concave (Converging)
Converging mirror (b) Convex (Diverging)
Diverging mirror
imaginary sphere

A
silver layer A

C P P C
r r
B B

reflecting surface
 Some terms of spherical mirror
 Centre of curvature (point C)
 is defined as the centre of the sphere of which a curved
SF027 mirror forms a part. 16
 
Radius of curvature, r
 is defined as the radius of the sphere of which a curved
mirror forms a part.
 Pole or vertex (point P)
 is defined as the point at the centre of the mirror.
 Principal axis
 is defined as the straight line through the centre of
curvature C and pole P of the mirror.
 AB is called the aperture of the mirror.
1.2.2 Focal point and focal length, f
 Consider the ray diagram for concave and convex mirror as shown in
figures below.
Incident Incident
rays rays

C P P C
F
f f F

SF027 17
  From the figures,
 Point F represents the focal point or focus of the mirrors.
 Distance f represents the focal length of the mirrors.
 The parallel incident rays represent the object infinitely far away
from the spherical mirror e.g. the sun.
 Focal point or focus, F
 for concave mirror – is defined as a point where the incident
parallel rays converge after reflection on the mirror.
 Its focal point is real (principal).
 for convex mirror – is defined as a point where the incident parallel
rays seem to diverge from a point behind the mirror after
reflection.
 Its focal point is virtual.
 Focal length, f
 Definition – is defined as the distance between the focal point
(focus) F and pole P of the spherical mirror.
 The paraxial rays is defined as the rays that are near to and almost
parallel to the principal axis.

SF027 18
 1.2.3 Relationship between focal length, f and radius of curvature, r
 Consider a ray AB parallel to the principal axis of concave mirror as
shown in figure below. incident ray
A B
i
i
θ
C i
F D P

f
r

 From the figure, BD

BCD tan i = ≈i Taken the angles are <<
CD
small by considering the ray
BD
BFD tan θ = ≈θ AB is paraxial ray.
FD
 By using an isosceles triangle CBF, thus the angle θ is given by

SF027
θ = 2i 19
 then
BD  BD 
= 2 
FD  CD 
CD = 2 FD
 Because of AB is paraxial ray, thus point B is too close with pole P
then
CD ≈ CP = r
FD ≈ FP = f
 Therefore
r=2f
or This relationship also valid
r for convex mirror.
f =
2

SF027 20
 1.2.4 Ray Diagrams for Spherical Mirrors
 Definition – is defined as the simple graphical method to indicate the
positions of the object and image in a system of mirrors or lenses.
 Ray diagrams below showing the graphical method of locating an
image formed by concave and convex mirror.
(a) Concave mirror (b) Convex mirror
1 1
1
2 3
2
3 C 2
I P P C
O 2
F
O I F
3
1

 Ray 1 - Parallel to principal axis, after reflection, passes through

At least any
the focal point (focus) F of a concave mirror or appears
two rays
to come from the focal point F of a convex mirror.
for drawing
the ray
 Ray 2 - Passes or directed towards focal point F reflected
parallel to principal axis.
diagram.
 Ray 3 - Passes or directed towards centre of curvature C,
SF027 reflected back along the same path. 21
 1.2.5 Images formed by a convex mirror
 Ray diagrams below showing the graphical method of locating an
image formed by a convex mirror.

P C

O I F

u v
Front back
 Properties of image formed are
 virtual
 upright
 diminished (smaller than the object)
 formed at the back of the mirror
 Object position → any position in front of the convex mirror.

SF027 22
 1.2.6 Images formed by a concave mirror
 Table below shows the ray diagrams of locating an image formed by a
concave mirror for various object distance, u.
Object
Ray diagram Image property
distance, u

 Real
 Inverted
C I P  Diminished
u>r O F  Formed between
point C and F.
Front back

O
 Real
F  Inverted
u=r C P  Same size
 Formed at point C.

I
SF027 Front back 23
 Object
Ray diagram Image property
distance, u

 Real
 Inverted
C  Magnified
f<u<r I P
O  Formed at a
F distance greater
than CP.

Front back

O  Real
 Formed at infinity.

u=f F P
C

SF027 Front back 24

 Object
Ray diagram Image property
distance, u

 Virtual
 Upright
 Magnified
u<f  Formed at the
back of the
mirror
F
C O P I

Front back

 Linear (lateral) magnification of the spherical mirror, M is defined as the ratio

between image height, hi and object height, ho
h v where
Simulation M= i
=− v : image distance from pole
ho u u : object distance from pole

SF027 25
 1.2.7 Derivation of Spherical mirror equation
 Figure below shows an object O at a distance u and on the principal
axis of a concave mirror. A ray from the object O is incident at a point
B which is close to the pole P of the mirror.
 From the figure,
B BOC φ = α +θ (1)
β = φ +θ (2)
θ BCI
θ then, eq. (1)-(2) :
α φ β φ − β = α −φ
O C I D P α + β = 2φ (3)
v By using BOD, BCD and BID thus
u
BD BD BD
tan α = ; tan φ = ; tanβ =
OD CD ID
 By considering point B very close to the pole P, hence
tan α ≈ α ; tan φ ≈ φ ; tanβ ≈ β
OD ≈ OP = u ; CD ≈ CP = r ; ID ≈ IP = v
then
BD BD BD Substituting this
SF027
α= ;φ= ; β= value in eq. (3) 26
u r v
 therefore
BD BD  BD 
+ = 2 
u v  r 
1 1 2
+ = where r = 2 f
u v r
1 1 1 Equation (formula)
= + of spherical mirror
f u v
 Table below shows the sign convention for equation of spherical
mirror .

Physical Quantity Positive sign (+) Negative sign (-)

Object distance, u Real object Virtual object

(in front of the mirror) (at the back of the mirror)
Image distance, v Real image Virtual image
(same side of the object) (opposite side of the object)
Focal length, f Concave mirror Convex mirror
Linear Upright (erect) Inverted image
magnification,
SF027
M image 27
  Example 7 :
An object is placed 10 cm in front of a concave mirror whose focal
length is 15 cm. Determine
a. the position of the image.
b. the linear magnification and state the properties of the image.

Solution: u=+10 cm, f=+15 cm

a. By applying the equation of spherical mirror, thus
1 1 1
= +
f u v
1 1 1
= +
15 10 v
v = −30 cm
The image is 30 cm from the mirror on the opposite side of the
object (or 30 cm at the back of the mirror).
b. The linear magnification is given by

M =− =−
v (− 30 ) The properties of the image
are
u 10  Virtual
M =3  Upright
SF027 28
 Magnified
 Example 8 :
An upright image is formed 30 cm from the real object by using the
spherical mirror. The height of image is twice the height of object.
a. Where should the mirror be placed relative to the object?
b. Calculate the radius of curvature of the mirror and describe the type
of mirror required.

Solution: hi=2ho Spherical

mirror
u v

O 30 cm I

u + v = 30 cm (1)

hi v
M = =−
a. From the figure above,
ho u
v =magnification,
By using the equation of linear −2u (2)
thus
SF027 29
 By substituting eq. (2) into eq. (1), hence
u = 10 cm
The mirror should be placed 10 cm in front of the object.

b. By using the equation of spherical mirror,

1 1 1
= +
f u v
1 1 1
= +
f u ( − 2u )
f = +20 cm
r
and f = therefore r = 40 cm
2
The type of spherical mirror is concave because the positive value

of focal length.

SF027 30
  Example 9 :
A mirror on the passenger side of your car is convex and has a radius
of curvature 20.0 cm. Another car is seen in this side mirror and is
11.0 m behind the mirror. If this car is 1.5 m tall, calculate the height of
the car image . (Similar to No. 34.66, pg. 1333, University Physics with
Modern Physics,11th edition, Young & Freedman.)

Solution: ho=1.5x102 cm, r=-20.0 cm, u=+11.0x102 cm

By applying the equation of spherical mirror,
1 1 1 r
= + and f =
f u v 2
2 1 1
= +
r u v
v = −9.91 cm
From equation of linear magnification,
hi v
M = =−
ho u
v
hi = − ho
SF027
u 31
hi = 1.35 cm
  Example 10 :
A concave mirror forms an image on a wall 3.20 m from the mirror of
the filament of a headlight lamp. If the height of the filament is 5.0 mm
and the height of its image is 35.0 cm, calculate
a. the position of the filament from the pole of the mirror.
b. the radius of curvature of the mirror.

Solution: hi=-35.0 cm, v=3.20x102 cm, ho=0.5 cm

O
I 5.0 mm P
C F u
35.0 cm

3.20 m
hi v − 35.0 3.20 x10 2
M = =− =−
ho u 0.5 u
u = 4.57 cm
SF027 a. By applying the equation of linear magnification, 32
 b. By applying the equation of spherical mirror, thus
1 1 1 r
= + and f =
f u v 2
2 1 1
= +
r u v
r = 9.01 cm
 Example 11 : (exercise)
a. A concave mirror forms an inverted image four times larger than
the object. Find the focal length of the mirror, assuming the
distance between object and image is 0.600 m.
b. A convex mirror forms a virtual image half the size of the object.
Assuming the distance between image and object is 20.0 cm,
determine the radius of curvature of the mirror.
No. 14, pg. 1169,Physics for scientists and engineers with modern physics,
Serway & Jewett,6th edition.
Ans. : 160 mm, -267 mm

SF027 33
 1.3 Refraction of Spherical Surfaces
 Figure below shows a spherical surface with radius, r forms an
interface between two media with refractive indices n1 and n2.

B θ n2
n1 i

α φ β
O PD C I
r
u v
 The surface forms an image I of a point object O as shown in figure
above.
 The incident ray OB making an angle i with the normal and is
refracted to ray BI making an angle θ where n1<n2.
 Point C is the centre of curvature of the spherical surface and BC is
normal.

SF027 34
  From the figure,
BOC i = α +φ (1)

BIC φ = β +θ
θ =φ −β (2)
 From the Snell’s law
n1 sin i = n2 sin θ
By using BOD, BCD and BID thus
BD BD BD
tan α = ; tan φ = ; tanβ =
OD CD ID
By considering point B very close to the pole P, hence
sin i ≈ i ; sin θ ≈ θ ; tan α ≈ α ; tan φ ≈ φ ; tanβ ≈ β
OD ≈ OP = u ; CD ≈ CP = r ; ID ≈ IP = v
then Snell’s law can be written as
n1i = n2θ (3)
 By substituting eq. (1) and (2) into eq. (3), thus
n1 (α + φ ) = n2 (φ − β )
n1α + n2 β = (n2 − n1 )φ
then
 BD   BD   BD 
n1   + n2   = (n2 − n1 ) 
SF027  u   v   r  35
 n1 n2 (n2 − n1 ) Equation of spherical
+ =
u v r refracting surface
where
v : image distance from pole
u : object distance from pole
n1 : refractive index of medium 1
(Medium containing the incident ray)
n2 : refractive index of medium 2
(Medium containing the refracted ray)
 Note :
 If the refraction surface is flat (plane) :
r = ∞ then n1 n2
+ =0
u v
 The equation (formula) of linear magnification for refraction by the
spherical surface is given by
hi n1v
M = =−
ho n2u
SF027 36
  Sign convention for refraction :

Physical Quantity Positive sign (+) Negative sign (-)

Object distance, u Real object Virtual object

(in front of the refracting (at the back of the refracting
surface) surface)
Image distance, v Real image Virtual image
(opposite side of the object) (same side of the object)
Focal length, f Convex surface Concave surface
Radius of Convex surface Concave surface
curvature, r
Linear Upright (erect)
magnification, M Inverted image
image
 Example 12 :
A cylindrical glass rod in air has refractive index of 1.52. One end
is ground to a hemispherical surface with radius, r =2.00 cm as shown
in figure below.
air glass
P
O 0 0 cm C I
2 .
SF027 37
8.00 cm
 Find,
a. the position of the image for a small object on the axis of the rod,
8.00 cm to the left of the pole as shown in figure.
b. the linear magnification.
(Given the refractive index of air , na= 1.00)
Example 34.5, pg. 1302, University Physics with Modern Physics,11th edition,
Young & Freedman.

Solution: ng=1.52, u=8.00 cm, r=+2.00 cm

a. By applying the equation of spherical refracting surface,
n1 n2 (n2 − n1 )
+ =
u v r
na ng ( ng − na )
+ =
u v r
v = +11.26 cm
The image is 11.26 cm at the back of the convex surface.
b. By using the equation of linear magnification for refracting surface,
hi n1v na v
M = =− M =− Negative sign indicates
ho n2 u ng u the image is inverted.
M = −0.93
SF027 38
  Example 13 :
A point object is 25.0 cm from the centre of a glass sphere of radius
5.0 cm. The refractive index of glass is 1.50. Find the position of the
image formed due to refraction by
a. the first spherical glass surface.
b. the first and second refractive surfaces of spheres.

Solution:
a. Given na=n1=1.00, ng=n2=1.50, u=20.0 cm, r=5.0 cm
By using the equation of spherical refracting surface, thus
na ng (ng − na ) Convex surface
+ = and r = + 5 .0 cm
u v r (first surface)
1.00 1.50 (1.50 − 1.00 )
+ = The image is real and 30 cm at the back
20.0 v 5.0
v = +30 cm of the convex surface.
na ng
O P C I1
u = 20.0 cm r v = 30 cm
SF027 39
 b. ng na
na
O P C Q
I 2 30 cm I1
20 cm
First surface
Second surface

From the figure above, the image I1 formed by the first surface is in
glass and 20 cm from the point Q of the second surface.I1 acts as a
virtual object for the second refraction surface and
ng=n1=1.50, na=n2=1.00, u=-20.0 cm, r=-5.0 cm
Using ng na (na − ng )
+ = Concave surface
u v r (second surface)
1.50 1.00 (1.00 − 1.50 )
+ =
(−20.0 ) v (−5.0 )
v = +5.71 cm
The image is real and 5.71cm at the back of the concave surface
SF027 40
(5.71 cm from point Q as shown in figure above).
  Example 14 : (exercise)
A small strip of paper is pasted on one side of a glass sphere of radius
5 cm. The paper is then view from the opposite surface of the sphere.
Find the position of the image.
(Given refractive index of glass =1.52 and refractive index of air=1.00)
Ans. : 20.83 cm in front of the concave surface (second refracting
surface)
 Example 15 : (exercise)
A point source of light is placed at a distance of 25.0 cm from the
centre of a glass sphere of radius 10 cm. Find the image position of
the source. (Gc.830.Exam.33-11)
(Given refractive index of glass =1.50 and refractive index of air=1.00)
Ans. : 28 cm at the back of the concave surface (second refracting
surface).

SF027 41
 1.4 Thin Lenses
 Definition – is defined as a transparent material with two spherical
refracting surfaces whose thickness is thin compared to
the radii of curvature of the two refracting surfaces.
 There are two types of thin lens. It is converging and diverging lens.
 Figures below show the various types of thin lenses, both converging
and diverging.
(a) Converging (Convex) lenses

Biconvex Plano-convex Convex meniscus

(b) Diverging (Concave) lenses

SF027 Biconcave Plano-concave Concave meniscus 42

 1.4.1 Terms of lens
 Figures below show the shape of converging (convex) and diverging
(concave) lenses.
(a) Converging lens (b) Diverging lens

r1 r1

C1 O C2 C1 O C2
r2 r2
 Centre of curvature (point C1 and C2)
is defined as the centre of the sphere of which the surface of
the lens is a part.
 Radius of curvature (r1 and r2)
 is defined as the radius of the sphere of which the surface of
the lens is a part.
 Principal (Optical) axis
 is defined as the line joining the two centres of curvature of a
lens.
 Optical centre (point O)
 is defined as the point at which any rays entering the lens
SF027 43
pass without deviation.
 1.4.2 Focus (Focal point) and focal length
 Consider the ray diagrams for converging and diverging lens as
shown in figures below.

F1 O F2 F1 O F2

f f
 From the figures, f f
 Point F1 and F2 represent the focus of the lens.
 Distance f represents the focal length of the lens.
 Focus (point F1 and F2)
 For converging (convex) lens – is defined as the point on the
principal axis where rays which are parallel and close to the
principal axis converges after passing through the lens.
 Its focus is real (principal).
 For diverging (concave) lens – is defined as the point on the
principal axis where rays which are parallel to the principal axis
seem to diverge from after passing through the lens.
SF027
 Its focus is virtual. 44
  Focal length ( f )
 Definition – is defined as the distance between the focus F and the
optical centre O of the lens.
1.4.3 Ray Diagrams for Lenses
 Ray diagrams below showing the graphical method of locating an
image formed by converging (convex) and diverging (concave) lenses.
(a) Converging (convex) lens

1
2
3
F2 I
O F1
2 1
3

u v

SF027 45
 (b) Diverging (concave) lens
1

1
3
2
3
O F2 I F1
v
u 2

 Ray 1 - Parallel to the principal axis, after refraction by the lens,

At least any passes through the focal point (focus) F2 of a
two rays converging lens or appears to come from the focal point
for drawing F2 of a diverging lens.
the ray  Ray 2 - Passes through the optical centre of the lens is
diagram. undeviated.
 Ray 3 - Passes through the focus F1 of a converging lens or
appears to converge towards the focus F1 of a diverging
lens, after refraction by the lens the ray parallel to the
SF027 principal axis. 46
 1.4.4 Images formed by a diverging lens
 Ray diagrams below showing the graphical method of locating an
image formed by a diverging lens.

O F2 I F1

Front back
 Properties of image formed are
 virtual
 upright
 diminished (smaller than the object)
 formed in front of the lens.
 Object position → any position in front of the diverging lens.

SF027 47
 1.4.5 Images formed by a converging lens
 Table below shows the ray diagrams of locating an image formed by a
converging lens for various object distance, u.
Object
Ray diagram Image property
distance, u

 Real
 Inverted
I  Diminished
u > 2f O 2F1 F1 F2 2F2
 Formed between
point F2 and 2F2.
Front back (at the back of
the lens)

 Real
O 2F2
 Inverted
u = 2f 2F1 F1 F2
 Same size
I  Formed at point
2F2. (at the back
Front back of the lens)
SF027 48
 Object
Ray diagram Image property
distance, u

 Real
 Inverted
 Magnified
f < u < 2f I  Formed at a
2F1 O F1 F2 2F2
distance greater
than 2f at the
Front back back of the lens.

 Real
 Formed at infinity.
O
u=f 2F1 F1 F2 2F2

Front back
SF027 49
 Object
Ray diagram Image property
distance, u

 Virtual
 Upright
 Magnified
u<f  Formed in front
of the lens.

I 2F1 F1 O F2 2F2
Front back

 Linear (lateral) magnification of the thin lenses, M is defined as the ratio

between image height, hi and object height, ho
h v where
Simulation M= i
=− v : image distance from optical centre
ho u u : object distance from optical centre
SF027 50
 Equation
 Considering the ray diagram of refraction for 2 spherical surfaces as
shown in figure below.
v1 t − v1
u1 v2
r1 r2
A D
n1 n2 n1

C1 I1 C2

O P1 P2 I2

B E
t

SF027 51
  By using the equation of spherical refracting surface, the refraction by
first surface AB and second surface DE are given by
 Convex surface AB (r = +r1)
n1 n2 (n2 − n1 )
+ = (1)
u1 v1 r1
 Concave surface DE (r = -r2)
n2 n1 (n1 − n2 )
+ =
( t − v1 ) v2 − r2
Assuming the lens is very thin thus t = 0,
n2 n1 (n1 − n2 )
+ =
− v1 v2 − r2
n2  n1 − n2  n1 
= −   − 
v1  − r2  v2 
n2 n1  n2 − n1 
= −   (2)
v1 v2  r2 
SF027 52
  By substituting eq. (2) into eq. (1), thus

n1  n1  n2 − n1  (n2 − n1 )
+  −   =
u1  v2  r2  r1
n1 n1 (n2 − n1 ) (n2 − n1 )
+ = +
u1 v 2 r1 r2
then
1 1  n2  1 1 
+ =  − 1  +  (3)
u1 v2  n1  r1 r2 
 If u1 = ∞ and v2 = f hence eq. (3) becomes

1  n2  1 1 
=  − 1 +  Lens maker’s
f  n1  r1 r2 
equation

where
f : focal length
r1 : radius of curvature of first refracting surface
r2 : radius of curvature of second refracting surface
n1 : refractive index of the medium
SF027 n2 : refractive index of the lens material 53
  By equating eq. (3) with lens maker’s equation, hence
1 1 1
+ =
u1 v 2 f
therefore in general,
1 1 1
= + Thin lens formula
f u v
 Note :
 If the medium is air (n1= nair=1) thus the lens maker’s equation
will be

1 1 1
= ( n − 1)  + 
f  r1 r2 
where n : refractive index of the lens material
 For thin lens formula and lens maker’s equation, Use the sign
convention for refraction.
refraction Very Important
 The radius of curvature of flat refracting surface is infinity, r = ∞ .

SF027 54
  Example 16 :
A biconvex lens is made of glass with refractive index 1.52 having the
radii of curvature of 20 cm respectively. Calculate the focal length of
the lens in
a. water,
b. carbon disulfide.
(Given nw = 1.33 and nc=1.63)
Solution: r1=+20 cm, r2=+20 cm, ng=n2=1.52
a. Given the refractive index of water, nw = n1
By using the lens maker’s equation, thus
1  ng  1 1 
=  − 1  + 
f  nw  r1 r2 
f = +70 cm
b. Given the refractive index of carbon disulfide, nc = n1
By using the lens maker’s equation, thus
1  ng  1 1 
=  − 1  + 
f  nc  r1 r2 
SF027
f = −148.18 cm 55
  Example 17 :
A converging lens with a focal length of 90.0 cm forms an image of a
3.20 cm tall real object that is to the left of the lens. The image is 4.50
cm tall and inverted. Find
a. the object position from the lens.
b. the image position from the lens. Is the image real or virtual?
No. 34.26, pg. 1331, University Physics with Modern Physics,11th edition,
Young & Freedman.
Solution: f=+90.0 cm, ho=3.20 cm, hi=-4.50 cm
a. By using the linear magnification equation, hence
hi v
M = =−
ho u
v = 1.41u (1)
By applying the thin lens formula,
1 1 1
= +
f u v
1 1 1
= + (2)
90.0 u v
SF027 56
 By substituting eq. (1) into eq. (2),hence
u = 154 cm
The object is placed 154 cm in front of the lens.
b. By substituting u = 154 cm into eq. (1),therefore
v = 217 cm
The image forms 217 cm at the back of the lens (at the
opposite side of the object placed) and the image is real.

 Example 18 :
An object is placed 90.0 cm from a glass lens (n=1.56) with one
concave surface of radius 22.0 cm and one convex surface of radius
18.5 cm. Determine
a. the image position.
b. the linear magnification. (Gc.862.28)
Solution: u=+90.0 cm, n=1.56, r1=-22.0 cm, r2=+18.5 cm
a. By applying the lens maker’s equation in air,
1 1 1
= ( n − 1)  + 
f  r1 r2 
SF027
f = +208 cm 57
 By applying the thin lens formula, thus
1 1 1
= +
f u v
v = −159 cm
The image forms 159 cm in front of the lens (at the same side
of the object placed)
b. By applying equation of linear magnification for thin lens, thus
v
M =− M = 1.77
u
 Example 19 : (exercise)
A glass (n=1.50) plano-concave lens has a focal length of 21.5 cm.
Calculate the radius of the concave surface. (Gc.862.26)
Ans. : -10.8 cm
 Example 20 : (exercise)
An object is 16.0 cm to the left of a lens. The lens forms an image
36.0 cm to the right of the lens.
a. Calculate the focal length of the lens and state the type of the
lens.
b. If the object is 8.00 mm tall, find the height of the image.
c. Sketch the ray diagram for the case above. (UP. 1332.34.34)
SF027 Ans. : +11.1 cm, -1.8 cm 58
 1.6 Optical Devices
 There are 3 optical devices that extend human vision.
 It is magnifier, compound microscope and telescope.
telescope
1.6.1 Angular magnification (magnifying power), Ma
 The angular magnification of an optical device is defined
as the ratio of the angle subtended at the eye by the image , β to
the angle subtended at the unaided eye by the object (without
lens), α.
β
Ma =
α
 In order to determine the angle α it is necessary to specify the
position of the object.
 For microscope,
microscope the best object position is at the near point.
point
 For telescope, the object position is not meaningful because the
telescope is used for viewing distant object.
 Near point is defined as the nearest point at which an object is seen
most clearly by the human eye.
 The distance between the near point to the eye is 25 cm and is
known as distance of distinct vision (D).
SF027 59
 1.6.2 Magnifier
 It also known as magnifying glass or simple microscope.
microscope
 It is an optical device used for viewing near object.
 It consists of single converging (biconvex) lens.
 Suppose a leaf is viewed at near point of the human eye as shown in
figure below.

ho α

D
 From the figure,
ho
tan α =
D
By making small angle approximation, we get
ho
tan α ≈ α =
D
SF027 60
  To increase the apparent size of the leaf, a converging lens can be
placed in front of the eye as shown in figure below.

hi
β
ho
I F O u β
v
 The apparent size of the leaf is maximum when the image is at
the near point where
v = − D = −25 cm
 From the figure above,
hi ho
tan β = =
D u
By making small angle approximation, we get
hi ho
tan β ≈ β = =
D u
The properties of the image are
SF027  Virtual, upright and magnified u<f 61
  The angular magnification in terms of D and f can be evaluated by
derivation below.
 By applying the thin lens formula,
1 1 1
= + where v = −D
f u v
Df
u= (1)
D+ f
 From the definition of angular magnification,
 ho 
 
β u
Ma = =
α  ho 
 
D D
Ma = (2)
u
 By substituting eq. (1) into eq. (2), thus
where
D
M a = + 1 f : focal length
f D : distance of distinct vision = 25 cm
SF027 62
  The relationship between linear magnification, M with angular
magnification, Ma
 From the definition of angular magnification,
 hi 
 
β D
Ma = =
α  ho 
 
D
then
hi
Ma = = M
ho
 Note:
 If the object placed at the focal point of the converging lens, the
image formed at infinity.
infinity Thus
ho The eye is relax.
β=  ho 
f  
β  f  D
 Therefore, since M a = then Ma = Ma =
α  ho  f
 
SF027 D 63
 1.6.3 Compound Microscope
 Because it makes use of two lenses, the magnifying power of the
compound microscope is much greater than that of the magnifier.
 The two lenses are converging lens and is known as objective lens
(close to the object) and eyepiece lens (close to the eye).
 The figure below shows the schematic diagram of the compound
microscope.
The properties of final image are u L
 Virtual, inverted and fe
magnified Objective lens
 v >(fo+ fe) Fo' Fe
O Fo
fo I1
Eyepiece lens

acts as a magnifier.

The properties of first image are

 Real, inverted and magnified
SF027
I2  v >2fo 64
  The properties of the compound microscope are
 The distance between two lenses, L > (fo+fe)
 fo < fe
 The final image is I2.
 The angular magnification formula is given by
where
L  D  f e : focal length of the eyepiece lens
M a = −  
f o  f e  f o : focal length of the objective lens
D : distance of distinct vision = 25 cm
The negative sign indicates that the image is inverted.
 It is used for viewing small objects that are very close to the objective
lens.

1.6.4 Astronomical (refracting) Telescope

 This telescope consists of two converging lenses.
 Like compound microscope, the two lenses are objective and eyepiece
lens.
 It is used to magnify objects that are very far away (considered to be at
infinity).

SF027 65
  The figure below shows the schematic diagram of the telescope.
fo
fe fe

Parallel rays
from object at
infinity Fe' Fo Fe

I1
Objective lens
Eyepiece lens

acts as a magnifier.
The properties of first image are
 Real, inverted and diminished
I2  v =fo
The properties of final image are
 Virtual, inverted and magnified

SF027 v >(fo+ fe) 66
  The properties of the telescope are
 The distance between two lenses, L <(fo+fe)
 fo > fe
 The final image is I2.
 The angular magnification formula is given by
fo
Ma = −
fe
The negative sign indicates that the image is inverted.

SF027 67