Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Information Ethic
Book
For
Ethic Reader
By:
VALENZONA, Cristine Camille M
BS-IS (O0A)
Dedication
Preface
Online Anonymity
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Health Information Technology: Challenges in Ethics, Science, and Uncertainty
Information Overload
Email Spam
Cyber Ethics
Ethics On-Line
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VALENZONA, Cristine Camille M
Of Black Holes and Decentralized Law-Making in Cyberspace
Fahrenheit 451.2
Censorship, the Internet, and the Child Pornography Law of 1996: A Critique
Is Copyright Ethical an Examination of the Theories, Laws, and Practices Regarding the Private
Defining the Boundaries of Computer Crime: Piracy, Break-Ins, and Sabotage in Cyberspace
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Written on the Body: Biometrics and Identity
No, PAPA: Why Incomplete Codes of Ethics are Worse than None at All
Subsumption Ethics
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VALENZONA, Cristine Camille M
PREFACE
This compilation contains all my requirements in Information Technology
Ethics (ITETHIC) Class at De La Salle – College of Saint Benilde during my ninth
term, second term of school year 2008-2009.
This compilation includes Book Reviews in Contemporary Moral Problems,
Cyber Ethics, Handbook of Information Ethics and Bottom of the Pyramid. The
following chapters came from my own opinion and lastly the Final Paper for
Information Technology Ethics which we analyzed, designed, and proposed a
system.
After all difficulties I experienced, finally, I can say that all the time I
sacrificed is worth it. I’m proud to say that I accomplished something done with
my mind, heart and soul. Applying the learning that I learned from Information
Technology Ethics class, I successfully completed all of these.
I am considering this compilation as a reward for you. It is a privilege that
somebody can read my compilation. It is a great experience that I’ve done all of
these in a short period of time.
It is an honor that my works are now in your hands. Please be reminded that
all of my works here are based on my own opinions and ideas. If there are some
conflicts between my opinion and your opinion, please bare with it. I will also
respect what’s on your mind.
I hope that you enjoy reading my compilation.
Thank You!
VALENZONA, Cristine Camille M
BS-IS (O0A)
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DEDICATION
To my dearest Family
They gave me an inspiration and support in doing this work.
They allot time for discussing some points with me.
The never ending human alarm clock that let me awake to do
this work.
To my friends
They never give up doing it as well as their support.
They encouragement and willingness to respect my opinions
and ideas about certain issues.
To our professors, especially Mr Paul Pajo
They challenged my patience for all my responsibilities in
my school works and for giving me an opportunity to express
my perspective in Information Technology Ethics.
Lastly, to God,
He gave me strength and light in all challenges that I
overcome.
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Bottom of the Pyramid
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TITLE: The Market at the Bottom of the Pyramid (Chapter 1)
QUOTATION: Contrary to the popular view, BOP consumers are getting connected and
networked. They are rapidly exploiting the benefits of information networks.
LEARNING EXPECTATIONS:
- I want to know to what market is portrayed for the bottom of the pyramid.
- I want to learn the key or strategic key for establishing a market at the bottom of
the pyramid.
REACTION:
I am bothered with the status of the financial crisis in the country, not only in the
Philippines, but also to the different countries over the world who suffers in great
poverty. When I have seen the campaigns to help those people who live on far less than
$2 a day, I have these confusion in mind and the question of why. Well, I cannot blame
myself because I have different opinion on that side. I think people given chance to offer
a help in any form such as donation is just an abuse in their selves. As I remember with
what we tackle in my earlier subjects, it is good to give but keep in mind that you are
helping wisely.
Upon reading this chapter, I was amazed. It has presented a wiser way of helping
people in need not by giving them donations. As stated in this chapter, “The purpose of
this book is to change that familiar image on TV.” It is really true because there are
different interpretations in any matters but through explaining and defending an
opinion things become clearer to one’s mind, just like me.
“What is needed is a better approach to help the poor, an approach that involves
partnering with them to innovate and achieve sustainable win-win scenarios where
the poor are actively engaged and, at the same time, the companies providing
products and services to them are profitable.”
I think it is the best line I have read from business books especially for establishing
goals of a business with incline to the poor. It is really true. In order to help both parties,
the poor and the growth of the companies, it is best to build programs, services or
promos that are really in for them that will give them chance to experience those
certain services which will not deprive their dignity as a person.
There are three assumptions discuss to understand how establishing a market for
the bottom of the pyramid made possible. It just helps us to have more ideas on how
the market have generated from this great opinion based on the following assumptions.
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1.) The poor cannot participate in the benefits of the globalization without an
active engagement and without access to products and services that represent
global quality standards.
2.) The BOP, as a market, provides a new growth opportunity for the private sector
and a forum for innovations.
3.) BOP markets must become an integral part of the work of the private sector.
There are still different interesting topics in this chapter such as the notions that
BOP are brand conscious, BOP is connected, BOP consumers accept advanced
technology readily and other stuff that describes the aspects connected to BOP.
LESSONS LEARNED:
- I learned that BOP is really a market to focus on because most of the population in
any countries belongs in here.
- I have discover that the notion of brand conscious are especially pertains to the BOP
but not to those people who belong in the upper level of the pyramid.
- I understand now that all of the people are important in any market.
INTEGRATIVE QUESTIONS:
2. How can the distribution of wealth and the capacity to generate income in the
world be captured?
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TITLE: Products and Services for the BOP (Chapter 2)
QUOTATION: The poor as a market are 5 billions strong. This means that solutions that we
develop cannot be based on the same patterns of resource use that we expect to use in
developed countries. Solutions must be sustainable and ecologically friendly.
LEARNING EXPECTATIONS:
- I want to know the different products and services for the BOP.
- I want to understand how companies generate their ideas of creating products and
services for consumers that belong in BOP.
REACTION:
Considering the different products and services that are been derived today it is
very difficult to distinguish which is which for those customers who can avail it according
to what category they involved or belonged to. Different portfolios of products and
services have been generated which sometimes design just for the Western markets. As
we all know, the Western markets are those people who belong in the upper level of the
pyramid.
BOP markets become more emerge with the different possibilities of replicating the
developed country models which result to unsatisfactory results. The sustainability of
the different facilities for operating the completion of certain products and services in
the Western are no longer existing because of the unaffordable expenses in continuing
the operation of the business especially Western.
In creating a strategy for BOP market as a target, a company must score there
certain programs to a certain criteria which if it scored 7 or greater than 7 then the
program or strategy will surely succeed in targeting the BOP market.
There are twelve principles of innovation for BOP markets and inputs from me to
express how I understand each principles of innovation:
1.) Price Performance – Mostly market is very careful in choosing certain products and
services which is nowadays applied because of the financial crisis in which the price
is carefully and reasonably for anything. A certain market wants to assure that
whatever they purchase is worth for their money and become valuable for mostly
BOP market.
2.) Innovation – People do resist changing especially for new system but the market
especially BOP become more optimistic and requires innovation which is because
they want to still be with the technology. This is the reason why there are people
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or certain companies who developed and manufactured products and services with
innovative value added.
3.) Scale of Operations – Target market is dependent on the volume which becomes a
basis for returns on investment. Mostly BOP markets are poor and small yet there
are only few BOP markets that are large and big enough.
4.) Sustainable Development – The solution that we develop cannot be based on the
same patterns of resources use that we expect to use in developed countries.
6.) Process Innovation – It is a critical step in making products and services affordable
for the poor. It answers the question how to deliver which is important than what
to deliver.
9.) Designing for Hostile Infrastructure – Mostly, BOP markets exists in a hostile
infrastructure because the products and services you offer to market must fit to
their environment.
10.) Interfaces – In any aspect today, interface especially design must be carefully
thought through to encourage the BOP market because interface is the key for the
market to embrace your products and services offered.
11.) Distribution – A way to reach your products and services to market especially BOP
market is a challenged to corporation because there are different factors why the
access on customer or markets have certain problems encountered.
12.) Challenges the Conventional Wisdom – The success in BOP markets will break the
existing paradigms. In all aspect every success in a certain goal will affect not only
the existing paradigm but also creates new paradigm.
These twelve principles of innovation for BOP markets can be used in determining
whether a certain program is fit for the BOP markets which can help corporations or
companies to have a strong determination and guide in constructing a certain strategy
for the BOP. It will help all individuals not only corporation or big company to construct
or develop a strategy for the BOP market.
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LESSONS LEARNED:
- I discovered that products and services rendered by the market are still considered
or affected by the levels of the pyramid.
INTEGRATIVE QUESTIONS:
3. What does the new philosophy of innovation for the BOP market requires?
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TITLE: BOP: A Global Opportunity (Chapter 3)
QUOTATION: The benefits of operating at the BOP, therefore, do not just accrue in local
markets.
LEARNING EXPECTATIONS:
- I want to learn the different ways in determining opportunities especially for BOP.
REACTION:
In this chapter, it states that because of certain events that yield to emerging
evidence, it formulates or identifies four distinct sources of opportunity for a large firm
which invests time and energy to comprehend and cater to the BOP market:
2. Many local innovations can be leveraged across other BOP markets, creating a
global opportunity for local innovations.
3. Some innovations from the BOP markets will find applications in developed
markets.
4. Lessons from the BOP markets can influence the management practices of
global firms.
Large firms have two ways to engage the BOP market which are either through a
traditional approach and developed approach. In the traditional approach, it is to start
from the business model honed in the developed markets which result in fine-tuning
current products and services and management practices. The developed approach is
to start from a deep understanding of the nature and the requirements of the BOP and
then architect the business models and the management processes around these
requirements.
In BOP market, there is a concept of learning to grow in which through time the
products and services also technologies and the concepts of systems changes. In many
issues, change is constant so in BOP market, the effect of change is in the growing
stage. Comparing the different curve from time to time, before it is “S” curve which it is
a model for the diffusion of new products and services in the developed countries in
the world. But, now, the “I” curve challenges the status quo and the entire
management process in most large firms is geared for slow growth.
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LESSONS LEARNED:
- I learned the four distinct opportunities that the BOP offers to big firms today.
- I learned the different approach as well as the curve that exist in the system today.
INTEGRATIVE QUESTIONS:
1. What are the four distinct sources of opportunity for a large firm?
2. What are the two ways in which large firms tend to engage the BOP market?
3. What is the difference of the “S” curve from the “I” curve?
5. What are the lessons for MCNs from the BOP markets?
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TITLE: The Ecosystem for Wealth Creation (Chapter 4)
QUOTATION: A market-based ecosystem is a framework that allows private sector and social
actors to act together and create wealth in a symbiotic relationship.
LEARNING EXPECTATIONS:
REACTION:
In this chapter, it states that in the previous chapter of the BOP there is a need for
building an ecosystem for wealth creation and social development at the BOP. It shows
few attempts to focus on the symbiotic nature of the relationships between various
private sector and social institutional players which can lead to a rapid development of
markets at the BOP.
The author states that a market-based ecosystem is a framework that allows private
sector and social actors to act together and create wealth in a symbiotic relationship. It
discusses that an ecosystem should consist of a wide variety of institutions coexisting
and complementing each other; each constituent has a role to play and dependent to
each other. Yet in different countries there are different ecosystems because of the
various components to define an ecosystem.
1. Help the poor understand that there is a win-win situation for them and the firm
by respecting contracts.
2. The private sector can reduce the asymmetries in information, choice, ability to
enforce contracts, and social standing.
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3. The companies start with understanding the rationale for the contracting
system: how and why it reduces transaction costs and reduces the cost of
capital as well as increases access to capital.
In any development, the goal is to bring as many as possible to enjoy the benefits of
an inclusive market. The impact of the market-based ecosystem and the role of the
nodal company can be very important in developing the disciplines of the market.
LESSONS LEARNED:
INTEGRATIVE QUESTIONS:
1. What is an ecosystem?
5. What are the three steps in creating a transaction governance capacity based on
marketing ecosystem?
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TITLE: Reducing Corruption: Transaction Governance Capacity (Chapter 5)
LEARNING EXPECTATIONS:
- I want to know if there are different factors that lead an ecosystem into corruption.
- I want to understand how corruption takes place and when does corruption considered
as a corruption.
REACTION:
Corruption takes place not only in the market, as seen from today’s government, it
is really obvious in the society today, especially in our country: Philippines. From the
previous chapter, the author specifies, there are certain groups of opportunities from
the BOP in which managers of the big corporation has been convinced yet there are
still lingering doubts about the ability of large firms to operate in markets such as the
BOP. As categorized or emphasized by the author in this market is the CORRUPTION.
As stated in this chapter, developing countries do not fully recognize the real costs
of corruption and its impact on private sector development and poverty alleviation
because those developed countries did not understand or observe the corruption
which I think there is a notion that if people do not suffer or experienced certain
poverty then they did not observed or intrigue issue of corruption which means there
are no rooms for questions because all are doing great or well as planned due to
prosperity.
In this chapter, it identifies four basic assumptions that have been at the core of the
thinking on poverty reduction and developmental assistance during the past 30 years:
2. Aid from rich countries to the governments of the poor countries for specific
projects would reduce poverty.
3. Investments in education and health care might have the largest multipliers per
dollar of investment in economic development.
4. The record of aid and loans from the various donor countries and the World
Bank, International Monetary Fund, and other institutions is at best mixed.
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Based on the different scenarios from different countries, conclusions have been
derived which are the following:
1. All forms of foreign investment in poor countries are but a fraction of the
potential for capital that is trapped in these countries.
This chapter identifies fourfold of specifications for TGC which is about the creating
transparency and eliminating uncertainly and risk in commercial transactions. There are
the four specifications:
2. A process for changing the laws governing property rights that is clear and
unambiguous.
I was stricken in this chapter, the corruption is bound to increase in the near time,
peaking and then steadily declining to near-zero levels. Once the system is fully
operational, it is difficult to change the data in the system. All entries will leave a trail,
indicating who as well as when. This level of scrutiny and openness will reduce the
opportunities for corruption. I just noticed that there are certain changes in the world
today that are bounded of corruption.
LESSONS LEARNED:
INTEGRATIVE QUESTIONS:
1. What is an ecosystem?
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5. What are the three steps in creating a transaction governance capacity based on
marketing ecosystem?
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TITLE: Development as Social Transaction (Chapter 6)
QUOTATION: It is the growing evidence of opportunity, role models and real signals of change
that allow people to change their aspirations.
LEARNING EXPECTATIONS:
REACTION:
When the poor at the Bop treated as consumers, they can reap the benefits of
respect, choice and self esteem and have an opportunity to climb out of the poverty
trap. The capabilities also to solve also to solve the perennial problem of poverty
through profitable business at the BOP are now available to most nations as illustrated
in this chapter however converting the poor into a market will require innovation.
There are three transitions that stated in this chapter, first, we demonstrated that
the BOP the poor can be a market. Second, once we accept the BP markets as a market,
the only way to serve that market is to innovate. The BOP demands a range of
innovations in products and services, business models, and management processes.
Third, these innovations must be accompanied by increased TGC, making the
government accountable to the citizens’ ad making it accessible and transparent.
Contrary to the popular belief, BOP consumers are always upgrading from their
existing condition. BOP consumer the newly found choice in an upgrade from their
current state affairs. For the BOP consumers, gaining access to modern technology and
good products designed their needs in mind enables them to take a huge step in
improving their quality of life.
One of the common problems for those at the BOP is that they have no 'identity”.
Often they are the fringe of society and do not have a “legal identity” including voter
registration, drivers license or birth certificate. The instruments of legal identity that we
take for granted---be it a passport or a Social Security Number is denied to them. For all
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purposes they do not exist as legal entities. Because they do not have legal existence,
they cannot be the beneficiaries of a modern society. The importance of legal identity
cannot be underestimated. Without it, BOP consumers cannot access we take for
granted.
The social transformation that is taking place in markets where the public and the
private sectors have been involved at the BOP is quite impressive. BOP consumers have
constantly surprised the elite with their ability to adapt and their resilience.
More important social transformation is about the number of people who believe
that they can aspire to middle class lifestyle. It is the growing evidence of opportunity,
role models, and real signals of change that allow people to change their aspirations.
LESSONS LEARNED:
- We need to make sure that no organization abuses its power and influence, be it
corrupt governments or large firms.
INTEGRATIVE QUESTIONS:
2. Do we need check and balance for involvement of the private sector in BOP markets can
have such significant impact on social transformation?
4. If we follow the approach what will be the impact will it have on the BOP consumer?
5. How will the lives of Bop consumers change if they will follow the approach?
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Foundations of Information Ethics
Foundations of Information Ethic
Intellectual Property
Online Anonymity
Counter hacking
Uncertainty
Information Overload
Email Spam
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TITLE: Foundations of Information Ethics (Chapter 1)
LEARNING EXPECTATIONS:
- I want to know hot information ethics provides a critical framework for considering
moral issues concerning informational privacy, moral agency
- I want to know how information ethics relates to the fields of computer ethics and
the philosophy of information.
REACTION:
An information ethics should be able to address and solve the ethical challenges arising in
the infosphere. “Information Ethics” (IE) has come to mean different things to different
researchers working in a variety of disciplines, including computer ethics, business ethics,
medical ethics, computer. This is not surprising.
Information ethics was used as a general label to discuss issues regarding information (or
data) confidentiality, reliability, quality, and usage. Not surprisingly, the disciplines involved
were initially library and information science and business and management studies. They
were only later joined by information technologies studies. It is easy to see that this initial
interest in information ethics was driven by concern about information as a resource that
should be managed efficiently, effectively, and fairly.
The emergence of the information society has further expanded the scope of IE. The
more people have become accustomed to living and working immersed within digital
environments, the easier it has become to unveil new ethical issues involving informational
realities.
RPT model shows that idiosyncratic versions of IE, which privilege only some limited
aspects of the information cycle, are unsatisfactory. We should not use the model to
attempt to pigeonhole problems neatly, which is impossible.
A transition system is interactive when the system and its environment (can) act upon
each other. A transition system is autonomous when the system is able to change state
without direct response to interaction, that is, it can perform internal transitions to change
its state. Finally, a transition system is adaptable when the system’s interactions (can)
change the transition rules by which it changes state.
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By distinguishing between moral responsibility, which requires intentions, consciousness,
and other mental attitudes, and moral accountability, we can now avoid anthropocentric
and anthropomorphic attitudes toward agent hood. Promoting normative action is perfectly
reasonable even when there is no responsibility but only moral accountability and the
capacity for moral action.
The duty of any moral agent should be evaluated in terms of contribution to the
sustainable blooming of the infosphere, and any process, action, or event that negatively
affects the whole infosphere—not just an informational object—should be seen as an
increase in its level of entropy and hence an instance of evil. Moral mistakes may occur and
entropy may increase if one wrongly evaluates the impact of one’s actions because projects
conflict or compete, even if those projects aim to satisfy IE moral laws.
LESSONS LEARNED:
INTEGRATIVE QUESTIONS:
4. What is literacy?
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TITLE: Milestones in the History of Information and Computer Ethics (Chapter 2)
QUOTATION: We are but whirlpools in a river of ever-flowing water. We are not stuff that
abides, but patterns that perpetuate themselves.
LEARNING EXPECTATIONS:
- I want to know what are the milestones in the history of information and computer
ethics.
- I want to know who are Deborah Johnson and her influential text book.
REACTION:
In today’s “Internet age” and the search for “global information ethics,” the
concepts and procedures that Wiener employed can be used to identify, analyze, and
resolve social and ethical problems associated with information technologies of all
kinds. Wiener based his foundation for information ethics upon a cybernetic view of
human nature and of society, which leads readily to an ethically suggestive account of
the purpose of a human life.
From this, he identified “great principles of justice” that every society should follow,
and he employed a practical strategy for analyzing and resolving information ethics
issues wherever they might occur. Wiener’s cybernetic account of human nature
emphasized the physical structure of the human body and the tremendous potential for
learning and creative action that human physiology makes possible.
According to Wiener, human beings must be free to engage in creative and flexible
actions that maximize their full potential as intelligent, decision-making beings in charge
of their own lives. This is the purpose of a human life. Different people, of course, have
various levels of talent and possibility, so one person’s achievements will differ from
another’s. It is possible, though, to lead a good human life—to flourish—in an
indefinitely large number of ways; Wiener’s view of the purpose of a human life led him
to adopt what he called “great principles of justice” upon which a society should be
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built—principles that, he believed, would maximize a persons ability to flourish through
variety and flexibility of human action.
In Wiener’s words, the new information technology had placed human beings “in
the presence of another social potentiality of unheard-of importance for good and for
evil.” Today, the “information age” that Wiener predicted half a century ago has come
into existence; and the metaphysical and scientific foundation for information ethics
that he laid down can still provides insight and effective guidance for understanding and
resolving many ethical challenges engendered by information technologies of all kinds.
In the past 25 years, however, computer and information ethics has grown
exponentially in the industrialized world, and today the rest of the world has begun to
take notice. As the “information revolution” transforms the world in the coming
decades, computer and information ethics will surely grow and flourish as well.
LESSONS LEARNED:
- Weiner predicted that, after the War, the world would undergo “a second industrial
revolution” — an “automatic age” with “enormous potential for good and for evil”
that would generate a staggering number of new ethical challenges and
opportunities.
INTEGRATIVE QUESTIONS:
1. What are the Milestones in the History of Information and Computer Ethics?
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3. What are the opportunities of computer?
4. What is milestone?
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3ITLE: Moral Methodology and Information Technology (Chapter 3)
QUOTATION: The possibility of moral thought and judgment does not depend on the
provision of a suitable supply of moral principles.”
LEARNING EXPECTATIONS:
- I want to examine the connection between Applied Ethics the design turns in
Applied and Value of Sensitive Design.
REACTION:
In this chapter it discusses that Information has special properties that make it
difficult to accommodate it in conceptual frameworks concerned with tangible, material
goods—their production, distribution, and use. Ethical analysis and reflection, therefore,
is not simply business as usual. We need to give computers and software their place in
our moral world. We need to look at the effects they have on people, how they
constrain and enable us, how they change our experiences, and how they shape our
thinking.
The commonalities in the moral questions pertaining to these topics are more
important than the differences between them. The properties of IT may require us to
revisit traditional conceptualizations and conceptions of privacy, responsibility,
property; but they do not require a new way of moral thinking or a radically new moral
methodology, which is radically different from other fields of technology and
engineering ethics.
Also in this essay, it stretches point about Ethics that has seen notable changes in
the course of the past 100 years. Ethics was in the beginning of the twentieth century
predominantly a metaethical enterprise. It focused on questions concerning the
meaning of ethical terms, such as “good” and “ought,” and on the cognitive content and
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truth of moral propositions containing them. Later, ordinary language philosophers
continued the metaethical work with different means.
The simplest way to be a generalist is to think that there are fairly accurate general
moral rules or principles that may be captured and codified, for example, in codes of
conduct, which can be applied to particular cases. General rules will necessarily contain
general terms, and since general terms have an open texture that gives rise to
vagueness, application may create difficulties and ambiguities.
Particularists in ethics oppose the search for universally valid moral rules. They
consider universally valid principles an intellectual mirage. Persons engaged in moral
thinking, deliberation and decision-making typically discuss individual cases; they
exercise their practical wisdom, the faculty referred to by Aristotle as phronesis, which
allows one to size up situations and to identify the morally relevant and salient features
of particular situations.
Until now technology, engineering, and design were treated in moral philosophy as
a mere supplier of thought experiments and counter-examples to arguments and
theories. Traditional moral philosophy is full of science fiction and adventure, full of
lifeboats and runaway trains, brains in vats, android robots, pleasure machines, brain
surgery, and pills that will make one irrational on the spot.
LESSONS LEARNED:
- “In real life outside philosophy textbooks, there are no identical cases, situations,
persons. An obligation that arises in one case could never carry over to another
case, because of the uniqueness of each individual case.
- “The best procedure for ethics . . . is the going back and forth between intuitions
about fairly specific situations on the one side and the fairly general principles that
we formulate to make sense of our moral practice on the other, adjusting either,
until eventually we bring them all into coherence.”
INTEGRATIVE QUESTIONS:
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TITLE: Value Sensitive Design and Information Systems (Chapter 4)
LEARNING EXPECTATIONS:
- I want to know the relationship between unique sensitive design and information
system.
REACTION:
The evaluation of past designs a critical eye on the initial design, improvement of
specific designs, and the development of guidelines for designs. There is a specific
design focus distinct from those methods that are focused on critique rather than
design. As opposed to traditional technical approaches to socially responsible design,
there is a focus on iteration and the use of legal and social scholarship to refine or
correct designs that builds upon computer supported cooperative work.
Design is fundamental to all human activity. At the nexus of values, attitudes, needs
and actions, designers have the potential to act as a transdisciplinary integrators and
facilitators.
Indirect stakeholders are those individuals who are also impacted by the system,
though they never interact directly with it. Identify Benefits and Harms for Each
Stakeholder Group Having identified the key stakeholders, systematically identify the
benefits and harms for each group. Indirect stakeholders will be benefited or harmed to
varying degrees, and in some designs it is probably possible to claim every human as an
indirect stakeholder of some sort. Attend to issues of technical, cognitive, and physical
competency. Personas are a popular technique that can be useful for identifying the
benefits and harms to each stakeholder group.
Ideally, Value Sensitive Design will work in concert with organizational objectives.
We stated earlier that while all values fall within its purview, Value Sensitive Design
emphasizes values with ethical import. As part of an empirical investigation, it is useful
to interview stakeholders to better understand their judgments about a context of use,
an existing technology, or a proposed design. A semi structured interview often offers a
good balance between addressing the questions of interest and gathering new and
unexpected insights.
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LESSONS LEARNED:
- “There is a growing interest and challenge to address values in design. Our goal in
this chapter has been to provide enough detail about Value Sensitive Design so that
other researchers and designers can critically examine, use, and extend this
approach”
- “Unanticipated values and value conflicts often emerge after a system is developed
and deployed. Thus, when possible, design flexibility into the underlying technical
architecture so that it can be responsive to such emergent concerns”
INTEGRATIVE QUESTIONS:
3. What are the nexus of values, attitudes, needs and actions, designers?
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TITLE: Personality-Based, Rule-Utilitarian, and Lockean Justifications of Intellectual Property
(Chapter 5)
QUOTATION: “Personality must be permitted to be active, that is to say, to bring its will to bear
and reveal its significance to the world; for culture can thrive only if persons are able to express
themselves, and are in a position to place all their inherent capacities at the command of their
will”
LEARNING EXPECTATIONS:
- I want to be familiar with the Rule of Utilitarian Incentives based on the Intellectual
Property.
REACTION:
In this chapter, the author discuss about the intellectual property which is generally
characterized as nonphysical property that is the product of cognitive processes and
whose value is based upon some idea or collection of ideas. Typically, rights do not
surround the abstract nonphysical entity, or res, of intellectual property; rather,
intellectual property rights surround the control of physical manifestations or
expressions. Systems of intellectual property protect rights to ideas by protecting rights
to produce and control physical embodiments of those ideas.
There are at least four problems, categorized and interpreted in this c\section, with
this view.17 First, it is not clear that we own our feelings, character traits, and
experiences. Second, even if it could be established that individuals own or have moral
claims to their personality it does not automatically follow that no such claims are
expanded when personalities become infused in tangible or intangible works. Third,
assuming that moral claims to personality could be expanded to tangible or intangible
items we would still need an argument justifying property rights. Finally, there are many
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intellectual innovations in which there is no evidence of the creator’s personality. A list of
costumers or a new safety pin may contain no trace of personality.
The rule utilitarian has provided the outlines of an argument for protecting the
intellectual efforts of authors and inventors. Although this result does not yield a specific
set of rules, it does provide a general reply to the epistemological worry that confronts
incentives-based justifications of intellectual property.
LESSONS LEARNED:
- “So long as no harm is done—the proviso is satisfied—the prima facie claims that labor
and effort may generate turn into property claims.”
INTEGRATIVE QUESTIONS:
2. What are the conditions there are no good reasons for not granting property rights in
possessions?
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TITLE: Informational Privacy: Concepts, Theories, and Controversies (Chapter 6)
QUOTATION: From a practical point of view, it might seem fruitful to approach privacy-related
issues and concerns simply from the vantage point of various stipulated interests.
LEARNING EXPECTATIONS:
- I want to analyze four distinct kinds of privacy: physical, decisional, psychological, and
informational privacy.
REACTION:
Privacy can be as understood as a unitary concept that is basic and thus capable of
standing on its own; others have argued that privacy is best understood as a “derivative”
concept. It is perhaps worth noting at this point that the debate about how privacy is best
defined is closely related to the question of whether privacy should be viewed as a full-
fledged right, or simply in terms of one or more interests that individuals have.
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tangible and intangible items—we both define ourselves and obtain control over our
goals and projects.
LESSONS LEARNED:
- Informational privacy concerns can affect many aspects of an individual’s life – from
commerce to healthcare to work to recreation.
INTEGRATIVE QUESTIONS:
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TITLE: Online Anonymity (Chapter 7)
QUOTATION: More strictly, and in reference to an arbitrary within a well-defined set (called the
"anonymity set"), "anonymity" of that element refers to the property of that element of not
being identifiable within this set. If it is not identifiable, then the element is said to be
"anonymous".
LEARNING EXPECTATIONS:
- I want to understand the concept of anonymity and distinguish the different ethical
issues in information technology.
REACTION:
In this chapter it discusses about anonymity has sometimes been taken to mean “un-
name-ability” or “namelessness,” but that is somewhat too narrow a definition.
Anonymity presupposes social or communicative relations. In other words, it is relative to
social contexts in which one has the capacity to act, affect or be affected by others, or in
which the knowledge or lack of knowledge of whom a person is relevant to their acting,
affecting, or being affected by others.
The author stretched another point of Anonymity which is non identifiably by others
by virtue of their being unable to coordinate some known trait(s) with other traits such
that the person cannot be identified; it is a form of non identifiably by others to whom
one is related or with whom one shares a social environment, even if only or primarily by
virtue of the effects of one’s actions. Anonymity defined as non identifiably by virtue of
non coordination of traits is a general definition of anonymity that is intended to
encompass any specific form of anonymity.
Anonymity is achievable because there are ways in which persons can deliberately set
up mechanisms by which to block the coordination of their traits with others. But
anonymity may also occur “spontaneously,” as noted earlier. In some contexts, for
instance in complex modern life, where persons may occupy many social orders that do
not overlap or are not connected with one another, traits that identify a person in one
social order may not be readily coordinately with traits that are salient in another social
order.
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recognized. Regarding the expression of self, the proliferation of personal websites and
creation of personal profiles, especially, among teenagers, may be indicative of new
avenues of self-expression and risk-free experimentation with adopting various personae
in the development of personality. While online communication may not alter the basic
ethical issues involved in stalking, it may both enhance methods of protection for the
stalked and the scope of the abilities of the stalker.
The author shares that online communication and self-expression may facilitate
forms of interaction that could be beneficial to human and cultural experience, albeit in
different ways and in different respects. However, there are risks. Given the international
character of the Internet, there might also be concerns raised about anonymous speech
in so far as it could create problems for enforcement of libel and intellectual property law.
However, in other contexts what matters is that both anonymity and pseudonymity
are concepts that are, among other things, concerned with hiding a person's legal
identity. In such contexts people may not distinguish between anonymity and
pseudonymity. The problem of determining whether or not the identity of a
communication partner is the same as one previously encountered is the problem of
authentication.
LESSONS LEARNED:
INTEGRATIVE QUESTIONS:
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TITLE: Ethical Issues Involving Computer Security: Hacking, Hacktivism, and Counterhacking
(Chapter 8)
QUOTATION: The objective of computer security can include protection of information from
theft or corruption, or the preservation of availability, as defined in the security policy.
LEARNING EXPECTATIONS:
- I want to learn and understand ethical issues involving computers security: hacking,
hacktivism, and counterchecking.
- I want to understand the similarities of the concept hacking, hacktivism and counter
hacking.
REACTION:
In this chapter, it states that moral rights are not, however, absolute. If I may
trespass to capture a fleeing killer, then a person’s right to property can be outweighed
by more important rights when they conflict; property rights are weaker, for example,
than the right to life. Similarly, a person’s privacy rights can be outweighed by other
more important interests; a person might, for example, be obligated to disclose
sensitive information if needed to ensure another person’s safety. Thus, the mere fact
that a person has property and privacy rights in her computer does not imply that all
unauthorized intrusions are impermissible.
It also includes the issue of many hackers believe benign intrusions not calculated to
cause damage can be justified on the strength of a variety of considerations. Such
considerations include the social benefits resulting from such intrusions; speech rights
requiring the free flow of content; and principles condemning waste. Hackers have also
defended benign intrusions on the ground that they make use of computing resources
that would otherwise go to waste. On this line of reasoning, it is morally permissible to
do what is needed to prevent valuable resources from going to waste; benign hacking
activity is justified on the strength of a moral principle that condemns squandering
valuable resources in a world of scarcity in which there are far more human wants than
resources to satisfy them.
The author explains that if it is wrong to appropriate someone’s car without her
permission to prevent waste, then there is no general moral principle that justifies
infringing property rights to prevent waste and hence none that would justify hacking to
prevent waste. One of the key issues in evaluating whether an act of hacktivism is
morally justified is the extent to which the act harms the interests of innocent third
parties. In thinking about this issue, it is important to reiterate that the context being
assumed here is a morally legitimate democratic system that protects the right of free
expression and thus affords persons a variety of avenues for expressing their views that
do not impact the interests of innocent third parties.
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There is a difference between claiming responsibility for an act and being willing to
accept the legal consequences of that act. One can claim responsibility without coming
forward to accept the legal consequences of one’s act. One can do this by giving some
sort of pseudonym instead of one’s real name or by attributing the act to a group that
protects the names of its members. Although such a claim of responsibility signals an
ethical motivation, this is not tantamount to being willing to accept responsibility.
According to the author, it is important to realize that the risk that active responses
will impact innocent persons and their machines is not purely “theoretical.”
Sophisticated attackers usually conceal their identities by staging attacks from innocent
machines that have been compromised through a variety of mechanisms. Most active
responses will have to be directed, in part, at the agent machines used to stage the
attack. Accordingly, it is not just possible that any efficacious response will impact
innocent persons, it is nearly inevitable—something that anyone sophisticated enough
to adopt an active response is fairly presumed to realize.
LESSONS LEARNED:
- The Defense Principle: It is morally permissible for one person to use force to
defend herself or other innocent persons against an attack provided that (1) such
force is proportional to the force used in the attack or threat; (2) such force is
necessary either to repel the attack or threat or to prevent it from resulting in harm;
and (3) such force is directed only at persons who are the immediate source of the
attack or threat.
- The Evidentiary Principle: It is morally permissible for one person A to take action
under a moral principle P only if A has adequate reason for thinking that all of P.s
application-conditions are satisfied.
INTEGRATIVE QUESTIONS:
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TITLE: Information Ethics and the Library Profession (Chapter 9)
QUOTATION: In addition to its holdings of relevant books and leading periodicals, the library
contains a comprehensive collection of codes of ethics, many now available online, and an
extensive collection of materials on other centers.
LEARNING EXPECTATIONS:
- I want to know what is classification and labeling with regards to this topic.
REACTION:
In this chapter, the mission of the librarian as an information provider and the core
value that gives this mission its social importance. Of course, librarians face the standard
ethical issues that arise in any profession, but our focus here will be on those issues that
arise in relation to the role of the librarian as an information provider. Librarians are
particularly well placed to help people gain the knowledge they seek. While librarians
may not be “subject specialists” in all of the areas that a patron might have an interest,
they are “information specialists.”
It discusses certain issues such as the libraries and free public libraries in particular,
are fundamental to providing this environment. And, librarianship really is a noble
profession insofar as it is devoted to fostering such an environment. Librarians are
suited to do this job due to their training in how to find and evaluate information
resources. They can promote the development of reflective skills both by providing
access to a broad range of quality resources, and by providing information about how to
sort through the resources that are available. “The idea that libraries ought to be
defending the most expansive conception of free speech is hard to defend on
democratic grounds.
Most people in this society are in favor of some content-based censorship and
believe that obscenity, disclosure of national secrets, corporate and commercial speech,
and speech likely to create an imminent threat to public safety are all legitimately
restricted by the state.
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and values when evaluating an information source for the purposes of making a
selection decision.
It is important to distinguish the “neutral point of view” from the “balance” concept
of neutrality. It has been noted by those working in journalism that balance can lead to
a false impression. It may simply reinforce the preexisting prejudices of the culture or it
may treat a well-established theory or fact as if it was a mere “opinion.”
Libraries by their very nature shape the ways in which we access information. If they
did not do this, they would have little use. A big room with all the books and other
information stuffed in at random with no way of sorting through it would be relatively
useless. This shaping may be intentional, or it may simply be an artifact of the way in
which the sorting system has been set up. Nevertheless, a library is an intermediary
between the person who wishes to access some information and the information.
LESSONS LEARNED:
- Librarians have a special concern for the free flow of information and ideas. The
American Library Association has set forth its views in such policy statements as the
Library Bill of Rights and the Freedom to Read Statement
INTEGRATIVE QUESTIONS:
1. Has a special responsibility to maintain the principles of the Library Bill of Right?
2. Should learn and faithfully execute the policies of the institution of which one is a part
and should endeavor to change those which conflict with the spirit of the Library Bill of
Right?
3. Must protect the essential confidential relationship which exists between a library user
and the library?
4. Must avoid any possibility of personal financial gain at the expense of the employing
institution?
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TITLE: Ethical Interest in Free and Open Source Software (Chapter 10)
QUOTATION: The open-source culture has an elaborate but largely an admitted set of
ownership customs. These customs regulate those who can modify software, the
circumstances under which it can be modified, and (especially) who has the right to
redistribute modified versions back to the community
LEARNING EXPECTATIONS:
- I want to know what are the ethical interest in free and OSS
REACTION:
In this chapter it discuss that free software stems from the close ties that early
software developers had with academia. As the software industry began to mature, the
bond with academia and its ideals of sharing research results weakened. “Extracting
money from users of a program by restricting their use of it is destructive because the
restrictions reduce the amount and the ways that the program can be used. This reduces
the amount of wealth that humanity derives from the program”
In this chapter, the author shares knowledge about an open source developer has
increased autonomy compared to a corporate developer. Whereas the corporate
developer might find a supportive social structure to take a project in new direction, the
social structure in the Open Source community works to suppress this type of
entrepreneurial endeavor. Both open source and proprietary developers share the
professional ethical responsibility to develop solid, well-tested code.
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LESSON LEARNED:
- The distinction between Free Software and Open Source Software has had a positive
effect on the software development community and on the larger online community
as well. Regardless of the motivation of individual developers, it is difficult to find
fault with their willingness to give their creative contributions to the world to study
and adapt as the world sees fit
INTEGRATIVE QUESTIONS:
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TITLE: Internet Research Ethics: The Field and Its Critical Issues (Chapter 11)
QUOTATION: The principle of justice mandates that the selection of research subjects must be
the result of fair selection procedures and must also result in fair selection outcomes. The
“justness” of subject selection relates both to the subject as an individual and to the subject
as a member of social, racial, sexual, or ethnic groups.”
LEARNING EXPECTATIONS:
- I want to be familiar with what are the issues involved in Internet Research Ethics.
- I want to understand what the importance of IRE and Internet Research Ethics are.
REACTION:
Given the bodily abstraction of online existence, the author says that digital being-
with-others tends to be ghostly-oriented. These characteristics of online existence thus
help sharpen the point: ethical dilemmas of Internet research arise from the tension
between the proper object of research, i.e. online existence, and bodily existence. The
borderline between these two phenomena is interface communication itself.
This chapter tackles about the Internet Research Ethic, it fields and all the critical
issues involving to this topics. At first before reading this book I don’t have any idea ass
how and what will this topic is all about, but as when I look at the topic and simply scan
through this chapter there are lot’s of ideas came into my mind, and most of this ideas
has really related and connected to this topic and I found out that it is really interesting.
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Based on what the author says, we cannot deny the fact that if the word “Research”
comes into issue, what we always thought is that we need internet as a source of the
information because internet was said to be the widest source of instant information as
compared to the books. But still I cannot deny the fact that books still reliable but today it
is not used usually.
As a result, Internet Research Ethics was still young this would really have a big help
for those people who are looking for different sources for their research activities. I’ve
learned also that there are three sources of IRE. One is professional ethics. Second are the
social sciences and the humanities. Third is the growing body of information and
computing ethics. And not only had this I’ve learned also had the two western ethical
frameworks used to examine ethics from different disciplines and a lot more.
LESSON LEARNED:
- Human subject’s protections models are grounded in respect for persons, as born out of
the informed consent process, as well as through a consideration of risks and benefits
for the individual and for the larger society.
- Many online communities or environments are indeed selected based on some quality,
and thus questions of justice may not apply in their strict sense; ultimately, in online
research, equity/fair representation in the subject pool may not be possible.
INTEGRATIVE QUESTIONS:
2. What are the including whole societies as weakest members or non-members of the
online world.
3. Why researchers online should be aware of their own gender biases within their own
culture?
4. What are the cultures that are the object of their research?
5. Is there an ethics of care and less by utilitarian and/or deontological premises that may
lead either to a purely instrumental or moralist view?
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TITLE: Health Information Technology: Challenges in Ethics, Science, and Uncertainty
(Chapter 12)
QUOTATION: Without trust—newly imperiled by the belief that computers might constitute
new threats to confidentiality—the expansion of health information technology is in
jeopardy.
LEARNING EXPECTATIONS:
- I want to distinguish ‘‘The Standard View” and ‘‘Progressive Caution” with each other.
REACTION:
As an introduction, this environment also poses new challenges and opportunities for
protecting individually identifiable health information. In health care, accurate and
complete information about individuals is critical to providing high quality, coordinated
care. If individuals and other participants in a network lack trust in electronic exchange of
information due to perceived or actual risks to individually identifiable health information
or the accuracy and completeness of such information, it may affect their willingness to
disclose necessary health information and could have life-threatening consequences.
The use of computers or, more generally, information technology in the health
professions is indeed a rich source of ethical issues and challenges. Ethics, a branch of
philosophy, has the task of studying morality, or (generally) public accounts of the
rightness or wrongness of actions. Applied or professional ethics is the analysis of moral
issues that arise in, well, the professions. All professions give rise to ethical issues, not
necessarily because practitioners do bad things or need to be saved from their many
temptations, but because questions of appropriate action arise even in situations in
which no one has done anything obviously wrong. That is, professionals encounter ethical
issues and challenges in the ordinary course of their work. It is unavoidable.
If we’re going to analyze or compare privacy in the computer world and in medical
world we can say that they have similarities in some way. Because in computer industry
we all know that information or data’s in a specific systems are used to be in private/
confidential because most techie people do not want to show off all the necessary
information that they have so they need to be confidential. While in medical industry
specifically in hospital, the information that they have inside their systems is also in
private and confidential status because according to this chapter it needs to be secure
enough for the entire patient and the management of the hospital.
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LESSON LEARNED:
- People are more or less computer savvy. But computers remain occult engines for many
ordinary people—precisely those expected to make use of personal health records.
- We value control over all of this, while hoping that the tools used to manage our health
require sacrifices that are not burdensome.
INTEGRATIVE QUESTIONS:
1. What is the early detection of infectious disease outbreaks around the country?
4. What are the enabled by the collection of de-identified price and quality information
that can be compared?
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TITLE: Ethical Issues of Information and Business (Chapter 13)
QUOTATION: Ethics is arguably more about raising questions than giving answers
LEARNING EXPECTATIONS:
- I want to understand what are the macro level influence of business on ethics and
information.
REACTION:
Businesses and the economic system they work in have an important influence on
ethical issues arising from information and information and communication technology.
This also includes examples of issues that arise in business and computer ethics, including
privacy and employee surveillance and intellectual property, as well as some macro level
issues including globalization and digital divides.
For example, today most major corporate websites lay emphasis on commitment to
promoting non-economic social values under a variety of headings (e.g. ethics codes,
social responsibility charters). In some cases, corporations have re-branded their core
values in the light of business ethical considerations (e.g. BP's "beyond petroleum"
environmental tilt).
The term CSR came in to common use in the early 1970s although it was seldom
abbreviated. The term stakeholder, meaning those impacted by an organization's
activities, was used to describe corporate owners beyond shareholders as a result of an
influential book by R Freeman in 1984
Whilst there is no recognized standard for CSR, public sector organizations (the
United Nations for example) adhere to the Triple Bottom Line (TBL). It is widely accepted
that CSR adheres to similar principals but with no formal act of legislation.
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LESSON LEARNED:
- Businesses have a large influence on how we live our individual lives and also on how
society is regulated.
- Businesses are social facts, but they are also the objects of theoretical and academic
attention
INTEGRATIVE QUESTIONS:
2. What are the issues regarding the moral rights and duties between a company and its
shareholders: fiduciary responsibility, stakeholder concept vs. shareholder concept?
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TITLE: Responsibilities for Information on the Internet (Chapter 14)
QUOTATION: The same connection allows that computer to send information to servers on
the network; that information is in turn accessed and potentially modified by a variety of
other interconnected computers.
LEARNING EXPECTATIONS:
- I want to know why it is that ISP’s and clearly harmful and offensive information.
- I want to know how this responsibilities help information on the internet becomes
better.
REACTION:
When referring to a database, it could refer to the content being broken up into
specific fields that have been indexed to maximize search capability. Design is a criterion
that surfaces frequently with regard to web pages and web sites. The pages should be
properly linked externally and internally to facilitate navigation. There should not be any
broken links. The design should be appropriate to the content, and maximize utility. Files
and graphics should be of a size that allows them to be loaded quickly. The design should
be based upon an easily-grasped hierarchy or logic.
The use of frames in the web site should not result in the user becoming lost, or take
up valuable screen area. The users' primary method of accessing the site should be
considered. If the site is designed for network access primarily, then the greater
bandwidth of that medium can be employed. If dialup modem is the primary means of
access, then the site should conform to those standards. Although multimedia hardware
such as graphics accelerators, better graphics cards, and sound cards are now more
commonplace, site hardware requirements should be clearly identified and conform to
generally-used standards.
This chapter also include or discussed about the issues of responsibilities on the
Internet have often been discussed in association with specific accountabilities of ISPs
with regard to information (including pictures and footage) that are outright illegal or
immoral. And for instance, of child pornography, illegal weapon sales, the sale of illegal
drugs, and the dispersion of hate and discrimination
LESSON LEARNED:
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- Normally, the notion of moral responsibility is used in at least two ways that should
be carefully distinguished. It can be used in a primarily retrospective sense and in a
primarily prospective sense. The former refers to the possibility of rightfully ascribing
or attributing actions or consequences of actions to agents.
INTEGRATIVE QUESTIONS:
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TITLE: Virtual Reality and Computer Simulation (Chapter 15)
LEARNING EXPECTATIONS:
- I want to know what the Distinction between the Virtual and the Real is.
REACTION:
It is also possible that a simulated entity could be moved out of the simulation
entirely by means of mind transfer into a synthetic body. Another way of getting an
inhabitant of the virtual reality out of its simulation would be to "clone" the entity, by
taking a sample of its virtual DNA and create a real-world counterpart from that model.
The result would not bring the "mind" of the entity out of its simulation, but its body
would be born in the real world.
The simplest form of virtual reality is a 3-D image that can be explored interactively at
a personal computer, usually by manipulating keys or the mouse so that the content of
the image moves in some direction or zooms in or out. More sophisticated efforts involve
such approaches as wrap-around display screens, actual rooms augmented with wearable
computers, and haptics devices that let you feel the display images. Virtual reality can be
divided into: The simulation of a real environment for training and education and the
development of an imagined environment for a game or interactive story
These things have capabilities to interact, attract and teach people enough as too
how it will benefit or affect them in so many ways. That’s why it is true enough that the
user could navigate and interact with simulated environments through the data suit and
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data glove, items that tracked the positions and motions of body parts and allowed the
computer to modify its output depending on the recorded positions.
LESSON LEARNED:
- Sensory feedback is the selective provision of sensory data about the environment
based on user input. The actions and position of the user provide a perspective on
reality and determine what sensory feedback is given.
INTEGRATIVE QUESTIONS:
5. What is simulation?
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TITLE: Genetic Information: Epistemological and Ethical Issues1 (Chapter 16)
QUOTATION: Philosophy has remained an intellectual enterprise, which deals with ideas or
concepts by way of creating, criticizing and justifying it.
LEARNING EXPECTATIONS:
- I want to know the difference between semantic and syntactic theory of genetic
information.
- I want to determine what are the Ideological Use of a Model and Ethical Issues in Fund-
raising
REACTION:
From the very on-set, it is necessary to differentiate between ethics and morality.
Until such distinction is made, it might appear too difficult to ascertain whether ethical
problems are epistemological problems or not. There is no claim here that, the two
concepts – ethics and morality may not or cannot in certain circumstances be used
interchangeably. Scholars often correctly use the two terms as though they are the same.
J.A. Aigbodioh for instance refers to ethics as one of the moral disciplines. Jacques
Maritain says ethics or morals are the practical science which aims at procuring man are
unqualified good.
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This chapter particularly the topics discussed on this chapter I do believe that genetics
information really plays an important role in human’s problems. This also serves as eye
opener for all to try to use genetics information as one of the solutions for any human
and information problems arising in today’s situations.
LESSON LEARNED:
- Genetic information would be, therefore, information about the very essence of a
person, whereas other non genetic information would be only about accidental
attributes.
INTEGRATIVE QUESTIONS:
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TITLE: The Ethics of Cyber Conflict (Chapter 17)
QUOTATION: Cyber ethics, also referred to as internet ethics, is a branch of ethics that studies
the ethical dilemmas brought on by the emergence of digital technologies. With the advent of
the internet conflicts over privacy, property, security, accuracy, accessibility, censorship and
filtering have arose.
LEARNING EXPECTATIONS:
REACTION:
Accessibility, censorship and filtering bring up many ethical issues that have several
branches in cyber ethics. Many questions have arisen which continue to challenge our
understanding of privacy, security and our participation in society. Throughout the centuries
mechanisms have been constructed in the name of protection and security. Today the
applications are in the form of software that filters domains and content so that they may not
be easily accessed or obtained without elaborate circumvention or on a personal and
business level through free or content-control software. Internet censorship and filtering are
used to control or suppress the publishing or accessing of information.
It is true enough that these days, the majority of websites are built around applications to
provide good services to their users. In particular, are widely used to create, edit and
administrate content. Due to the interactive nature of these systems, where the input of
users is fundamental, it's important to think about security in order to avoid exploits by
malicious third parties and to ensure the best user experience.
We often associate hacking with criminal activities. Hacking does not always mean
breaking into computers. A person who practices hacking is called a hacker. Hacking can be
just to find out how it works without criminal intent. Hacking can be simply to crack a code a
hacker can be breaking into a computer that's yours, often not wanted, and now prohibited
by law. The one of the controversial thing in hacking is some people consider the act of
cracking itself to be unethical, like breaking and entering. But the belief that 'ethical' cracking
excludes destruction at least moderates the behaviour of people who see themselves as
'benign' crackers.
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The most reliable manifestation of either version of the hacker ethic is that almost all
hackers are actively willing to share technical tricks, knowledge, software, and (where
possible) computing resources with other hackers.
LESSON LEARNED:
- Attacks that look like force are generally permissible for defensive purposes, so they
cannot be ruled out.
- Attacks done for personal gain, such as system intrusions to steal credit card numbers
and trade secrets; denial-of-service attacks aimed at taking out competitor Web sites or
extorting money from victims; and attacks that compromise and deploy large “botnets”
of victim computers to send out spam or amplify denial-of-service attacks.
- The law of conflict management is primarily concerned with the application of force,
particularly armed force.
INTEGRATIVE QUESTIONS:
1. What are the data record-keeping systems whose very existence is secret?
3. Is there a way for a person to prevent information about the person that was obtained
for one purpose from being used or made available for other purposes without the
person's consent?
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TITLE: A Practical Mechanism for Ethical Risk Assessment—A SoDIS Inspection (Chapter 18)
QUOTATION: In the risk sciences, it is common to distinguish between “objective risk” and
“subjective risk”.
LEARNING EXPECTATIONS:
REACTION:
Issues of risk have given rise to heated debates on what levels of scientific evidence
are needed for policy decisions. The proof standards of science are apt to cause
difficulties whenever science is applied to practical problems that require standards of
proof or evidence other than those of science.
Two major types of errors are possible in a decision whether or not to accept a
scientific hypothesis. The first of these consists in concluding that there is a phenomenon
or an effect when in fact there is none. This is called an error of type I (false positive). The
second consists in missing an existing phenomenon or effect. This is called an error of
type II (false negative). In the internal dealings of science, errors of type I are in general
regarded as more problematic than those of type II. The common scientific standards of
statistical significance substantially reduce the risk of type I errors but do not protect
against type II errors.
This chapter talks about or discussed certain models that would help lessen or
decrease the risk. This also discusses certain analysis and methods that would help
understand and deal with the different risk that would possibly encounter in the world of
technology, information and the like. This chapter also discusses about ethical risk and
Sodis Inspection model, which illustrates and shows its effects and process.
This chapter covers a lot of topics about risk. And I find it more interesting and
challenging. Because we cannot deny the fact those there times and most of the times we
encounter risk in all what we do. In connection to this, it only explains that everything
that is developed in the cloud or in the net was not always perfect, meaning most of the
times users and developers to saw or encounter errors.
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LESSON LEARNED:
- The risk identification process identifies potential negative impact on the project and its
stakeholders.
- The ethical stakeholders in developed software are all those who are affected by it even
though they are not directly related to the use or financing of a system.
INTEGRATIVE QUESTIONS:
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TITLE: Regulation and Governance of the Internet (Chapter 19)
QUOTATION: Degrading Internet performance will not obviously harm many people very much,
depending of course on the degradation. Most of us could wait a little longer when
searching or downloading without much of a diminution of our living standards
LEARNING EXPECTATIONS:
REACTION:
The Internet has, in a relatively short time, become an essential instrument for
today’s society. As of early 2005, the Internet is thought to include: an estimated 750
million users worldwide; an estimated electronic commerce turnover of US$1 billion,
which is projected to rise rapidly; a major social impact in education, health, government,
and other areas of activity; cybercrime, such as fraud, gambling, pornography, and ID
theft; misuse and abuse in the form of malicious code and spam
It should be noted that not everyone would agree with that statement, and that high
international access costs are not by any means the only reason for high local access
costs. A related – indeed, in a sense, the underlying – problem is the general lack of good
local content in many developing countries. It is this shortage of local content, stored on
local servers, that leads to high international connectivity costs as users are forced to
access sites and information stored outside the country.
LESSON LEARNED:
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- The Internet is not spoken about only as a type of medium but often as a living space in
which people work, play, and shop, socialize, and so on.
- A strong moral case can be made for regulating the content of the Internet, but there is
also a strong case that such regulation cannot be very effective and comes at a price in
Internet performance.
INTEGRATIVE QUESTIONS:
1. How to find the Universal access is frequently taken to mean access across geographic
areas?
2. What are the digital divide, to refer to the need for equitable access?
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TITLE: Information Overload (Chapter 20)
QUOTATION: People nowadays are logging in to the net not only to surf or browse but to
donate or share a piece of information. According to Sohora Jha, journalists are using the
web to conduct their research, getting information regarding interviewing sources and
press releases, updating news online, and thus it shows the gradual shifts in attitudes
because of the rapid increase in the Internet.
LEARNING EXPECTATIONS:
REACTION:
Recent research suggests that an "attention economy" of sorts will naturally emerge
from information overload, allowing Internet users greater control over their online
experience with particular regard to communication mediums such as e-mail and instant
messaging. This could involve some sort of cost being attached to e-mail messages. For
example, managers charging a small fee for every e-mail received - e.g. $5.00 - which the
sender must pay from their budget. The aim of such charging is to force the sender to
consider the necessity of the interruption.
A symptom of the high-tech age is too much for one human being to absorb in an
expanding world of people and technology. It comes from all sources including TV,
newspapers, and magazines as well as wanted and unwanted regular e-mail and faxes. It
has been exacerbated enormously because of the formidable number of results obtained
from web search engines.”
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processing skills needed to elect responsible leaders or counter the myriad waves of
propaganda pushing our dollars this way and that.
LESSON LEARNED:
INTEGRATIVE QUESTIONS:
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TITLE: Email Spam (Chapter 21)
QUOTATION: E-mail spam has steadily, even exponentially grown since the early 1990s to
several billion messages a day. Spam has frustrated, confused, and annoyed e-mail users.
LEARNING EXPECTATIONS:
- I want to know the ethics of reducing the number of spam emails read after they are
sent.
REACTION:
E-mail addresses are collected from chat rooms, websites, newsgroups, and viruses
which harvest users' address books, and are sold to other spammers. Much of spam is
sent to invalid e-mail addresses. ISPs have attempted to recover the cost of spam through
lawsuits against spammers, although they have been mostly unsuccessful in collecting
damages despite winning in court.
Several countries have passed laws that specifically target spam, notably Australia
and all the countries of the European Union.
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subscribers who do not wish to receive these communications, the choice between these
options to be determined by national legislation.
LESSON LEARNED:
- An email that is from an unsolicited, commercial, bulk emailing, often considered spam,
may provide a receiver with just the information that he/she does want.
- Email, such as email informing someone that he/she is fired, is unwanted but not spam.
INTEGRATIVE QUESTIONS:
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TITLE: The Matter of Plagiarism: What, Why, and If (Chapter 22)
QUOTATION: The right of placing its will in any and every thing, which thing is thereby mine
LEARNING EXPECTATIONS:
REACTION:
Plagiarism is the use or close imitation of the language and ideas of another author
and representation of them as one's own original work. Plagiarism is not copyright
infringement. While both terms may apply to a particular act, they are different
transgressions. Copyright infringement is a violation of the rights of a copyright holder,
when material protected by copyright is used without consent. On the other hand,
plagiarism is concerned with the unearned increment to the plagiarizing author's
reputation that is achieved through false claims of authorship.
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physical act of copying the work of others much easier, simply by copying and pasting text
from one web page to another.
LESSON LEARNED:
- The achievements of the “open source” software community, and we may note the
viability of pirate organizations that ignore copyright policies.
- Plagiarism can be unintentional, both when there is a failure to authorize and when
there is a failure to document.
INTEGRATIVE QUESTIONS:
1. How to deepen their commitments, and to develop their capacities for service?
5. Is Plagiarism important?
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TITLE: Intellectual Property: Legal and Moral Challenges of Online File Sharing (Chapter 23)
QUOTATION: File sharing can be implemented in a variety of storage and distribution models.
Current common models are the centralized server-based approach and the distributed
peer-to-peer (P2P) networks.
LEARNING EXPECTATIONS:
- I want to know the legal and moral challenges of online file sharing.
REACTION:
This chapter talks about more of intellectual property and online file sharing. First, we
all know that networks can allow computers, servers, and other devices to talk to each
other. There are a number of different types of networks, and it's important to find the
right one to fit your needs so that you don't waste time and money with one that is too
complex for your needs, or one that doesn't fulfils your needs. And so through network
we can say that having peer to peer network connection millions of users
The first generation of peer-to-peer file sharing networks over the Internet had a
centralized server system. This system controls traffic amongst the users. The servers
store directories of the shared files of the users and are updated when a user logs on. In
the centralized peer-to-peer model, a user would send a search to the centralized server
of what they were looking for. The server then sends back a list of peers that have the
data and facilitates the connection and download. The server-client system is efficient
because the central directory is constantly being updated and all users had to be
registered to use the program. However, there is only a single point of entry, which could
result in a collapse of the network. In addition, it is possible to have out-of-date
information or broken links if the server is not refreshed.
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LESSON LEARNED:
- “Code is law,” and given the great power of software code as a logical constraint,
software providers have a moral obligation to eschew the temptations of writing
antiregulatory code.
- “Purposeful, culpable expression and conduct” must be evident in order to impose legal
liability under this sensible standard
INTEGRATIVE QUESTIONS:
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TITLE: Censorship and Access to Expression (Chapter 24)
"Censorship through consensus" is also a real possibility. There are countries where the
adherence to a shared social, though not religious, code is a fact of life. Understanding that
entails discerning where the boundaries of expression are, and where they might be
interfered with in a consensus situation.
LEARNING EXPECTATIONS:
REACTION:
Censorship -- the control of the information and ideas circulated within a society --
has been a hallmark of dictatorships throughout history. In the 20th Century, censorship
was achieved through the examination of books, plays, films, television and radio
programs, news reports, and other forms of communication for the purpose of altering or
suppressing ideas found to be objectionable or offensive. The rationales for censorship
have varied, with some censors targeting material deemed to be indecent or obscene;
heretical or blasphemous; or seditious or treasonous. Thus, ideas have been suppressed
under the guise of protecting three basic social institutions: the family, the church, and
the state.
One must recognize that censorship and the ideology supporting it go back to ancient
times, and that every society has had customs, taboos, or laws by which speech, dress,
religious observance, and sexual expression were regulated. In Athens, where democracy
first emerged, censorship was well known as a means of enforcing the prevailing
orthodoxy. Indeed, Plato was the first recorded thinker to formulate a rationale for
intellectual, religious, and artistic censorship. In his ideal state outlined in The Republic,
official censors would prohibit mothers and nurses from relating tales deemed bad or
evil. Plato also proposed that unorthodox notions about God or the hereafter be treated
as crimes and that formal procedures be established to suppress heresy. Freedom of
speech in Ancient Rome was reserved for those in positions of authority. The poets Ovid
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and Juvenal were both banished, and authors of seditious writings were punished
severely. The emperor Nero deported his critics and burned their books.
A policy of banning literature and works outweighs the positive effects. Restricting a
child's ability to reach their full intellectual potential is not worth the small chance that
the music industry, media, and books can possibly have an effect on a child's personality,
attitude, or behavior. It is also evident that even though schools, churches, the media,
parents, and the music industry have the power to control what the youth is exposed to
do not mean that it is in the best interest of the child or young teenager to be protected.
LESSON LEARNED:
- We have to ask ourselves what in actual practice would be the consequences of having
policies in place that restrict access.
- The slippery slope maybe an actual and not just a conceptual possibility, if human beings
in fact tend not to be so good at distinguishing material they personally dislike from that
which is harmful.
INTEGRATIVE QUESTIONS:
5. What is military censorship is the process of keeping military intelligence and tactics?
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TITLE: The Gender Agenda in Computer Ethics (Chapter 25)
QUOTATION: Gender issues is about men and women issues for most, and to this issues most
of the times women are always compared to men in terms of abilities, knowledge and
techniques/ ways as to how they deal with things, or even with life.
LEARNING EXPECTATIONS:
- I want to know which better Quantitative Versus Qualitative Research Methodologies is.
REACTION:
This chapter proves that it is true enough that when it comes to gender issues or
agenda, most of the people in the society do argue well, depending on the case to be
argued. But I can say that gender issues/ agenda are one of the best issues arising in the
society and even in the cloud. Meaning opinions, ideas and the like are really arising when
it comes to this topic. We all know that gender issues is about men and women issues for
most, and to this issues most of the times women are always compared to men in terms
of abilities, knowledge and techniques/ ways as to how they deal with things, or even
with life.
According to the author, for centuries, the differences between men and women
were socially defined and distorted through a lens of sexism in which men assumed
superiority over women and maintained it through domination. As the goal of equality
between men and women now grows closer we are also losing our awareness of
important differences. In some circles of society, politically correct thinking is obliterating
important discussion as well as our awareness of the similarities and differences between
men and women. The vision of equality between the sexes has narrowed the possibilities
for discovery of what truly exists within a man and within a woman. The world is less
interesting when everything is same.
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some compromise or way to cope. Few people ever work past these difficulties. People
tend to accept what they don’t understand when they feel powerless to change it.
It discussed the information and computer ethics has emerged as an important area
of philosophical and social theorizing, combining conceptual, meta-ethical, normative,
and applied elements. As a result, academic interest in this area has increased
dramatically, particularly in computer science, philosophy, and communications
departments; business schools; information and library schools; and law schools.
LESSON LEARNED:
- Computer ethics is a new area of applied ethics with a rapidly burgeoning portfolio of
ethical case studies and problems.
- Gender and computer ethics include work on women’s under representation in the
computing profession.
INTEGRATIVE QUESTIONS:
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TITLE: The Digital Divide: A Perspective for the Future (Chapter 26)
QUOTATION: Bridge across the digital divide will just lead poor people into consumerist
quicksand.
LEARNING EXPECTATIONS:
- I want to know the bidirectional relationship between absolute poverty and digital
and information divides.
- I want to understand the moral basis for the idea that the various digital divides
should be eliminated.
- I want to know the empirical skepticism about the relationship between digital
divides and absolute poverty.
REACTION:
According to this chapter, the global distribution of material resources should bother
any conscientious person. In the developing world, poverty and the suffering it causes is
considerably worse. People in absolute poverty lack consistent access to adequate
nutrition, clean water, and health care, as well as face death from a variety of diseases
that are easily cured in affluent nations.
This The digital divide is not any one particular gap between rich and poor, local and
global, but rather includes a variety of gaps believed to bear on the world’s inequitable
distribution of resources. Not that global and local poverty are problems of many
dimensions that are extremely difficult to solve, but rather that the moral importance of
the digital divide as a problem that needs to be addressed is linked to inequalities
between the rich and the poor—and especially wealthy nations and nations in absolute
poverty. Which means that it is true enough that Worldwide computerized reservation
network used as a single point of access for reserving airline seats, hotel rooms, rental
cars, and other travel related items by travel agents, online reservation sites, and large
corporations.
This chapter also discussed about poverty, Poverty is the state for the majority of the
world’s people and nations. Why is this? Is it enough to blame poor people for their own
predicament? Have they been lazy, made poor decisions, and been solely responsible for
their plight? What about their governments? Have they pursued policies that actually
harm successful development? Such causes of poverty and inequality are no doubt real.
But deeper and more global causes of poverty are often less discussed.
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LESSON LEARNED:
- People in absolute poverty lack consistent access to adequate nutrition, clean water,
and health care, as well as face death from a variety of diseases that are easily cured
in affluent nations.
- The digital divide is not any one particular gap between rich and poor, local and
global, but rather includes a variety of gaps believed to bear on the world’s
inequitable distribution of resources.
- Not that global and local poverty are problems of many dimensions that are
extremely difficult to solve, but rather that the moral importance of the digital divide
as a problem that needs to be addressed is linked to inequalities between the rich
and the poor—and especially wealthy nations and nations in absolute poverty.
INTEGRATIVE QUESTIONS:
4. What is the relationship between the inequality produced by the digital divide and
the inequalities we have known for centuries?
5. Is it true that efforts to bridge the digital divide may have the effect of locking
developing countries into a new form of dependency?
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TITLE: Intercultural Information Ethics (Chapter 27)
QUOTATION: The global distribution of material resources should bother any conscientious
person.
LEARNING EXPECTATIONS:
- I want to understand the impact of ICT on local cultures from an IEE perspective.
REACTION:
This chapter is about the intercultural information ethics which covers theoretical and
practical aspects of information ethics from an intercultural perspective. For the reason,
some of our skills and knowledge today are based from technology and developed
through technology itself. That’s also why we always clearly see the effects or the impact
or having technology in our present life. And I do believe that in this coming years
technology will continue to develop and evade the society, industry and people as well.
I believe that the impact of information technology on a global scale and on all
aspects of human life gives, on the one hand, a plausible argument in favour of the
uniqueness approach not only with regard to the subject matter but also to the
theoretical approaches so far. But this does not mean that, on the other hand, the moral
code itself and its ethical reflection will be superseded by another one.
The basic question concerning the status of moral persons, their respect or
disrespect, remains unchanged although we may discuss as to what are the candidates
and what this respect means in a specific situation. We may also discuss as to how this
code has been interpreted (or not) within different ethical and cultural traditions and how
it is being conceived with regard to the challenge of information technology.
LESSON LEARNED:
- With regard to IIE issues in today’s information societies, there are a lot of cultures that
have not been analyzed, such as Eastern Europe and the Arabic world.
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- In a narrow sense it focuses on the impact of information and communication
technology (ICT) on different cultures as well as on how specific issues are understood
from different cultural traditions.
INTEGRATIVE QUESTIONS:
4. What is IIE?
5. What is ICT?
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Cyber Ethics
Ethics and the Information Revolution An Ethical Evaluation of Web Site Linking
Filtering the Internet in the USA: Free Speech Defining the Boundaries of Computer Crime:
Censorship, the Internet, and the Child Terrorism or Civil Disobedience: Toward a
On the Web, Plagiarism Matters More Than The Practitioner from Within: Revisiting the
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TITLE: Ethics and the Information Revolution (Chapter 1.1)
QUOTATION: Computing technologies is the most powerful and most flexible technology
ever devised. For this reason, computing is changing everything – where and how we
work, where and how we learn, shop, eat, vote, receive medical care, spend free time,
make war, make friends, make love.
LEARNING EXPECTATIONS:
- I want to learn the different factors that affect ethics and information revolution.
REACTION:
Computing technology is the most powerful and most flexible technology ever
devised. In this statement I argue with what the author says “Computing is changing
every time – where and how we work, where and how we learn, shop, eat, vote, receive
medical care, spend free time, make war, make friends and make love.” I argue with
that statement because computer is made by man which means easy to destroy. I
usually work in my own place. I don’t believe people telling how to work, how much
more to a computer made by men who commit mistakes. I learn what I know today
from school, from people around me and in the environment. Computer cannot tell me
what to do, it will become just as an aid but not to command or direct me.
Access to cyberspace is much easier than to the world business and management
techniques. I agree to that because of information technology is like a highway with no
end, yes in the developing countries can truly participate in cyber space and look
forward to new opportunities offered by global networks. The network constitutes the
only reason of freedom in many non-democratic countries.
In 1940 and 1950, the American developed computer for survival from any attack by
the enemy during that time. Adolf Hitler is very interested about weapon for mass
production but because computer was not yet developed, their first missile testing
failed.
By 1960 it is considered the year of rock and roll and revolution many countries
experienced coup d’ tat especially in South America with Bolivia on top of the list.
Computer is also like rock and roll, it’s rocking and rolling, many people die because of
computer. It is a revolution because of changing the lifestyle of people such as the
clothing.
The late 70’s is the prophecy from the Bible that was foretold in the book of
Revelation thousand years ago happen when the beast developed the MX missile. The
Chapter 13:1 says “I stood upon the sand of the sea, and son of the beast rise up out of
the sea having seven heads and ten horns, and upon his horns ten crowns, and upon his
heads the name of blasphemy.” That was the first beast who gave his power to the
second beast that made the MX missiles.
1980, Computer was use in war. Computer change the people from work. The
engineers, bookkeeper, computer replace thousand of work all over the world. In 1990,
computer was use by greediest people on earth, which make the world poorer and
poorer.
LESSONS LEARNED:
- I learned that even though computers are devised, it does not mean that they can
substitute people.
- I learned and be familiar with the different important events in every milestone of
the information revolution.
INTEGRATIVE QUESTIONS:
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TITLE: Ethics On-Line (Chapter 1.2)
QUOTATION: Computer technology did not come into being in a vacuum. It was created and
shaped in response to pushes and pulls in our way of life, our culture, politics, and social
institutions.
LEARNING EXPECTATIONS:
- I want to understand how those issues came up and occur online and offline.
- I want to gather thoughts on the different issues in the ethical side of computer.
REACTION:
Today, because of the different scenarios happening to us, there are visions of a
new form of democracy emerging online as political alliances are formed and social
movements gather force without mediation from mass media. There are visions of the
current evolving technology bringing into our homes the ultimate in the entertainment
choice together with the efficiency of being able to carry on all of our daily interactions
with keystrokes and screens.
The issues and problems in electronic networks are the problems of the world
around them. The problems have to do with who we are and what we do offline. The
problems are the problems of modern, highly industrialized, democratic societies.
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3. Reproducibility – Information could be reproduced online without loss of value
and in such a way that the originator or holder of the information would not
notice. There is no loss of value in the process of reproduction.
LESSONS LEARNED:
- I learned the essence of ethics online which is very important to prevent certain
issues especially ethically.
INTEGRATIVE QUESTIONS:
1. What is anonymity?
2. What is reproducibility?
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TITLE: Reason, Relativity, and Responsibility in Computer Ethics (Chapter 1.3)
LEARNING EXPECTATIONS:
- I want to know what are reason, relativity, and responsibility of computer ethics.
REACTION:
Almost everyone would agree that computing is having a significant impact in the
world and that ethical issues about applications of this surging technology should be
raised. Moor has stated two positions which he argues. Both positions are popular and
both of them mislead us about the real nature of computer ethics and undercut
potential for progress in the field.
According to the Routine Ethics position stated problems in computing are regarded
as no different from ethical problems in any field. We apply established customs, laws,
and norms and assess the situations straightforwardly. The second view is usually the
“Cultural Relativism” in which it states local customers and laws determine what is right
and wrong. Because computing technology crosses cultural boundaries, the problems of
computer ethics are intractable.
Routine Ethics makes computer ethics trivial and Cultural Relativism makes it
impossible. Both the views of Routine Ethics and Cultural Relativism are incorporated
particularly when used to characterize computer ethics. The problems of computer
ethics are special and exert pressure on our understanding.
Computers are logically malleable. They can be manipulated to do any activity that
can be characterized in terms of inputs, outputs, and connecting logical operations. A
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computer’s performance can be changed through alterations in its program. A computer
may represent anything one chooses, from the sales of a stock market to the trajectory
of a spacecraft.
Informational enrichment can also affect ethical and legal practices and concepts.
Once data is entered into a computer it can be sorted, searched, and accessed in
extraordinarily easy ways that paper files cannot be. The activity of storing and
retrieving information has been enhanced to the extent that all of us now have a
legitimate basis for concern about the improper use and release of personal information
through computers.
Moor defines computer ethics having two parts. The first part is the analysis of the
nature and social impact of computer technology. The second part is the corresponding
formulation and justification of policies for the ethical use of such technology. They will
continue to be applied in unpredictable and novel ways generating numerous policy
vacuums for the foreseeable future.
LESSONS LEARNED:
INTEGRATIVE QUESTIONS:
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TITLE: Disclosive Computer Ethics (Chapter 1.4)
LEARNING EXPECTATIONS:
REACTION:
Brey argue with the mainstream computer ethics takes as its point of departure a
particular model of applied ethics that may be called the standard model because it is
used in the vast majority of work in applied ethics. Research within this model usually
proceeds in three steps:
1. An individual or collective practice is outlined that has been the topic of moral
controversy.
In this section, the author identifies three features of mainstream computer ethics
which are particularly noteworthy.
- Mainstream computer ethics focuses on its practices. It aims to evaluate and devise
policies for these practices.
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Moor explains computer ethics, as discussed in this section, that it is a typical
problem in computer ethics arises because there is a policy vacuum about how
computer technology should be used. Mainstream computer ethics limits itself to the
analysis of morally controversial practices for which a policy vacuum currently exist.
Computer related practices may be morally opaque because they are unknown or they
have a false appearance of moral neutrality. Moral nontransparency may arise is when a
practice is familiar in its basic form but is not recognized as having the moral
implications that it in fact has.
LESSONS LEARNED:
- Many values and norms are nonmoral, including values like efficiency and profit and
norms that prescribe the correct usage of words or the right kind of batteries to use
in any appliance.
- Freedom rights protect goods that are fundamental in carrying out one’s own life
plan.
- The notion of justice is usually understood as implying that individuals should not be
advantage or disadvantage unfairly or undeservedly.
INTEGRATIVE QUESTIONS:
1. What is justice?
2. What is Autonomy?
3. What is Democracy?
4. What is Privacy?
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TITLE: Gender and Computer Ethics (Chapter 1.5)
QUOTATION: We need to begin the process of exploring the alternative ethics that
feminism can offer ethics.
LEARNING EXPECTATIONS:
- I want to understand about the Gender and Computer Ethics: Barriers and Pipeline
- I want to know Gender and Computer Ethics: Men’s and Women’s Moral Decision.
REACTION:
Gender has been somewhat neglected in computer ethics writing to date. There is
small body of work which takes seriously the point of view that gender has some
bearing on computer ethics problems. In this paper characterize two strands of writing
on gender and computer ethics. The first focuses on problem of women’s access to
computer technology; the second concentrates on whether there are differences
between men and women’s ethical decision-making in relation to information and
computing technologies.
Adam explores the two main strands of current research in gender and computer
ethics. The first strand can be viewed as a spillover from information systems and
computing research on barriers and “pipelines”, which tends to see the gender and ICT
problem as one of women’s access to ICTs and their continuing low representation in
computing all the way through the educational process through to the world of work.
The other strands of research on gender and computer ethics focuses on concerns
more central to computer ethics as a whole, namely the question of whether there are
detectable differences between men’s and women’s ethical decision making relation to
computer ethics.
The author describes a number of empirical studies of gender and business ethics
and gender and computer ethics. Aspects of these studies and argue that these aspects
are problematic. These are the different aspects presented:
1. Student Population
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In every one of the studies detailed before, a student population was
surveyed. We are unable to resist the temptation to utilize that most captive of
audiences which are the students.
LESSONS LEARNED:
- Theorist of Feminist ethics rest on the hypothesis that women’s moral decision
making is different from men’s important ways we need to understand the
implications of this computer ethics.
- Categorical claims that gender either definitely does or definitely does not make a
material difference to moral reasoning relating to the use of computers somehow
misses the point.
INTEGRATIVE QUESTIONS:
3. What is Gender and Computer Ethics: Men’s and Women’s Moral Decision?
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TITLE: Is the Global Information Infrastructure a Democratic Technology? (Chapter 1.6)
QUOTATION: At the root of all definitions of democracy, however refined and complex, lies
the idea of popular power, of a situation in which power, and perhaps authority too,
rests with the people. That power or authority is usually thought of as being political,
and it often therefore takes the form of an idea of popular sovereignty – the people as
the ultimate political authority.
LEARNING EXPECTATIONS:
REACTION:
Technology is value neutral rested in part on the alliance between science and
technology, with several ideas about science shaping ideas about technology. Two
tenets now form the foundation of science and technology studies: that technology
shapes social patterns, and that technology is shaped by its social context.
The social encompasses values. Values are one aspect of the social. We need to
understand more concretely what it could mean to say that a technology is value-laden
or that values are embedded in technologies.
Winner addressed this matter head on in his famous article, “Do Artifacts Have
Politics?” He distinguishes two reviews. The first is the view that values are inherent to
technology. In contrast, Winner identifies a second view according to which “a given
kind of technology is strongly compatible with, but does not strictly require, social and
political relationships of a particular stripe.”
He claims that (1) technologies embody values insofar as they have properties that
are linked to social relationships, in particular relationships involving power and
authority; and, (2) technologies may do this in one of two ways, either by having
intractable properties that require particular types of social relationships and authority,
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by having flexible properties compatible with diverse patterns of social organization and
authority.
The idea of democracy is not merely the idea of individuals’ casting votes and
thereby expressing their desires. Popular sovereignty has meant the populous getting
together as a group or in subgroups for debate and discussion of issues they face jointly.
LESSONS LEARNED:
- I understand about the Support Meaning of Embedded Values and the Material
Meaning of the Embedded Values, as well as the Expressive Meaning of Embedded
Values.
INTEGRATIVE QUESTIONS:
1. What is GII?
2. What is Democracy?
5. What then does it mean to say that values are embedded in technology?
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TITLE: Applying Ethical and Moral Concepts and Theories to IT Contests: Some Key Problems
and Challenges (Chapter 1.7)
QUOTATION: The case, mentioned in this chapter, that such a rule will give rise to gliding
scales are so hard to separate by observable criteria that if it’s better to forbid some
cases that perhaps are not really unethical in order to prevent the rule from being
gradually emptied altogether.
LEARNING EXPECTATIONS:
REACTION:
In this section, it asked and challenged us, if we want to apply ethical and moral
concepts and theories to IT countries, three conditions are to be met. These are the
three conditions that must be met:
1. We must know to what kind of questions such concepts and theories can be
applied, and to what kind of questions such concepts and theories can be
applied and to what they cannot.
Some remarks are made on the demarcation of the nature of the notion of
computer ethics. It seems to have become a trend to employ the term “computer ethics
for almost anything that used to be called social issues in computing.
The role of social context which is in more analytical approaches to ethics have
difficulty in handling this social context, whereas narrative approaches through more
sensitive to context have difficulty in providing guidance when new technologies are
concerned.
Birrer draws attention to the very special problems that are posed by the role of
expert advisers. The protocol for joint problem solving process by expert and client has
to be explored in much more detail than is usually done. There are good reasons to
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distinguish between ethics in a narrow sense and a broader category and it is not
accidental that many classical textbooks on ethics only deal with choices by individuals.
The case, mentioned in this chapter, that such a rule will give rise to gliding scales
are so hard to separate by observable criteria that if it’s better to forbid some cases that
perhaps are not really unethical in order to prevent the rule from being gradually
emptied altogether.
LESSONS LEARNED:
INTEGRATIVE QUESTIONS:
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TITLE: Just Consequentialism and Computing (Chapter 1.8)
QUOTATION: Policies are rules of conduct ranging from formal laws to informal, implicit
guidelines for action. Policies recommend kinds of actions that are sometimes
contingent upon different situations.
LEARNING EXPECTATIONS:
REACTION:
Computer and information ethics need ethical theories which coherently unify
deontological and consequentialist aspects of ethical analysis. It makes just
consequentialism a practical and theoretically sound approach to ethical problems of
computer and information ethics.
The ethical evaluation of a given policy requires the evolution of the consequences
of that policy and often the consequences of the policy compared with the
consequences of other possible policies. Among other objections, consequentialism
seems to be insensitive to issue of justice.
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The fact that humans value and disvalue the same kind of things suggests that there
may be common standards by which humans of different cultures can evaluate actions
and policies.
The combined notions of human life, happiness and autonomy may not be far from
what Aristotle meant be human flourishing. We seek computing polices that at least
protect, if not promote, which is human flourishing. Justice requires an impartially
toward the kinds of policies we allow. It is unjust for someone to use a kind of policy
that he would not allow others to use.
This chapter encourages us to develop computing policies in such a way that they
are above all just. It may be tempting in some situations to focus on strikingly good
consequences of a policy while ignoring injustice. We want good computing policies that
promote human flourishing but only as long as the policies themselves remain just.
Unjust policies will in the long run undermine the benefits of these polices no matter
how good they are.
LESSONS LEARNED:
- Humans are not necessarily concerned about the lives, happiness and autonomy of
others, but they are concerned about their own.
- When humans are using computer technology to harm other humans, there is a
burden of justification on those doing the harming.
INTEGRATIVE QUESTIONS:
2. What is computing?
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TITLE: The Internet as Public Space: Concepts, Issues and Implications in Public Policy
(Chapter 2.1)
QUOTATION: Policies are rules of conduct ranging from formal laws to informal, implicit
guidelines for action. Policies recommend kinds of actions that are sometimes
contingent upon different situations.
LEARNING EXPECTATIONS:
- I want to identify the uses of Internet as public space: opportunities and Barriers.
REACTION:
The internet has long been identified as information agora which serves as a public
safety for citizen. It is being shaped by two seemingly contradictory characteristics:
personal and ubiquitous. Cyberspace enables the citizenry to find new ways to interact
economically, politically and socially. The nature of ubiquity imposes on a variety of
individual or organization rights.
In this section, the goal of Camp and Chien is two fold. It is to help clarify concepts,
old and emerging, and to bring up important issues involved. And lastly, it is to consider
how regulating the Internet as public space sheds light on public policies of the future
regarding Internet governance.
Chien and Camp presented three issues that must be considered when regulating
electronic spaces which are simultaneously, permeability and exclusivity.
Simultaneously refers to the ability of a person to be two places at once at work and at a
train station. Permeability is the ability of barriers between spatial, organizational or
traditional barriers to be made less powerful or effective with the adaptation of
information technology. Exclusivity is the nature of one space, perception or activity to
prevent others.
To complete the goal, they describe what the Internet is not which is a new entrant
into media type’s paradigm. The failure of the media regulatory metaphor has lead to a
spatial metaphor. They address the fundamental policy issues that result from treating
the Internet as public space. They close with the implications with respect to public
policy that are crucial to the continuing development of the Internet as a valuable viable
public space.
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Camp and Chien claim a place in it and enjoy the rights associated with the space.
Each of these spaces has implicit, physical definitions of permeability or exclusivity. The
core that must be reconciled is the relationship of one space to others. The experience
of electronic spaces can be simultaneous. These are the different characteristics
presented in the digital characteristics of a public space:
1. Public and Private – The Internet that connects people, machines and
information resources is at once public and private. This is the most salient
characteristics of the Internet.
3. Trans-lingual and cross-reference – Surfing the net is like walking in the streets
of a country. Hardly anything you see or hear that is interesting or relevant is
rendered only in English.
The spatial model would alter perceptions of public policy problems in comparison
to the media type’s perspective. They describe how the differences simultaneity,
permeability and exclusivity between virtual and real spaces affect governance.
2. Impact on Social Capital and Social Leadership – The Internet enables the
formation of social capital which refers to the features of social organization
which facilitates technology innovation.
The spatial metaphor will help to promote and coordinate work in standards, rules
of governance and ethics of Internet use speech are judged offline by time, space and
content. A regulatory regime that is too extreme may result in employees limiting
employers to private areas on the Internet.
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LESSONS LEARNED:
- I understand the Impact on social capital and society leadership of internet with
respect to public space.
INTEGRATIVE QUESTIONS:
2. What is the impact of public policy of social capital and society leadership?
5. What is Internet?
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TITLE: The Laws on Cyberspace (Chapter 2.2)
QUOTATION: Cyberspace is regulated by laws but not just by law. The code of cyberspace is
one of these laws.
LEARNING EXPECTATIONS:
- I want to know the difference between market norms and social norms.
- I want to know what Laws, Norms, Code and Markets relations are.
REACTION:
Behavior in the real world is regulated by four sorts of constraints. Law is just one of
those four constraints. Law regulates by sanctions imposed ex post. Social norms are
second. They also regulate. Social norms direct and constrain my behavior in a far wider
array of contexts than any law. The market is a third constraint. It regulates by price.
Through the derived price, the market sets my opportunities and through this range of
opportunities, it regulates. There is the constraint of architecture which it is the ability
to know what is happening on the other side of the room. That there is no access-ramp
to library constraints that access of one bound to wheel chair.
Norms in cyberspace are rules that govern behavior and expose individuals to
sanction from others. They too function in cyberspace as norms function in real space,
threatening punishments ex post by a community. The market constraints in cyberspace
like in a real space. Change in price of access is the constraint on access differs.
The most significant constraints is the code or the architecture which is composed
of the software and hardware that constituents cyberspace as it is, the sets of protocols,
the set of rules, implemented or codified, in the software of cyberspace itself which
determine how people interact, or exist, in this space.
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The problem with all this is that the net has no nature. There is no single
architecture that is essential to the net’s design. But nothing requires that these
features, or protocols, always continue the net as it always will be. We celebrate the
“inherent” freedom of the net; the architecture of the net is changing from under us.
The architecture is shifting from architecture of freedom to architecture of control. It is
shifting already without government’s intervention, through government is quickly
coming to see just how it might intervene to speed it up.
Cyberspace is regulated by laws but not just by law. The code of cyberspace is one
of these laws. We must come to see how this code is an emerging sovereign and that we
must develop against this sovereign the limits that we must develop against this
sovereign the limits that we have developed.
LESSONS LEARNED:
- Cyberspace is regulated by laws but not just law. The code of cyberspace is one of
these laws.
- Sovereign will always say real space as well as cyberspace that limits and infancies
bugs are not necessary.
- Cyberspace is different.
- Code and Market and Norms and law together regulate in cyberspace as
architecture and market and norms and law regulate in real space
INTEGRATIVE QUESTIONS:
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TITLE: Of Black Holes and Decentralized Law-Making in Cyberspace (Chapter 2.3)
QUOTATION: The protocols of global network, like the neutral languages they so closely
resemble, emerged from a process that was as it core unplanned and undirected.
LEARNING EXPECTATIONS:
REACTION:
There is community of people who spend their time thinking about law and policy in
cyberspace. It is not always characterized in these terms; it reflects a conflict between
competing visions of “order” and “disorder” in social systems.
In this chapter, the author shares, the managers of MAPS (Mail Abuse Prevention
System) create and maintain what they call the “Realtime Blackhole List” which consists
of a long list of Internet addresses. They place on the RBL any Internet address from
which, to their knowledge, spam has originated. They also place on the RBL the address
of any network that allows “open-mail relay” or provides “spam support services”.
The MAPS operators propose a norm; a description of behavior that they consider is
unacceptable. It allows open mail real systems or providing spam support services. They
offer to serve as your agent in identifying those who are violating this norm. They offer
to keep you inform of those identifications.
The protocols of the global network, like the natural languages they so closely
resemble, emerged from a process that was at its once unplanned and undirected. We
can certainly point expose to many individuals and institutions that played particularly
important roles in its emergence, ex ante there was no one we could have pointed to as
charged with creating the set of rules we now know as the Internet, anymore than we
can point to anyone individual or institution charged with creating the set of rules for
English syntax.
The Internet functions well today are probably not viable over the long term. We
should not wait for it to break down before acting. We should not move so quickly, or
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depart so radically from the existing structures, that we disrupt the functioning of the
Internet.
LESSONS LEARNED:
- I learned about the different topics about the incident, the explanation, the
question and the debate.
INTEGRATIVE QUESTIONS:
2. What is MAPS?
3. What is RBL?
4. What is CCITT?
5. What is ICANN’s?
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TITLE: Fahrenheit 451.2: Is Cyberspace Burning? (Chapter 2.4)
QUOTATION: People from all corners of the globe-people who might otherwise never
connect because of their vast geographical differences can now communicate on the
internet both easily and cheaply
LEARNING EXPECTATIONS:
- I want to learn the six reasons why self rating scheme are wrong for the internet.
- I want to learn why blocking software should not be used by public libraries.
REACTION:
In this chapter, Ray Bradbury describes a function society where books are
outlawed. Fahrenheit 451.2 is the temperature at which books burn. People censor the
printed word by burning books. In the virtual world, one can use just as easily censor
controversial speech by banishing it to the farthest corners of cyberspace using rating
and blocking programs.
The White House called a summit meeting to encourage Internet users to self-rate
their speech and to urge industry leaders to develop and deploy the tools for blocking
“inappropriate” speech. Industry leaders responded to the White House call with a
barrage of announcements:
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The Internet will become bland and homogenized. The major commercials sites will
still be readily available. They will have the resources and inclination to self-rate and
third party rating services will be inclined to give them acceptable ratings. It is a scenario
has already been set in motion. These are the following scenarios:
- One or two rating systems dominate the market and become the de facto
standard for the Internet.
- PICS and the dominant rating system are built into Internet software as an
automatic default.
In this chapter, six reasons are given on why self-rating schemes are wrong for the
Internet. These are the six reasons why self-rating schemes are wrong for the Internet:
LESSONS LEARNED:
- I learned the six reasons why self-rating schemes are wrong for internet
- I become educated that blocking software should not be used by public libraries
INTEGRATIVE QUESTIONS:
2. Is Cyberspace Burning?
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3. What are the six reasons why self rating scheme are wrong for the internet?
5. What is ALA?
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TITLE: Filtering the Internet in the USA: Free Speech Denied (Chapter 2.5)
LEARNING EXPECTATIONS:
REACTION:
Programs existed to control access at the local level, removing the need to place the
burden on Internet Service Provider (ISPs). Filtering programs would largely be used in
the privacy of one’s home, not in public institutions such as libraries and community
centers.
According to this section, Rosenberg identifies two systems which are intended to
first encourage, and later, require Websites and Newsgroups to rate themselves along a
number of dimensions. These systems are RSACi (Recreational Software Advisory
Council on the Internet) and PICS (Platform for Internet Content Selection).
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their publics about intellectual freedom principles and the role of libraries in facilitating
access to resources in various forms of media.
- Internet access terminals can be configures with software that can be turned on
or off and restricts access to designated web sites or specific Internet functions.
- The specific criteria for censoring web sites must be approved by the Library
Board and made available to the public on request.
- The implementation of this censorship must be in control of the library staff and
not someone outside the company.
- The black list of censored websites should not be a secret. It should be made
available to the public on request.
- There should be a procedure for members of the public to ask library staff to
reconsider classifications of websites.
LESSONS LEARNED:
INTEGRATIVE QUESTIONS:
2. What is Filtering?
3. What is blocking?
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TITLE: Censorship, the Internet, and the Child Pornography Law of 1996: A Critique
(Chapter 2.6)
QUOTATION: When the law speaks universally, then a case arises on it which is not covered
by the universal statement then it is right where the legislator fails us and erred by over
simplicity to correct the omission –to say what the legislator himself would have said
had he been, and would have put into his law if he had known
LEARNING EXPECTATIONS:
REACTION:
Catudal have three main objections that are presented against the CPPA. CPPA is as
broad in its proscriptions as to violate the First Amendment rights of adults; the same
protections made available to children. CPPA altogether fails to provide minors and their
legal guardians with the privacy rights needed to combat the harms associated with
certain classes of prurient material on the Internet. Technological advances in home
computing and Congress failure to appreciate how prurient material may be accessed
over the Internet combine with CPPA to wrongfully expose an increasing number of
individuals to possible prosecution and personal ruin.
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available to all. The prohibition is rather effected by threats of arrest, prosecution,
conviction and punishments against those who would make objectionable material
available and against those who would acquire it.
The Act makes it a crime to knowingly send, receive, distribute, reproduce, sell or
possess with intent to sell and makes it a crime to possess more than three child
pornographic images. The Act greatly broadens the definition of child pornography to
include entire categories of images that many would judge not to be child pornographic
and that some would judge not to be pornographic at all.
The sponsors of the Child Pornography Prevention Act don’t think the questions
fundamentally important or relevant. Their contention is that the most effective way to
protect children against the harms created by child pornography is to ban any material
whose effect would be ‘to whet the appetites’ of child sexual abusers.
LESSONS LEARNED:
INTEGRATIVE QUESTIONS:
3. What is censorship?
4. What is Pornography?
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TITLE: PICS: Internet Access Controls Without Censorship (Chapter 2.7)
QUOTATION: Consumers choose their selection software and their label sources
independently. This separation allows both markets to flourish: companies that prefer
to remain value-neutral can offer selection software without providing any labels; value-
oriented organizations, without writing software, can create rating services that provide
labels.
LEARNING EXPECTATIONS:
REACTION:
The Internet now faces a problem inherent in all media that serve diverse
audiences. Societies have tailored their responses to the characteristics of the media.
Any rules about the distribution will be too restrictive from some perspective, yet not
restrictive enough from others. PICS establishes Internet conventions for label formats
and distribution methods while dictating neither a labeling vocabulary not who should
pay attention to which labels.
Not everyone needs to block reception of the same materials. There should be some
way to block only the inappropriate material. Appropriateness is neither an objective
nor a universal measure. It depends on the following three factors:
2. Recipient – what is appropriate for one fifteen year old may not be for an eight-
year old
There was no standard format for labels, so companies that wished to provide
access control had to both develop the software and provide the labels. Consumers
choose their selection software and their label sources independently. This separation
allows both markets to flourish: companies that prefer to remain value-neutral can offer
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selection software without providing any labels; value-oriented organizations, without
writing software, can create rating services that provide labels.
Third party labeling systems can also express features that are of concern to a
limited audience. There are two PICS specification documents. The most important
components are syntax for describing a rating service, syntax for labels, an embedding
labels and the HTML document format, an extension of the HTTP protocol, and query-
syntax for an on-line database of labels.
PICS do not specify parents or other supervisors set configuration rules. One
possibility is to provide a configuration tool. Labels can be retrieved in various ways.
Some client might choose to request labels each time a user tries to access a document.
PICS specifies very little about how to run a labeling service beyond the format of
the service description and the labels. Rating services must make the following choices:
labeling vocabulary, granularity, which creates the labels, coverage and revenue
generation.
LESSONS LEARNED:
INTEGRATIVE QUESTIONS:
1. What is PICS?
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TITLE: Internet Service Providers and Defamation: New Standards of Liability (Chapter 2.8)
QUOTATION: The one ambiguity in all of this is the need to factor into our analysis of
responsibility the difficulties and costs that are involved in preventing harm or rendering
aid to someone else
LEARNING EXPECTATIONS:
- I want to know what is and what are the Internet Service Providers
- I want to learn what the Legal Precedents are for ISP Liability.
- I want to know does Cyberspace alter the need for libel laws.
REACTION:
ISP liability is one way in which the remarkable ascendancy of the Internet raises
new challenges about the proper assignment of liability. Cyberspace defamation has
provoked considerable confusion for the American legal system, as evidenced by the
conflicting rulings set forth about ISP liability.
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Judges have handed down different rulings regarding ISP liability depending upon
the level of editorial control that an ISP has exercised. In the first case discussed by
Spinello, the court ruled that CompuServe was not liable for disseminating an electronic
newsletter with libelous content.
It would be difficult to screen out most libelous statements since they often consist
of ordinary language. The ill-fated Communications Decency Act contains which grants
broad immunity from liability to ISP’s that carry content generated by its subscribers.
According to Raquillet, the main argument is that submitting ISP’s to distributor liability
would mean that they would face the liability each time they were noticed of a potential
defamatory statement, the investigation would be burdensome, and contradict the
congressional intent to promote the development of the Internet.
LESSONS LEARNED:
INTEGRATIVE QUESTIONS:
1. What is ISP?
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TITLE: Digital Millennium Copyright Act (Chapter 3.1)
QUOTATION: The one ambiguity in all of this is the need to factor into our analysis of
responsibility the difficulties and costs that are involved in preventing harm or rendering
aid to someone else
LEARNING EXPECTATIONS:
REACTION:
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the user’s choosing without modification to the content of the material as sent or
received. Monetary relief means damages, costs, attorneys’ fees and any other form of
monetary payment.
LESSONS LEARNED:
- Understand the Sec. 103 Copyright Protection Systems and Copyright Management
o Definition in general
o In details
INTEGRATIVE QUESTIONS:
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TITLE: Note on the DeCSS Trial (Chapter 3.2)
QUOTATION: The posting of the de-encryption formula is no different from making and
then distributing unauthorized keys to the department store.
LEARNING EXPECTATIONS:
- I want to be familiar about the lawsuits about it and the outcomes of it.
REACTION:
The DeCSS trial has tested the scope and constitutionality of the anti-circumvention
provision included in Section 1201 of the Digital Millennium Act. All DVDs contain digital
information, and this allows copies of a motion picture contained on a DVD to be stored
on a hard disk drive in the computer system’s memory to be transmitted over the
Internet.
They have been protected with an access control system that encrypts the contents.
This system was developed by Matshusita Electric Industrial Co. and Toshiba
Corporation. The DVD industry has adopted this standard. According to this chapter,
Norway decided that he wanted to watch DVD movies on a computer that ran the Linux
operating system. Cracking the code was not a major hurdle yet it becomes the birth of
the DeCSS.
According to this chapter, Jack Valenti states that “this is a case of theft. The posting
of the de-encryption formula is no different from making and then distributing
unauthorized keys to a department store. In this section, author shares, Kaplan issued a
preliminary injunction prohibiting the defendants from posting DeCSS on their
respective web sites.
DeCSS simply preserves “fair use” in digital media by allowing DVDs to work on
computer systems that are not running Mac or Windows operating systems. Consumers
should have the right to use these disks on a Linux system, and this required the
development of a program. The contention was that DeCSS existed to facilitate a
reverse-engineering process that would allow the playing of movies on unsupported
systems.
The defense team received considerable support within certain segments of the
academic community. Some scholars were particularly worried about the effect that
would result from the injunction against hyper linking. This brief also presented
arguments supporting the defense view that DeCSS fits within the reverse engineering
exception of the anti-circumvention provision.
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This section presented that there are obviously much larger issues pertaining to the
First Amendment and its apparent conflict with property rights. This case also
epitomizes certain concerns about the DMCA law itself. This ruling itself appears to
make it illegal for someone in an educational institution.
LESSONS LEARNED:
- I have understood the technical background, the underlying lawsuit and its
corresponding outcomes.
INTEGRATIVE QUESTIONS:
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TITLE: A Politics of Intellectual Property: Environmentalism for the Net? (Chapter 3.3)
LEARNING EXPECTATIONS:
REACTION:
Boyle, in this article, argues that we need a politics or perhaps a political economy
of intellectual property. Everyone says that the ownership and control of information is
one of the most important forms of power in contemporary society. The information
society exists yet with a surprisingly little theoretical work.
One of the root problems is a conceptual one. The economic analysis of information
is beset by internal contradiction and uncertainty; information is both a component of
the perfect market and a good that must be produced within that market. Information is
supposed to move towards perfection. Information must be commodified so as to give
its producers an incentive to produce.
The White Paper wants to give expansive intellectual property rights because it
believes that this is the best way to encourage private companies to fund construction
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of the information super highway. The White Paper not only illustrates the pervasive
power of baseline fallacies in information economics, it also shows how the original
author vision down plays the importance of fair use and thus encourages an absolutist
rather than a functional idea of intellectual property.
Decisions in a democracy are made badly when they are primarily made by and for
the benefit of a few stakeholders. The fundamental aporia in economic analysis of
information issues, the source-blindness of an “original author” and the political
blindness to the importance of the public domain as a whole all come together to make
the public domain disappear.
LESSONS LEARNED:
INTEGRATIVE QUESTIONS:
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TITLE: Intellectual Property, Information and the Common Good (Chapter 3.4)
LEARNING EXPECTATIONS:
REACTION:
The types of claims asserted over intellectual property have been many and diverse.
The following cases give some ideas of the diversity of such claims:
1. Plagiarism – Students will often take all part of an article or essay that they have
located online and hand it in as their own work with or without additions or
modifications of their own. Plagiarism has been a problem for a long time but
the easy access to vast amounts of electronic information dramatically increases
the possibilities and the temptation.
2. Software Piracy – The system was set up so that anyone on the Internet could
post a copy of program which was then available for downloading for free by
anyone who chose to do so.
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3. Repackaging Data and Databases – There has been much debate recently about
whether databases and the data in them should receive more protection than
currently afforded by copyright law.
LESSONS LEARNED:
INTEGRATIVE QUESTIONS:
2. What is Information?
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TITLE: Is Copyright Ethical? An Examination of the Theories, Laws, and Practices Regarding
the Private Ownership of Intellectual Work in the United States (Chapter 3. 5)
QUOTATION: “The issue before thoughtful people is therefore not the maintenance or
abolition of private property, but the determination of the precise lines along which
private enterprise must be given free scope and wherein it must be restricted in the
interests of the common good.”
LEARNING EXPECTATIONS:
REACTION:
In revising the Copyright Act in 1909, Congress stated that the rights of copyright
holders were solely created by government grant and had no other basis. It would seem
then that copyright law was created by the government as instrument of policy. Policy is
usually based on a choice of preferred outcomes and that choice may be based on
considerations other than the moral or the ethical.
This paper examines the relationship between intellectual property rights and
ethics, focusing for the most part on copyright. The focus in on two key questions: what
is the relationship between ethics and copyright law and practice in the United States
and is the concept of private ownership of intellectual property inherently ethical. These
questions are important because access to overwhelming number of elements of daily
life is now controlled by intellectual property law.
The author shares Waldron elaborates right theories as being of two kinds, those
based on some perceived intrinsic quality or on some value that a society wishes to
achieve. He argues that rights cannot be discussed without considering the topic of
political morality which may be based on rights, duty or goals.
The traditional legal basis for property is discussed by Cohen, according to Warwick,
who defines property rights as the relationship between individuals in reference to
things. He asserts that the owners of all revenue producing property are granted the
power to tax the future of social product. Four approaches to the development of
private property are presented such as occupation, labor, and personality and
economic.
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Another detailed discussion of property and rights is presented by Waldron who
poses two questions: what individual interests are served by the existence of private
property and are any of these interests so important from a moral point of that they
justify a government duty to protect them. Waldron examines utilitarian arguments for
private property which are based on the concept that society will benefit more if
material resources are controlled by individuals than if they were controlled by the state
or the community as a whole.
LESSONS LEARNED:
INTEGRATIVE QUESTIONS:
1. What is a copyright?
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TITLE: On the Web, Plagiarism Matters More than Copyright Piracy (Chapter 3.6)
LEARNING EXPECTATIONS:
REACTION:
The copyright owner suffers from loss of the revenue that is customarily paid for
permission to copy. In this section, Snapper discussed, the obvious candidate for
plagiarism harm is the author who receives no credit. But it is hard to see what harm
that author may have suffered. A possible loss of potential reputation is hardly sufficient
grounds for the ethical indignation that academics express over incidents of plagiarism.
Another point stretched by the author that I agree is with his observation that
copyright shows concern for the owner rather than the user and it is only a starting
point for a study of the issues regarding copyrights in web publication. Our copyright
policies are legal conversations that establish the relevant notion of property.
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2. The present paper seems to echo a generally unconvincing argument presented
by Beyer which argues that changes in technology lowered the cost of
publication to the point that most copyright protections were no longer needed
to encourage publication.
3. Copyright policy has a myriad of social utilities. Its intended utility is that
copyright policy is to promote the progress of science and the useful arts.
LESSONS LEARNED:
INTEGRATIVE QUESTIONS:
1. What is piracy?
5. How does the threats involved in the free-riding technique in copyright law?
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TITLE: An Ethical Evaluation of Web Site-Linking (Chapter 3.7)
QUOTATION: The World Wide Web has grown in popularity; the propriety of linking to other
web sites has achieved some prominence as an important moral and legal issue. Hyperlinks
represent the essence of Web-based activity, since they facilitate navigation in a unique and
efficient fashion involved.
LEARNING EXPECTATIONS:
REACTION:
According to Spinello, World Wide Web has grown in popularity; the propriety of
linking to other web sites has achieved some prominence as an important moral and
legal issue. Hyperlinks represent the essence of Web-based activity, since they facilitate
navigation in a unique and efficient fashion involved.
He shares that this paper will allow us readers to explore the issue of deep linking
from a distinctly moral vantage point. It raises a plethora of complex property issues
with subtle moral implications and it deserves a careful scrutiny. It concerns the
appropriate scope of property rights for a web site and how those rights can be properly
balanced against the common good of free and open communications on the web.
A link is a connection within the same web site or between two different web sites.
This practice becomes known as ‘deep linking’. The hyperlink text itself can appear in
many forms. It can be the name of the linked to web site or a description of what is to
be found at the website.
In this section, it introduce that there are two types of link which are the HREF and
IMG. An HREF is a link that instructs the browser to locate another website and provide
its contents for user. An IMG is a link that instructs to a browser to enhance the text on
the user’s web page with an image contained in a separate file.
Having established that a web site is really property, we consider the specific rights
implied by such ownership. We conclude that on the basis of those rights, a prima facie
case can be made that because of the potential for negative effects, users should not
presume that deep linking is acceptable unless they first seek out the permission of the
target web site. We also fully appreciate the dangers inherent in exploring the web and
the need to encourage the most flexible forms of linking.
The resolution of the normative one does have the deep thoughts have tended to
know the one of the World Wide Web, and for the intentions that do seek with the
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reality that had been allowed with the three theories that they had encountered: (1)
utilitarianism, (2) the locking or labor-desert theory (3) the personality theory.
LESSONS LEARNED:
- I understand the different issues and problems that spread related web site.
INTEGRATIVE QUESTIONS:
1. How does Web Site Linking become harmful for target web sites?
5. What are the factors in respecting the Common Good in the Web Site Linking?
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TITLE: The Cathedral and the Bazaar (Chapter 3.8)
LEARNING EXPECTATIONS:
REACTION:
As this first part, obviously it gives us an idea on what the book is all about. This
chapter shows the different things that can be observed in the book during the entire
reading. The topics covered are all about the information technology: quickly evolving,
open source: be resourceful, computer software and hardware: build by great
developers around the world and the digital age: forming a new industry in the
information technology department.
It also discusses the hackers which if you define is a person who is proficient at using
or programming a computer; a computer buff (dictionary.com). It discusses what the
different branches that a typical programmer has are. It encompasses the culture, tribe,
activities done and objectives. As stated in the book, it will eventually discuss reasons
and prove something, supported by collections attached, to any readers who will be
interesting to this topic.
I am looking forward to continue enjoying reading this book as Mr.Pajo shared to us,
how lucky we are that we are now given opportunity to read it and have knowledge
regarding this kind of topic where in we ca establish a good deed in ourselves especially
in our industry today
This book is a “must” for anyone who is interested in the future of the industry of
information technology or computers, quick development is observed. It includes
different concepts with the earlier years when computer technology was been popular
to the world. I am glad reading this book because this book is presented in a simple
words which can easily been understood and can be related by anyone in any means. I
also want this because it simply proves that hacking is not really bad but there are some
benefits from this.
Hacking is done over the internet through open source. Lots of sources can be used
and improved. I am really in the opinion that hacking is good. I do not think that open
source is bad because especially in our class, IS-EBIZ, we are really hacking through the
different ways such as download the source code or use the web developer plug-ins and
a lot more. We are encouraged to do this to be more challenged to improve what
definitely exists today.
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I am not really a good hacker and do not like hacking but after reading this chapter I
am encouraged to be more challenged in this side because of there is a lot of idea to
prove on.
LESSONS LEARNED:
- I learned the different issues and problems that spread related web site.
- I can determine the theories that encountered in the World Wide Web.
INTEGRATIVE QUESTIONS:
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TITLE: Towards a Theory of Privacy for the Information Age (Chapter 4.1)
LEARNING EXPECTATIONS:
- I want to determine the setting and adjusting policies from private situations.
- I want to learn more the theory of privacy for the information age.
REACTION:
We all know that when information is computerized, it is greased to slide easily and
quickly to many ports of call. This makes information retrieval quick and convenient. But
legitimate concerns about privacy arise when this speed and convenience lead to improper
exposure of information. Greased information is information that moves like lightning and is
hard to hold on to.
He added that the greasing information makes information so easy to access that it can
be used again and again. Computers have elephant memories – big, accurate, and long
term. The ability of computers to remember so well for so long undercuts a human frailty
that assists privacy. We humans forget most things. Most short term memories don’t even
make it to long term memory.
Once information is being captured for whatever purpose, it is greased and ready to go
for any purpose. In computerized world we leave electronic foot prints everywhere, and
data collected for one purpose can be resurrected and use elsewhere. The problem of the
computer privacy is to keep proper vigilance on where such information can and should go.
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Moor discussed that For the most part the need for privacy is like good art, you know it
when you see it. But sometimes our institutions can be misleading and it is important to
become as clear as possible what privacy is, how it is justified, and how it is applied in
ethical situations.
LESSONS LEARNED:
- The transmission of knowledge is essential for the survival of every culture, but it is not
the same knowledge that must be transmitted.
- The core values are the values we have in common as human beings.
INTEGRATIVE QUESTIONS:
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TITLE: The Structure of Rights in Directive 95/46/EC on the Protection of Individuals with
Regard to the Processing of Personal Data and the Free Movement of Such Data
(Chapter 4.2)
QUOTATION: Data quality is the protection of the data subject’s reasonable expectations
concerning the processing of data about him.
LEARNING EXPECTATIONS:
- I want to know the directives on the question of further processing of personal data.
REACTION:
An analysis of this Directive is indispensable because the first aim of this paper is to
contribute to the interpretation of the Directive; it is a contribution to the philosophical
theory of privacy. Modern data protection legislation is a central that raises a whole of
conceptual and ethical issues.
This paper, according to Elgesem, here distinct parts. The first part turns out that an
important part of the Directive’s structure of individual rights has to be brought to bear
in order to answer question. In the second part is all about privacy which should be
identified with the individuals control concerning the flow of personal information. In
the last part are the ideas of Elgesem for a philosophical theory on individual rights in
connection with the processing of personal data.
The bulk of processing of personal data uses information that is already available as
the result of other information processes. The Directive addresses question where it is
stressed that all personal data must be collected for specified, explicit, and legitimate
purposes and not further processed in a way that is incompatible with those purpose.
In this section, Elgesem stated, the two objectives identified which is to protect the
fundamental rights and freedom of natural persons and in particular the right to privacy
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with respect to the processing of personal data and the protection is meant make the
flow of personal information within the European community easier.
It also illustrates the different channels for the flow of personal of information.
These are the different channels which are the relationship between privacy and data
protection in the directive, channels for the flow of personal information, data
protection and the protection of privacy, the directive and the protection of channels.
LESSONS LEARNED:
- Privacy a descriptive neutral concept denoting conditions that are neither always
desirable and praise worthy, nor always undesirable and upraise worthy.
- Privacy is not simply an absence of information about us in the minds of the other,
rather it is the control we have over the information about ourselves.
- In accordance with the directive, member states shall protect the fundamental
rights and freedom of neutral persons and in particular right to privacy with respect
to the processing of personal data.
INTEGRATIVE QUESTIONS:
1. What conditions is it legitimate to process personal data are collected from the
different purposes?
4. What it is about the Channels for the flow of the personal information?
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TITLE: Privacy Protection, Control of Information, and Privacy-Enhancing Technologies
(Chapter 4.3)
LEARNING EXPECTATIONS:
- I want to determine the similarities and difference about the Normative Privacy and
the Restricted Access Theory.
- I want to know how to use the Control in the Justification and Management Privacy.
REACTION:
The present study is organized into two main parts: the theory of privacy which
defends a version of the restricted access theory of privacy, according to Moor, and the
pricy –enhancing technologies which considers the role of the privacy.
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natural or descriptive privacy. Simply being alone doesn’t provide sufficient claim to
right to privacy anymore than having the right to privacy can guarantee privacy as
matter of fact.
The concept of privacy is defined in terms of restricted access. Control has a central
role in the justification and management of privacy. One practical payoff in making this
distinction is that one can resist the temptation to think that because one has increased
privacy.
LESSONS LEARNED:
- PETS offer users choices about what information they wish to release.
- PETS give us increased control but it remains an open question whether privacy is
increased.
INTEGRATIVE QUESTIONS:
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TITLE: Toward an Approach to Privacy in Public: Challenges of Information Technology
(Chapter 4.4)
QUOTATION: At the heart of the concern to protect ‘privacy’ lies a conception of the
individual and his or her relationship with society. The idea of private and public spheres
or activity assumes a community in which not only does such a division make sense, but
the institutional and structural agreements that facilitate an organic representation of
this kind are present.
LEARNING EXPECTATIONS:
REACTION:
The idea that privacy functions to protect the integrity of a private or intimate real
spans scholarly work in many disciplines, including legal, political and philosophical
discussion of privacy. Privacy is important because it renders possible important human
relationships. Privacy provides the necessary context for relationship which we could
hardly be human if we had to do without-the relationships of love, friendship and trust.
Privacy as control over all information about oneself, according to Fried defended a
moral and legal right to privacy that extends only over the far more limited domain of
intimate or personal information.
The danger of extending control over too broad spectrum of information is privacy
may then interfere with other social and legal values. According to Fried the important
thing is that there is some information which is protected, namely information about
the personal and intimate aspects of life. According also to him, the precise content of
the class of protected information will be determined largely by social and cultural
convention. Prevailing social order designates certain areas, intrinsically no more private
that other areas, as symbolic of the whole institution of privacy, and thus deserving of
protection beyond their particular importance.
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The author shares assumptions stands in the way of an adequate concept of privacy
which are there is a realm public information about persons to which no privacy apply
and an aggregation of information does not violate privacy f s parts, taken individually,
do not.
Intimacy simply could not exist unless people had the opportunity for privacy.
Excluding outsiders and resenting their uninvited intrusions are essential parts of having
an intimate relationship.
LESSONS LEARNED:
- Privacy is the condition of not having undocumented personal knowledge about one
possessed by others.
- Parent means fact which most person in a given society choose not to reveal about
them or facts about which a particular individual is acutely sensitive.
INTEGRATIVE QUESTIONS:
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TITLE: KDD, Privacy, Individuality, and Fairness (Chapter 4.5)
QUOTATION: At the heart of the concern to protect ‘privacy’ lies a conception of the
individual and his or her relationship with society. The idea of private and public spheres
or activity assumes a community in which not only does such a division make sense, but
the institutional and structural agreements that facilitate an organic representation of
this kind are present.
LEARNING EXPECTATIONS:
- I want to internalize and analyzed the case study about Lotus Marketplace.
REACTION:
In this chapter it discusses the personal data as often considered to be the exclusive
kind of data eligible for protection by privacy law and privacy norms. Personal data is
commonly defined as data and information relating to unidentifiable person; on the
protection of the individuals with regard to the processing of personal data and on the
free movement of such data. Personal data should only be collected for specified,
explicit, legitimate purposes and should not be further processed in away incompatible
with these purposes.
No excessive data should be collected, relative to the purpose for which the data is
collected. Moreover the data should be accurate and, if applicable, kept up to date.
Every reasonable step must be taken to ensure that inaccurate or incomplete data is
either rectified or erased. A personal data should be kept in a form that permits
identification or data subjects for no longer than is necessary for the purpose for which
the data were collected.
Another point stretched by Vedder is with the application of the narrow definition
of personal data and the protective measures connected to that definition of KDD
process is not without difficulties. Of course, as long as the process involves personal
data in the strict sense of data relating to an identified or identifiable individual, the
principles applying without reservation; once the data has become anonymous, or has
been processed and generalized, an individual cannot exert any influence on the
processing of data at all. The rights and requirements make no sense regarding
anonymous data and group profile.
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In the later part of this chapter it discusses that the data used and the profiles
created do not always qualify as personal data. Nevertheless, the ways in which the
profiles are applied may have a serous impact on the persons from whom the data was
originally taken or, even more for the matter to whom the profiles are eventually
applied.
LESSONS LEARNED:
- Individual is judged and treated on the basis of his, coincidently, belonging to the wrong
category of persons.
- Most conceptions of individual privacy currently put forward in law and ethical debate
have on feature in common.
INTEGRATIVE QUESTIONS:
1. What is KDD?
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TITLE: Data Mining and Privacy (Chapter 4.6)
QUOTATION: Devised by computer scientist David Chaum, these techniques prevent the
dossier society in which computers could be used to infer individuals’ life styles, habits,
whereabouts, and associations from data collected in ordinary consumer transactions
can have a chilling effect causing the people to alter their observable activities
LEARNING EXPECTATIONS:
REACTION:
Fulda defines data mining as the most easily accomplished when the data are highly
structured and available in many different forms at many different levels in what are
known as data warehouse. The data warehouse contains integrated data, both detailed
and summarized data, historical data, and metadata.
According to this chapter, points are clarified such as much of the current concerns
about privacy arise because of data mining and more generally, knowledge discovery. In
traditional computer science terms, data is uninterrupted, while knowledge has a
semantics that gives it meaning.
While the data stored in databases are not truly uninterrupted, the old legal rule
that anything put by a person in the public domain is not legally protected served well
when the data was not mined so as to produced classifications, clustering, summaries
and profiles, dependencies and links and other patterns.
And so non of the cases according to this book involved technology, but sifting
through a stack of magazines, an archives, or a stack of letters to find associations
between two data and an individual are all pre-technological forms of data mining, and
they are all improper.
Another point stretched by Fulda is that technology cannot make right what is
otherwise wrong, so such data mining is indeed, a violation of privacy; if data about the
individual is mined and implicit knowledge about him is discovered, an appropriation
occurred, and further disclosure should not be permitted.
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LESSONS LEARNED:
- Data Mining is most easily accomplished when the data are highly structured and
available in many different forms at many different levels in what are known as data
warehouse.
- Much of the current concerns about privacy arise because of data mining and more
generally, knowledge discovery. In traditional computer science terms, data is
uninterrupted, while knowledge has a semantics that gives it meaning.
INTEGRATIVE QUESTIONS:
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TITLE: Workplace Surveillance, Privacy and Distributive Justice (Chapter 4.7)
QUOTATION: Surveillance is no longer an ambiguous tool for control and social certainty,
not it is merely a weight that weighs down on the employee rather it’s logic and its
effects has become increasingly difficult to see clearly and distinctly.
LEARNING EXPECTATIONS:
REACTION:
According to this chapter, Surveillance has become a central issue in our late
modern society. The surveillance of the public spaces by closed circuit television, the
surveillance of consumers through consumers surveys and point of sale technology, and
workplace surveillance, to name but a few. And so as surveillance increases, more and
more questions are being raised about its legitimacy. Surveillance often functions as
resource for the execution off power, and power is the most effective when it hides
itself.
Introna points out the issue of the lack of legislation in other countries would also
indicate that it would be reasonable to conclude that workplace monitoring is still
largely viewed as a right of employers with the burden of proof in the employee to show
that it is invasive, unfair and stressful. It would seem that a legal correction in the
imbalance of power is not likely to be forthcoming in the near future. There is also
accumulating evidence that surveillance of individuals lead to stress, a lost of sense of
dignity and a general environment of mistrust.
Introna believes that Surveillance is no longer an ambiguous tool for control and
social certainty, not it is merely a weight that weighs down on the employee rather it’s
logic and its effects has become increasingly difficult to see clearly and distinctly.
Surveillance, with modernity has lost its shine.
In this chapter there is a view or related privacy which states that privacy is no
means an uncontroversial issue; we have to select what to survey and most importantly,
we have to select how to value what we find in our surveillance. Surveillance is an
important part in computer technology.
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LESSONS LEARNED:
- Surveillance is no longer an ambiguous tool for control and social certainty, not it is
merely a weight that weighs down on the employee rather it’s logic and its effects
has become increasingly difficult to see clearly and distinctly.
- The collective needs to use data collected to coordinate and control the activities of
the individuals for the good of the collective.
INTEGRATIVE QUESTIONS:
4. What are the two major trends to create the background for our contemporary
discussion of workplace surveillance?
5. Why Surveillance become the central issue in our late modern society?
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TITLE: Defining the Boundaries of Computer Crime: Piracy, Break-Ins, and Sabotage in
Cyberspace (Chapter 5.1)
QUOTATION: When true computer telephony arrives, we may need to re-examine our proposed
definition of computer crime.
LEARNING EXPECTATIONS:
REACTION:
Tavani, author of this section, says even though concerns about crimes involving the
use of computer technology have received considerable attention in the popular press
as well as in certain scholarly publications, the criteria used by the news reporters,
computer ethicist and legal analyst for determining what exactly constitutes a computer
crime has been neither clear or nor consistent.
Arguments for having a category of computer crime can be advanced from least
three different perspectives: legal, moral and information and descriptive. We consider
arguments for each, beginning with a look at computer crime as a separate legal
category. From a legal perspective, computer crime might be viewed as a useful
category for prosecuting certain kinds of crimes.
At the outset, one might reasonably ask what the value would be in pursuing
questions about computer crime from the point of view of a descriptive category. We
can also see then, why our existing laws and policies are not always able to extend to
cover adequately at least certain kind of crimes involving computers.
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LESSONS LEARNED:
INTEGRATIVE QUESTIONS:
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TITLE: Terrorism or Civil Disobedience: Toward a Hacktivist Ethic (Chapter 5.2)
LEARNING EXPECTATIONS:
REACTION:
In this era of global commerce via the internet, strikes against the hegemony of
bureaucratic capitalism and the commercialization of the internet will inevitably be
carried out in the World Wide Web. Numerous reports in the popular press have
portrayed the hackers as vandals, terrorist and saboteurs, yet no one seems to have
considered the possibility that this might be the work of electronic politician activist or
hacktivist.
Through an investigation of hacktivism, this essay seeks to make clear the growing
tensions between the cooperative and liberal ideology of the originators of the
“electronic frontier”, speaking in the name of social justice, political decentralization,
and freedom of information, and the more powerful counteracting moves to reduce the
internet to one grand global “electronic marketplace”.
According to the author, Civil Disobedience entails the peaceful breaking of unjust
laws. It does not condone violent or destructive acts against its enemies, focusing
instead on nonviolent means to expose wrongs, raise awareness, and prohibit ht
implementation of perceived unethical laws by individuals, organizations, corporations
or governments.
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Every technology affords opposing possibilities towards emancipation or
domination, and information technology is no different. The new information
technologies are often portrayed as the utopian promise of total human emancipation
and freedom.
Hacktivism is in its infancy, but, given the ubiquity and democratizing possibility of
the internet, we will certainly bear witnesses to the movement’s growing pains and
increasing maturity. In order for hacktivism to become a legitimate form of social
protest, it must be provided sound ethical foundations. This, in turn, means expanding
the ethical justification of civil disobedience to include acts of hacktivism.
LESSONS LEARNED:
- Access to computers- and anything that might teach you something about the way
the world works- should be unlimited and total. Always yield to the Hands- On
Imperative
INTEGRATIVE QUESTIONS:
2. What is Hacktivism?
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TITLE: Web Security and Privacy: An American Perspective (Chapter 5.3)
LEARNING EXPECTATIONS:
- I want to understand what the American Perspective about Web Security and
Privacy is.
REACTION:
In this section, the author discussed, American legal tradition focuses on a right to
privacy, rather than a need for data protection. Yet illuminating Web privacy of this
particular perspective throws a broader light on how the fundamental rights of speech,
assembly and freedom of religious inquiry may depend upon electronic privacy in the
information age. The confusion between the privacy and security remains with many in
the computer security community.
Privacy requires security, because without the ability to control access and
distribution of information, privacy cannot be protected. But security is not privacy.
Security can be used to limit privacy by preventing the subject of information from
knowing about the compilation of information, or to violate privacy by using data in
ways in which do not coincide to the subject’s wishes.
Integrity means that information is not altered. Information has integrity during the
transmission if the recipient can be certain that the information was not altered in
transit. Integrity means that what is received is exactly what sent. Hash function
compress information was.
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The right of people to be secure in their persons, houses, papers, and effects,
against unreasonable sources and seizures, shall not be violated and no warrants shall
be issue, but upon probable cause, supported by oath or affirmation, and particularly
describing the placed to be searched, and the persons or things to be seized. No person
shall be held to answer for a capital, or otherwise infamous crime, unless a presentment
or indictment of a grand jury, except in cases arising in the land or naval forces, or in the
militia, when in actual service in time of war or public danger; nor shall any person be
subject for the same offense to be twice put in jeopardy of life or limb; nor shall be
compelled in any criminal case to be a witness against himself, nor be deprived of life,
liberty, or property, without due process of law; nor shall private property be taken for
public use.
LESSONS LEARNED:
- False light is the publication of information that is misleading, and thus shows an
individual in a false light.
INTEGRATIVE QUESTIONS:
1. What is ISP?
2. What is IP?
5. What is anonymity?
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TITLE: The Meaning of Anonymity in an Information Age (Chapter 5.4)
LEARNING EXPECTATIONS:
REACTION:
Our presence on the planet, our notable features and momentous milestones, are
dutifully recorded by agencies of federal, state, and local government, including birth,
marriage, divorce, property ownership, driver’s licenses, phone number, credit card
numbers, social security number, passport number, level of education and more, we are
described by age, hair color, eye color, height, quality of vision, purchases, credit card
activity, travel, employment and rental history real estate transactions, change of
address, ages and numbers of children, and magazines descriptions.
Anonymity may enable people to reach out for help, especially for socially
stigmatized problems like domestic violence, HIV or other sexually transmitted infection,
emotional problems or suicidal thoughts. It offers the possibility of a protective cloak for
children, enabling them to engage in internet communication without fear of social
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predation or- perhaps less ominous but nevertheless unwanted- overtures from
commercials marketers.
The application that does such a thing or aids us for becoming more informed in
other person’s every movement are different social networks especially Plurk. It keeps
me posted with every update to my friends. I recently created an account just to see
what the application is all about. As a purpose of knowing why my classmates are
creating accounts and having too much fun and even I become addicted to it.
LESSONS LEARNED:
- The value of anonymity lies not in the capacity to be unnamed, but in the possibility of
acting or participating while remaining out of reach, remaining unreachable.
- Being unreachable means that no one will come knocking on your door demanding
explanations, apologies, answerability, punishment, or payment.
INTEGRATIVE QUESTIONS:
1. What is Anonymity?
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TITLE: Double Encryption of Anonymized Electronic Data Interchange (Chapter 5.5)
QUOTATION: The power of information technology to extract or infer identity from non-
identifying signs and information has been inventively applied by literary scholars to
settling disputes and unraveling mysteries of authorship
LEARNING EXPECTATIONS:
- I want to know what are the two main problems that need to solve in order to keep GP,
as a sender anonymized.
REACTION:
We cut his electronic head by creating a Gatekeeper postbox that forwards all the
incoming electronic data, thereby replacing the doctor’s address with its own address.
Furthermore, collecting medical data electronically require, according to our moral
institutions, some kind of encryption.
To be sure that data are really sent by the sender and received by the receiver
meant by the sender, the double encryption protocol is suitable and widely used.
However, double encryption needs the sender identification in order to decrypt the
message to the sender’s public key, but the sender’s identification was anonymized by
the Gatekeeper postbox. To use double encryption for anonymized electronic
communication, new requirements must be specified.
Our main data sources are therefore the persons who prescribe drugs. Using this
post marketing surveillance as scientific method, we distinguish between two phases,
the generation of a hypothesis and the evaluation of the hypothesis. The assistant of the
GP will make notes of the referrals to a specialist and of the treatment summary of the
specialist in the patient record of the GP. In the Netherlands, the number of GP’s using
Electronic Patient Records was growing rapidly from 1988. The central role of the Dutch
GP enables us to follow individual patient. In order to transmit the data from the GP to
the central database of IPCI, we use the edifact standard for electronic messages.
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Anonymization of the GP means only a randomized number and profession type are
transmitted.
The problem of replacing a sender’s identity can be done very easily by introducing
an electronic postbox of the Gatekeeper. Instead of transmitting the messages from the
GP to the ICPI postbox directly, the messages are now sent to the Gatekeeper’s postbox
has only one function, forward every incoming message to the ICPI postbox so that the
original sender is replaced by the new sender, the Gatekeepers identity.
LESSONS LEARNED:
- As soon as data are sent electronically, the sender’s identification is automatically added
to the message. To anonymize the sender, an automatic process of replacing this
identification must be implemented.
- To decrypt an encrypted message, one must know the decryption key of the sender.
However, when the sender is anonymized, it is impossible to select the right key. An
automatic process of key-handling and decryption must also be implemented.
- The Gatekeeper’s postbox intercepts the message, the sender identification is used to
select the sender’s public key, and only then remove it from the message.
INTEGRATIVE QUESTIONS:
1. What is ICPI?
2. What is GP?
3. What is ERP?
5. What is SOAP?
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TITLE: Written on the Body: Biometrics and Identity (Chapter 5.6)
QUOTATION: Biometrics is often described as `the next big thing in information technology'.
Rather than IT rendering the body irrelevant to identity – a mistaken idea to begin with
– the coupling of biometrics with IT unequivocally puts the body center stage.
LEARNING EXPECTATIONS:
REACTION:
Public institution concerned with the distribution of welfare and child benefits,
immigration and applications for political asylum, or the issue of passports and car
licenses and increasingly looking towards biometrics in order to improve what are
perceived as system threatening levels of fraud. Also, employers interested in keeping
track of the whereabouts and activities of their employees, hospitals and insurance
companies in the process of introducing electronic patient records are among the many
interested parties.
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question to be raised about biometrics is how bodies will become related to identity,
and what the normative and political ramifications of this coupling will be. Unlike the
body rendered knowable in the biomedical sciences, biometrics generates a readable
body: it transforms the body's surfaces and characteristics into digital codes and ciphers
to be read by a machine.
LESSONS LEARNED:
- Biometrics requires a theory of identity that, unlike much of the available literature,
takes the body and the embodied nature of subjectivity fully into account.
- We need to investigate what kind of body is, by researching the practices and
informational configurations of which the readable biometric body becomes part.
- Only the former maybe at stake in biometrics, while the latter is taken to refer to
something both authors perceive as true identity.
- The biometrics is not just about as narrow an identity check as some authors maintain.
INTEGRATIVE QUESTIONS:
1. What is Biometrics?
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TITLE: Ethical Considerations for the Information Professions (Chapter 6.1)
QUOTATION: Morality could exist without ethics (if no one investigated how morality is
done) but there cannot be ethics without morality (we cannot study morality unless
there is morality)…. Morality is like eating; it is an inevitable part of everyone’s life.
LEARNING EXPECTATIONS:
REACTION:
The field of information ethics is relatively new. The issues specific to information
ethics, however, have certainly been with us for a longer time, yet continue to gain
prominence and complexity in public discourse with the popularization of information
and computer technologies. Information ethics bridges many disciplines, including
library and information science, computer science, archival science, records
management, informatics, educational media technologies, and more.
Information ethics, much like the technologies that continue to contribute to its
complexity, will thrive and present new challenges to all of us. Ethics will continue to be
put through new tests as technologies race ahead of many social and cultural
conventions and norms.
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In closing, information ethics must be understood as impacting each and every
member of the “information society.” As such, each member must accept certain
responsibilities and act accordingly. Information ethics, as with information literacy,
must become integral to formal and informal education. The Kantian categorical
imperative reveals promise, yet once again, as a guiding principle for the information
age and as a critical tenet of information ethics.
LESSONS LEARNED:
- Information ethics must be understood as impacting each and every member of the
“information society.”
- The Kantian categorical imperative reveals promise, yet once again, as a guiding
principle for the information age and as a critical tenet of information ethics
INTEGRATIVE QUESTIONS:
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TITLE: Software Engineering Code of Ethics: Approved! (Chapter 6.2)
QUOTATION: In all these judgments concern for the health, safety and welfare of the public
is primary; that is, the ‘public interest’ is central to this code.
LEARNING EXPECTATIONS:
- I want to know how the Software Engineering Code has been approved.
REACTION:
Software Engineering now has its own code of ethics. The code has been adopted by
both the ACM and the IEEE-Computer Society, having gone through an extensive review
process that culminated in the official unanimous approval by the leadership of both
professional organizations. The preamble to the code was significantly revised. It
includes specific ethical standards to help professional make ethical decisions.
The code emphasizes the professional’s obligations to the public at large. “In all
these judgments concern for the health, safety and welfare of the public is primary; that
is, the ‘public interest’ is central to this code.”
The code contains a clause (8.07) against using prejudices or bias in any decision
making. The code includes specific language about the importance of ethical behavior
during the maintenance phase of software development.
The code contains eight principles related to the behavior of and decisions made by
professional software engineers, including practitioners, educators, managers,
supervisors, and policy makers, as well as trainees and students of the profession.
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1. PUBLIC software engineers shall act consistently with the public interest.
2. CLIENT AND EMPLOYER software engineers shall act in a manner that is in the
best interests of their client and employer, consistent with the public interest.
3. PRODUCT software engineers shall ensure that their products and related
modifications meet the highest professional standards possible.
LESSONS LEARNED:
- The dynamic and demanding context of software engineering requires a code that is
adaptable and relevant to new situations as the Code provides support for software
engineers and managers of software engineers who need to take positive action.
INTEGRATIVE QUESTIONS:
1. What are the eight principles that software engineer shall adhere.
5. Does it have a great importance of the Code in the eight principles of a software
engineer?
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TITLE: No, PAPA: Why Incomplete Codes of Ethics are Worse than None at All (Chapter 6.3)
QUOTATION: The information age puts new emphasis on some parts of many older moral
questions. The moral issues surrounding the development of weaponry are thus a few
of the very many possible examples of how an older moral question can take on a new
light as technology changes.
LEARNING EXPECTATIONS:
- I want to know the reason why incomplete codes of ethics are worse than none at
all.
REACTION:
Privacy and accuracy of computer data and information are issues essentially
unrelated to the environmental impacts of computing. Property issues in computing will
have two tangential relationships to the environment: The cost of software that
respects legal intellectual property rights, being a significant portion of the cost of
computing, tends to inhibit the increasing use of computers. But the possibility of a
return on development costs induces software developers to produce software that
requires computers with ever greater computing power, causing users to upgrade
hardware far more frequently than wear-and-tear would require.
Most of the moral issues related to teleworking are not, however privacy or access
issues. Those issues that are not privacy or access issues are not accuracy issues either,
thought: The distance between the worker and the conventional workplace does not
introduce significant additional accuracy issues. The privacy issue that most clearly
accompanies telework is the possible automated collection of data on the employee by
the employer.
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Any moral code (whether in computing or elsewhere) can be turned to by someone
feeling pressures to find a relatively easy ‘way out’ of a morally tricky situation. Thus any
moral code could be looked at in the hope that it will provide an excuse for potential
immoral acts. Clearly, the more obviously relevant, and the more easily a code come to
hand, the more likely it is that it will be turned to. Further, as we shall see, some ethical
codes are more open to such abuse than others are. Nonetheless, moral codes in all
fields and sub-fields could be abused in this way if they leave themselves open to it.
Codes should make it clear what their area of competence is (thus a code of
computer ethics may make it clear that it will not cover questions of how income
generated by using computers should be distributed) but in doing so, it must also make
it clear that moral issues outside its area of competence are still moral issues, and ones
that may be of greater importance than any covered in the code.
Those who write moral codes (or things that could be mistaken for them) need to be
aware of the possibility that they may be abused. Codes that address some issues but
not others are very common, and particularly open to such abuse on issues at the edge
of their competence. Code should make it clear what their area of competence is. More
importantly, though, authors of code should always make it clear that their code is no
substitute for careful moral consideration, and especially in areas or on questions where
there is no clear guidance in the code.
LESSONS LEARNED:
INTEGRATIVE QUESTIONS:
1. What does Privacy, Accuracy, Property and Accessibility related in the field of ICT?
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TITLE: Subsumption Ethics (Chapter 6.4)
QUOTATION: Act in such a way that it is possible for one to will that the maxim of one’s action
should become a universal law.
LEARNING EXPECTATIONS:
REACTION:
The difference between computers and simple machine is the extent to which computer
systems subsume design and development decisions over which users have little or no
control. Subsumption ethics is the process by which decisions become incorporated into the
operation of information technology (IT) systems, and subsequently forgotten.
Design and implementation decisions dictate the structure and operation of systems.
Systems ultimately operate according to many such decisions. The decisions become
codified into programming code and information content. I call segments of this code and
content “subsumed objects” (SOs). Design decisions often have ethical components,
whether or not the designer is explicitly aware of them.
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C. Subsumed objects have a high “invisibility factor.”
D. Subsumptive complexity increases over time.
Subsumption ethics implies a need for continuous ethical analysis during systems design
and development. The first is “the Golden Rule” found in the bible, in Kant’s categorical
imperative, and many other world traditions. The second “the Golden Mean” as explicated
by Aristotle. The Third is “action without desire or aversion” and comes from the philosophy
of the east, both Buddhist and Hindu. The fourth principle is “ethical complexity.”
The Golden Rule – Application of the golden rule means reviewing each stakeholder’s
needs as decisions are made. While this process is time-consuming, the result is more
successful projects, since the completed systems have the respect of a broad constituency.
The Golden Mean – Virtuous decisions require informed balance between extremes.
The team must examine both the technical and ethical impacts of their decisions. Within
this framework, ethical impacts become clear.
Complexity – Systems are complex, both in their operation and in their relationship to
organizations. The overall complexity of a project can be determined by systematically
applying SoDIS to the WBS and evaluating each task as a function of complexity, experience
and knowledge. Areas of inexperience or insufficient knowledge should be addressed
quickly and thoroughly. This process should be iterative as the project matures.
LESSONS LEARNED:
- For the subsumption ethics and describes the four axioms of subsumption ethics,
four ethical frameworks with roots of philosophical traditions are introduced,
including the golden rule: the golden mean, nishaka karma and complexity
INTEGRATIVE QUESTIONS:
1. What is the process by which decisions become incorporated into the operation of
Information Technology?
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2. What is Information Technology?
3. What are the four ethical principles that have roots in antiquity
• Golden rule
• Golden mean
• Ethical complexity
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TITLE: Ethical Issues in Business Computing (Chapter 6.5)
QUOTATION: Professionalism is a risk management strategy and in this subject the emphasis is
on applying professionalism in the business context
LEARNING EXPECTATIONS:
- I want to learn the underlying concepts in ethical issues with regard to business
computing.
REACTION:
Business, Legal and Ethical Issues is the first of the core subjects undertaken by Computer
Professional Education Program (CPeP) students in their ongoing professional development.
Professionalism is a risk management strategy and in this subject the emphasis is on applying
professionalism in the business context.
An individual manager, focused on use of a computer for the task in hand, may
understandably lack specialist awareness of wider ethical issues Because of our new hi-tech
technology; computer nowadays was very useful in many ways. It can also used in business. That
is why there are so many businessmen that have the newest model of computer to use for their
businesses.
The PC’s must allow for some generalization, and for the business computing even physically
identical computers become quite different in appearance and use when dissimilar applications
are employed.
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LESSONS LEARNED:
- All companies of whatever size should consider their use of computer systems.
- I learned that the business cannot stand without IT as well as the IT cannot stand
without the business.
- I learned that that there is no one type of computer or computer system that must
be used by business people
INTEGRATIVE QUESTIONS:
5. What is the level where there will be at least one team of computer specialist?
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TITLE: The Practitioner from Within: Revisiting the Virtues (Chapter 6.6)
LEARNING EXPECTATIONS:
- I want to know the goal of this section in line with cyber ethics.
REACTION:
In this chapter the author discusses that traditionally the study of computer ethics
involves taking students who are not philosophically trained, exposing them to action-
guiding theories, presenting them with the codes of ethics of several companies and
professional organizations and asking them to make ethical decisions in scenario-based
cases. It is difficult to get from youth up a right training for virtue if one has not been
brought up under right laws; for to live temperately and hardily is not pleasant to most
people especially when they are young. For this reason their nurture and occupation should
be fixing by law. This approach is deliberately action-based and focuses on doing. "
The traditional question asked to students. While this pedagogical methodology forces
them to examine situations and argue from a particular point of view, it does little to
influence their character and personality. They see the utilitarian or deontologist as
someone other than themselves.
Here seems to be very little internalization of these action-based theories. Virtue Ethics
offers character-forming theory that has been more successful with my students than the
action-based theories of computer ethics texts. Why? Virtue Ethics is directed toward
character development.
Virtue ethics offers character-forming theory that has been more successful with the
students than the action guiding theories of computer ethics. One problem of novices in the
field of ethics is for the reductionist in the moral theory underlying the compute ethics, and
for the one whose vision of who are is too important to jettison. Personal intentions and
dispositions guide actions, and people over it are being evaluated with this kind of virtues.
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LESSONS LEARNED:
- In order to encompass with the reality that would deal with the examining the
complex and novel one, and for the issues of computer technology, and for the one
that for life and happiness for humans and includes other core.
INTEGRATIVE QUESTIONS:
2. How the practitioner from within does revisited the virtues from within?
5. Does Ethics and Morality take hand-in-hand in the field of the computer-mediated
action?
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Contemporary Moral Problems
Egoism and Moral Scepticism
Utilitarianism
A Theory of Justice
A Theory of Justice
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TITLE: Contemporary Moral Problems: Egoism and Moral Scepticism (Chapter 1)
LEARNING EXPECTATIONS:
REVIEW:
In this section I become familiar to the legend of Gyges and become interested on
what happened. Based on the book, Contemporary Moral Problems, discussed by
Rachels, in the legend of Gyges, it states that there is a shepherd wherein he found a
magic ring in a fissure opened through an earthquake. The rings when wear will give you
invisibility power and enable anyone who wear it go anywhere and do anything
undetected by anyone. Gyges, shepherd who found out the ring, used the power to
enter the Royal Palace where he seduced the Queen, murdered the King and seized the
throne.
I just become confused why there are people who tried to do things like these. I
think it is immoral in my personal view because to gain the power and throne he need
to do bad things which is really a neglected behavior in my personal assumptions
because I believe things can become yours in a good way.
I cannot blame that shepherd, assuming the present King is really an abusive King,
because in this instance he thinks it can be a revenge and thinks that it is still good to
have the power because he can relate the state of other shepherd so he have this
notion in mind that it is really better that he will rule the land because he knows what
the people lower social level experiences in the power of other.
In this section there are many points that Rachels discussed such as the difference
of ethical egoism and psychological egoism, the argument with the psychological
egoism, the three common place of confusion in the psychological egoism and the
argument that ethical egoism is inconsistent.
I really appreciate how Rachels discuss each point to understand how really people
can understand the egoism and how can people will give their reaction on their views if
it is either moral or immoral.
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- Egoism exists in the earlier era.
INTEGRATIVE QUESTIONS:
1. Who is Gyges?
REVIEW QUESTIONS:
1. Explain the legend of Gyges. What questions about morality are raised by the story?
In the legend of Gyges, it states that there is a shepherd where in he found a magic
ring in a fissure opened through an earthquake. The ring when wear will give you
invisibility power and enable anyone who wear it go anywhere and do anything
undetected by anyone. Gyges, shepherd who found out the ring, used the power to
enter the Royal Palace where he seduced the Queen, murdered the King and seized the
throne.
The questions raised about morality in the story are to determine the two different
rings given to a man of virtue and given to a rogue. Why shouldn’t a man simply do what
he pleases, or what he think is best for himself? What reason is there for him to
continue being moral when it is clearly not to his own advantage to do so?
Psychological egoism is the view that all men are selfish in everything that they do,
that is, that the only motive from which anyone ever acts is self-interest. Ethical egoism
is a normative view about how men ought to act.
3. Rachels discusses two arguments for psychological egoism. What are these arguments,
and how does he reply to them?
The first argument about psychological egoism is “If we describe one person’s action
as selfish, and another person’s action, we are overlooking the crucial fact that in both
cases, assuming that the action is done voluntarily, the agent is merely doing what he
most wants to do.”
4. What three commonplace confusions does Rachels detect in the thesis of the
psychological egoism?
5. State the argument for saying that ethical egoism is inconsistent. Why doesn’t Rachels
accept this argument?
There is no inconsistency because the ethical egoism does not apply to all scenarios.
There can be sometimes a conflict with what you desire and the welfare of other
people, but I can say that it varies on the people involved in the scenario. Sometimes,
we based our decision regarding the decision of people close to the circle of ourselves.
In this way, we are not selfish because we are still considering other people.
6. According to Rachels, why shouldn’t we hurt others, and why should we help others?
How can the egoist reply?
If he honestly doesn’t care whether they are helped or hurt by his actions then we
have reached those limits. If we want to persuade him to act decently toward his fellow
humans, we will have to make our appeal to such other attitudes as he does possess, by
threats, bribes, or other cajolery.
DISCUSSION QUESTIONS:
1. Has Rachels answered the question raised by Glaucon, namely, “Why be moral?” If no,
what exactly is his answer?
2. Are genuine egoists rare, as Rachels claims? Is it a fact that most people care about
others, even people they don’t know?
Based on what I have read, Rachel claims those genuine egoists are rare because
based on my observation in the society there are still people who are resulting to
helping each other even people they do not know. It is a fact that most people care
about others even people they don’t know because even a people who are emotionally
depressed, there will be instance that his heart will soften and care about other people.
No doubt of it because I mostly observed it in the culture of the country.
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3. Suppose we define ethical altruism as the view that one should always act for the
benefit of others and never in one’s own self-interest. Is such a view immoral or not?
I think in this scenario, it still varies because it depends on how a person considers
this scenario either an immoral or moral. I believe that we have different basis of
morality and immorality because of our free will.
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TITLE: Contemporary Moral Problems: Religion, Morality, and Conscience (Chapter 2)
LEARNING EXPECTATIONS:
- I want to distinguish the reason why morality and religion is in the notion that religion is
morality.
REVIEW:
Religion and Morality really differs. According to this section, written by John
Arthur, religion is not always connected to morality. As Arthur defines morality is the
tendency people evaluate or criticize the behavior of others, or to feel remorse about
their own behavior. It involves our attitudes toward various forms of behavior (lying and
killing, for example), typically expressed using the notion of rules, rights, and
obligations. However, religion involves prayer, worship, beliefs about the supernatural,
institutional forms, and authoritative texts.
Another good topic discussed in this section is the divine command theory.
According to Mortimer, the divine command theory means that God has the same sort
of relation to moral law as the legislature has to statutes it enacts: without God’s
commands there would be no moral rules, just as without a legislature there would be
no statutes. Also that only by assuming God sits at the foundation of morality can we
explain the objective difference between right and wrong.
This section is entirely about religion, morality and conscience. I just realize that
moral education is not only possible but essential. Now I know why this class is essential
to our curriculum not only to be oriented to the different issues in the society but also
to determine the right and wrong to scenarios in the society.
- Religion and morality have differences but still similarities still exist.
- Morality is social.
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- Divine command theory is essential to understand especially if you do not have any
religion to believe in.
INTEGRATIVE QUESTIONS:
5. What is morality?
REVIEW QUESTIONS:
Moral motivations can stand without the religion because the religious motives are
far from the only ones people have. In order to make a decision to do the right thing is
made for a variety of reasons. Also, we were raised to be a decent person, and that’s
what we are. Behaving fairly and treating others well is more important than whatever
we might gain in our bad deeds.
4. What is the divine command theory? Why does Arthur reject this theory?
According to Mortimer, the divine command theory means that God has the same
sort of relation to moral law as the legislature has to statutes it enacts: without God’s
commands there would be no moral rules, just as without a legislature there would be
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no statutes. Also that only by assuming God sits at the foundation of morality can we
explain the objective difference between right and wrong.
Arthur says “I think, in fact, theists should reject the divine command theory. One
reason is what it implies. To adopt the divine command theory therefore commits its
advocate to the seemingly absurd position that even the greatest atrocities might be not
only acceptable but morally required if God were to command them.
Morality and religion is connected through the historical influence of religions have
had on the development of morality as well as on politics and law.
6. Dewey says that morality is social. What does this mean, according to Arthur?
DISCUSSION QUESTIONS:
1. Has Arthur refuted the divine command theory? If not, how can it be defined?
Arthur refuted the divine command theory in the sense that he rejects this believe
and encourage other people to not believe on it. He tries to state the different
weaknesses of the divine command theory rather than the advantage of it. He focuses
on the side of the negative aspect of the divine command theory.
2. If morality is social, as Dewey says, then how can we have any obligation to
nonhuman animals? (Arthur mentions this problem and some possible solution to it
in footnote 6.)
3. What does Dewey mean by moral education? Does a college ethic class count as moral
education?
Moral education is both actual and imagined in which morality cannot exist without
the broader, social perspective introduced by others, and this social nature ties it.
Private moral reflection taking place independently of the social world would be no
moral reflection at all; and moral education is not only possible, but essential.
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TITLE: Contemporary Moral Problems: Master- and Slave-Morality (Chapter 3)
LEARNING EXPECTATIONS:
- I want to learn the difference between master morality and slave morality.
REVIEW:
In this chapter, it discusses that Nietzsche argues that a healthy society should allow
superior individuals to exercise their “will to power”, their drive toward domination and
exploitation of the inferior. The superior person follows a “master-morality” that
emphasizes power, strength, egoism, and freedom, as distinguished from a “slave-
morality” that calls for weakness, submission, sympathy, and love.
To refrain mutually from injury, from violence, from exploitation, and put one’s will
on a par with that of others: this may result in a certain rough sense in good conduct
among individuals when the necessary conditions are given.
I think people will really think differently because it somehow differs on how they
attack cases like these. I am not amazed that there are people who accept and reject
those writing of Nietzsche. In my own opinion, I think it is justifiable because there are
factors why those writing of Nietzsche have been formulated.
A creator of values has heroic individualism that makes a person an over man. He
will be the creator of master morality and the likes. He honors whatever he recognizes
in himself; such morality is self-glorification.
- I have learned that the creator of values is the creator of master morality.
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- I can explain the master-morality and slave-morality.
INTEGRATIVE QUESTIONS:
2. What is slave-morality?
3. What is master-morality?
REVIEW QUESTIONS:
Nietzsche argues that a healthy society should allow superior individuals to exercise
their “will to power”, their drive toward domination and exploitation of the inferior. The
superior person follows a “master-morality” that emphasizes power, strength, egoism,
and freedom, as distinguished from a “slave-morality” that calls for weakness,
submission, sympathy, and love.
To refrain mutually from injury, from violence, from exploitation, and put one’s will
on a par with that of others: this may result in a certain rough sense in good conduct
among individuals when the necessary conditions are given.
DISCUSSION QUESTIONS:
1. Some people view Nietzsche's writings as harmful and even dangerous. For example,
some have charged Nietzsche with inspiring Nazism. Are these charges justified or
not? Why or why not?
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I think people will really think differently because it somehow differs on how they
attack cases like these. I am not amazed that there are people who accept and reject
those writing of Nietzsche. In my own opinion, I think it is justifiable because there are
factors why those writing of Nietzsche have been formulated.
A creator of values has heroic individualism that makes a person an over man. He
will be the creator of master morality and the likes.
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TITLE: Contemporary Moral Problems: Trying Out One’s New Sword (Chapter 4)
QUOTATION: "The power of judgment is not a luxury, not perverse indulgence of the self
righteous."
LEARNING EXPECTATIONS:
- I want to further deepen knowledge on what are the things that I need to know in
different aspect of moral issues.
REACTION:
Moral isolationism is the view of anthropologists and others that we cannot criticize
cultures that we do not understand. It is essentially a doctrine of immoralism because it
forbids any moral reasoning. It falsely assumes that cultures are separate and unmixed,
whereas most cultures are in fact formed out of many influences.
Midgler ask the question “Does the isolating barrier work both ways? Are people in
other cultures equally unable to criticize us?” about the tsujigiri.
Moral isolationism forbids us to form any opinions on these matters. Its ground for
doing so is that we don’t understand them.
Ideals like discipline and devotion will not move anybody unless he himself accepts
them. If I have seen a person on the way she/he acts and moves then I can simply
criticize what is his/her culture because I think the things you do describes where you
came from.
Moral isolationism would lay down a general ban on moral reasoning. Immoralists
like Nietzsche are actually just a rather specialized sect of moralists. They can no more
afford to put moralizing out of business than smugglers can to abolish customs
regulations. The power of moral judgment is not a luxury, not a perverse indulgence of
the self-righteous. It is a necessity.
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WHAT I HAVE LEARNED:
INTEGRATIVE QUESTIONS:
3. What is judgment?
REVIEW QUESTIONS:
Moral isolationism is the view of anthropologists and others that we cannot criticize
cultures that we do not understand. It is essentially a doctrine of immoralism because it
forbids any moral reasoning. It falsely assumes that cultures are separate and unmixed,
whereas most cultures are in fact formed out of many influences.
2. Explain the Japanese custom of tsujigiri. What question does Midgley ask about this
custom?
Midgler ask the question “Does the isolating barrier work both ways? Are people in
other cultures equally unable to criticize us?” about the tsujigiri.
Moral isolationism forbids us to form any opinions on these matters. Its ground for
doing so is that we don’t understand them.
Ideals like discipline and devotion will not move anybody unless he himself accepts
them. If I have seen a person on the way she/he acts and moves then I can simply
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criticize what is his/her culture because I think the things you do describes where you
came from.
DISCUSSION QUESTIONS:
1. Midgley says that Nietzsche is an immoralist. Is that an accurate and fair assessment
of Nietzsche? Why or why not?
Moral isolationism would lay down a general ban on moral reasoning. Immoralists
like Nietzsche are actually just a rather specialized sect of moralists. They can no more
afford to put moralizing out of business than smugglers can to abolish customs
regulations. The power of moral judgment is not a luxury, not a perverse indulgence of
the self-righteous. It is a necessity.
2. Do you agree with Midgley’s claim that the idea of separate and unmixed cultures is
unreal? Explain your answer.
I disagree with what Midgley’s claim with the idea of separate and unmixed culture
is unreal. In our country, there are people who are considered mixed and unmixed
which are really an essential way to represent their selves, where they belong.
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TITLE: Contemporary Moral Problems: Utilitarianism (Chapter 5)
LEARNING EXPECTATIONS:
- I want to further deepen knowledge on what are the things that I need to know in
different aspect of moral issues.
REACTION:
Principle of utility is to recognize the fact, that some kinds of pleasure are more
desirable and more valuable than others. It would be absurd that while, in estimating all
other things, quality is considered as well as quantity, the estimation of pleasures
should be supposed to depend on quantity alone. Proposes that all punishment involves
pain and is therefore evil; it ought only to be used so far as it promises to exclude some
greatest evil.
The charged could not be gainsaid, but would then no longer imputation; for if the
sources of pleasure were precisely the same to human beings and to swine, the rule of
life which is good enough for the one would be good enough for the other. The
comparison of the Epicurean life to that of beast is felt a degrading, precisely because a
beast pleasures do not satisfy a human beings conceptions of happiness.
Happiness is not an obstacle idea, but a concrete whole; and these are some of its
parts. And the utilitarian standard sanctions and approves their being so. Life would be
poor thing, very ill provided with source of happiness, if there were not this provision of
nature, by which things are originally indifferent, but conductive to, or otherwise
associated with the satisfaction of our primitive desire, becomes in themselves sources
of pleasures both in a permanency in the space of human existence that they are
capable of covering and even in intensity.
Mill defines "happiness" to be both intellectual and sensual pleasure. He argues that
we have a sense of dignity that makes us prefer intellectual pleasures to sensual ones.
He adds that the principle of utility involves assessing an action's consequences, and not
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the motives or character traits of the agent. Mill argues that the principle of utility
should be seen as a tool for generating secondary moral principles, which promote
general happiness. Thus most of our actions will be judged according to these secondary
principles. He feels that we should appeal directly to the principle of utility itself only
when faced with a moral dilemma between two secondary principles.
Mill's proof for the principle of utility notes that no fundamental principle is capable
of a direct proof. Instead, the only way to prove that general happiness is desirable is to
show man's desire for it. His proof is as follows: If X is the only thing desired, then X is
the only thing that ought to be desired. Thus if general happiness is the only thing
desired, therefore general happiness is the only thing that ought to be desired. Mill
recognizes the controversy of this and therefore anticipates criticisms.
INTEGRATIVE QUESTIONS:
2. What is Happiness?
5. What is utilitarianism?
REVIEW QUESTIONS:
1. State and explain the Principle of Utility. Show how it could be used to justify actions
that are conventionally viewed as wrong, such as lying and stealing.
Principle of utility is to recognize the fact, that some kinds of pleasure are more
desirable and more valuable than others. It would be absurd that while, in estimating all
other things, quality is considered as well as quantity, the estimation of pleasures
should be supposed to depend on quantity alone. Proposes that all punishment involves
pain and is therefore evil; it ought only to be used so far as it promises to exclude some
greatest evil.
2. How does Mill reply to the objection that Epicureanism is a doctrine worthy only of
swine?
The charged could not be gainsaid, but would then no longer imputation; for if the
sources of pleasure were precisely the same to human beings and to swine, the rule of
life which is good enough for the one would be good enough for the other. The
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comparison of the Epicurean life to that of beast is felt a degrading, precisely because a
beast pleasures do not satisfy a human beings conceptions of happiness.
Happiness is not an obstacle idea, but a concrete whole; and these are some of its
parts. And the utilitarian standard sanctions and approves their being so. Life would be
poor thing, very ill provided with source of happiness, if there were not this provision of
nature, by which things are originally indifferent, but conductive to, or otherwise
associated with the satisfaction of our primitive desire, becomes in themselves sources
of pleasures both in a permanency in the space of human existence that they are
capable of covering and even in intensity.
Mill defines "happiness" to be both intellectual and sensual pleasure. He argues that
we have a sense of dignity that makes us prefer intellectual pleasures to sensual ones.
He adds that the principle of utility involves assessing an action's consequences, and not
the motives or character traits of the agent. Mill argues that the principle of utility
should be seen as a tool for generating secondary moral principles, which promote
general happiness. Thus most of our actions will be judged according to these secondary
principles. He feels that we should appeal directly to the principle of utility itself only
when faced with a moral dilemma between two secondary principles.
Mill's proof for the principle of utility notes that no fundamental principle is capable
of a direct proof. Instead, the only way to prove that general happiness is desirable is to
show man's desire for it. His proof is as follows: If X is the only thing desired, then X is
the only thing that ought to be desired. Thus if general happiness is the only thing
desired, therefore general happiness is the only thing that ought to be desired. Mill
recognizes the controversiality of this and therefore anticipates criticisms. A critic might
argue that besides happiness, there are other things, such as virtue, which we desire.
Responding to this, Mill says that everything we desire becomes part of happiness. Thus,
happiness becomes a complex phenomenon composed of many parts, such as virtue,
love of money, power, and fame.
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DISCUSSION QUESTIONS:
I dearly believe in this quote “Success is not the key to happiness. Happiness is the
key to success. If you love what you are doing, you will be successful.” I think it is really
happiness that matters in any aspect. It is the aspect because it can encompass all the
things in the world and nothing is important and great with happiness.
2. Does Mill convince you that the higher pleasures are better than the lower ones? What
about the person of experience who prefers the lower?
“He proffers a distinction (one not found in Bentham) between higher and lower
pleasures, with higher pleasures including mental, aesthetic, and moral pleasures. When
we are evaluating whether or not an action is good by evaluating the happiness that we
can expect to be produced by it, he argues that higher pleasures should be taken to be
in kind (rather than by degree) preferable to lower pleasures. This has led scholars to
wonder whether Mill’s utilitarianism differs significantly from Bentham’s and whether
Mill’s distinction between higher and lower pleasures creates problems for our ability to
know what will maximize aggregate happiness.”
3. Mill says "In the golden rule of Jesus of Nazareth, we read the complete spirit of ethics
of utility." True or not?
I do think so that what Mill says is true because the golden rule of Jesus of Nazareth
to achieve that a man must act in whatever way every other man should act when in that
situation.
4. Many commentators have thought that Mill's proof of the principle of utility is
defective. Agree?
I think so because he did not consider the individuality of a person. Mill disregarded
the aspects that utility is not to be applied as a whole.
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TITLE: Contemporary Moral Problems: The Debate over Utilitarianism (Chapter 6)
QUOTATION: "The utilitarian doctrine is that happiness is desirable and the only thing desirable,
as an end; all other things desirable as means to that end."
LEARNING EXPECTATIONS:
REVIEW:
The theory continues to be widely accepted, even tough it has been challenged by a
number of apparently devastating arguments. These anti-utilitarianism arguments are
so numerous, and so persuasive, that many have concluded the theory must be
abandoned. Despite the arguments, a great many thinkers refuse to let the theory go.
The anti-utilitarianism arguments show only that the classical theory needs to be
modified.
The classic utilitarian reply is one thing, and one thing only, namely happiness. The
utilitarian doctrine is that happiness is desirable, as an end; all other things being
desirable as means to that end. The idea that happiness is the one ultimate good is
known as Hedonism. Hedonism is a perennially popular theory that goes back at least as
far as the ancient Greeks.
This section states that there are three line of defense offered in reply to arguments
over utilitarianism by Rachels. The first line of defense is to point out that the examples
used in the anti-utilitarian arguments are unrealistic and do not describe situations that
come up in the real world. The second line of defense admits all this and proposes to
save Utilitarianism by giving it new formulation. In revising a theory to meet criticism,
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the trick is to identify precisely the feature of the theory that is causing the trouble and
to change that, leaving the rest of the theory undisturbed as much as possible.
- I have examined the importance of happiness and different points about it.
INTEGRATIVE QUESTIONS:
3. What is happiness?
4. What is Hedonism?
REVIEW QUESTIONS:
The classic utilitarian reply is one thing, and one thing only, namely happiness. The
utilitarian doctrine is that happiness is desirable, as an end; all other things being
desirable as means to that end. The idea that happiness is the one ultimate good is
known as Hedonism. Hedonism is a perennially popular theory that goes back at least as
far as the ancient Greeks.
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3. What are the objections about justice, rights, and promises?
Rights- utilitarianism says that actions are defensible if the produce a favorable
happiness over unhappiness. It is at least possible that more happiness than
unhappiness was caused. In that case the utilitarian conclusions apparently would be
that their actions are morally all right.
Promises- there are important general lesson to be learned from this argument.
Why is utilitarianism vulnerable to this sort of criticism? It is because the only kinds of
considerations that the theory holds relevant to determine the rightness of actions are
considerations having to do with their future.
4. Distinguish between rule- and act- utilitarianism. How does rule-utilitarianism reply to
the objections?
Act utilitarianism is a utilitarian theory of ethics which states that the right action is
the one which produces the greatest amount of happiness or pleasure for the greatest
number of beings. Act utilitarianism is opposed to rule utilitarianism, which states that
the morally right action is the one that is in accordance with a moral rule whose general
observance would create the most happiness.
DISCUSSION QUESTIONS:
1. Smart’s defense of utilitarianism is to reject common moral beliefs when they conflict
with utilitarianism. Is this acceptable to you or not? Explain your answer.
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2. A utilitarian is supposed to give moral consideration to all concerned. Who must be
considered? What about nonhuman animals? How about lakes and streams?
In this issue I think all beings created and presented by God must be considered to
be given moral consideration to all concerned.
3. Rachels claims that merit should be given moral consideration independent of utility.
Do you agree?
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TITLE: Contemporary Moral Problems: The Categorical Imperative (Chapter 7)
QUOTATION: “Act only on that maxim through which you can at the same time will that is
should become a universal law”
LEARNING EXPECTATIONS:
REVIEW:
In this section, Kant stated that it is impossible to conceive anything at all in the
world or even out if it, which can be taken as good without qualification, except
goodwill. Without the principles of good things it may become exceedingly bad; and the
very coolness of scoundrel makes them not merely more dangerous but also more
immediately more abominable in our eyes than we should have taken them to be
without.
According to Kant, human beings occupy a special place in creation, and morality can
be summed up in one ultimate commandment of reason, or imperative, from which all
duties and obligations derive. He defined an imperative as any proposition that declares
a certain action (or inaction) to be necessary. A hypothetical imperative compels action
in a given circumstance: if I wish to quench my thirst, I must drink something. A
categorical imperative, on the other hand, denotes an absolute, unconditional
requirement that asserts its authority in all circumstances, both required and justified as
an end in itself.
Kant concludes that a moral proposition that is true must be one that is not tied to
any particular conditions, including the identity of the person making the moral
deliberation. A moral maxim must have universality which is to say that it must be
disconnected from the particular physical details surrounding the proposition, and could
be applied to any rational being. This leads to the first formulation of the categorical
imperative:
• "Act only according to that maxim whereby you can at the same time will that it
should become a universal law."
Kant divides the duties imposed by this formulation into two subsets: perfect duty
and imperfect duty.
The free will is the source of all rational action. But to treat it as a subjective end is
to deny the possibility of freedom in general. Because the autonomous will is the one
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and only source of moral action, it would contradict the first formulation to claim that a
person is merely a means to some other end, rather than always an end in his or her
self.
On this basis, Kant derives second formulation of the categorical imperative from
the first.
• "Act in such a way that you treat humanity, whether in your own person or in
the person of any other, always at the same time as an end and never merely as a
means to an end."
The second formulation also leads to the imperfect duty to further the ends of
ourselves and others. If any person desires perfection in himself or others, it would be
his moral duty to seek that end for all people equally, so long as that end does not
contradict perfect duty.
INTEGRATIVE QUESTIONS:
REVIEW QUESTIONS:
Kant stated that it is impossible to conceive anything at all in the world or even out
if it, which can be taken as good without qualification, except goodwill. Without the
principles of good things it may become exceedingly bad; and the very coolness of
scoundrel makes them not merely more dangerous but also more immediately more
abominable in our eyes than we should have taken them to be without.
According to Kant, human beings occupy a special place in creation, and morality can
be summed up in one ultimate commandment of reason, or imperative, from which all
duties and obligations derive. He defined an imperative as any proposition that declares
a certain action (or inaction) to be necessary. A hypothetical imperative compels action
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in a given circumstance: if I wish to quench my thirst, I must drink something. A
categorical imperative, on the other hand, denotes an absolute, unconditional
requirement that asserts its authority in all circumstances, both required and justified as
an end in itself.
3. State the first formulation of the categorical imperative (using the notion of a
universal law), and explain how Kant uses this rule to derive some specific duties
toward self and others.
Kant concludes that a moral proposition that is true must be one that is not tied to
any particular conditions, including the identity of the person making the moral
deliberation. A moral maxim must have universality which is to say that it must be
disconnected from the particular physical details surrounding the proposition, and could
be applied to any rational being. This leads to the first formulation of the categorical
imperative:
• "Act only according to that maxim whereby you can at the same time will that it
should become a universal law."
Kant divides the duties imposed by this formulation into two subsets: perfect duty
and imperfect duty.
4. State the second version of the categorical imperative (using the language of means
and end) and explain it.
The free will is the source of all rational action. But to treat it as a subjective end is
to deny the possibility of freedom in general. Because the autonomous will is the one
and only source of moral action, it would contradict the first formulation to claim that a
person is merely a means to some other end, rather than always an end in his or her
self.
On this basis, Kant derives second formulation of the categorical imperative from
the first.
• "Act in such a way that you treat humanity, whether in your own person or in
the person of any other, always at the same time as an end and never merely as a
means to an end."
The second formulation also leads to the imperfect duty to further the ends of
ourselves and others. If any person desires perfection in himself or others, it would be
his moral duty to seek that end for all people equally, so long as that end does not
contradict perfect duty.
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DISCUSSION QUESTIONS:
1. Are the two versions of the categorical imperative just different expressions of one
basic rule, or are they two different rules? Defend your view.
I think it is one basic rule because in the categorical imperative it is just concerning
about the content in which it is not really certain difference in rules. If you will accept a
case whether you know or not you will accept it because in any sense you still need to
do it in which you will have same approach still you will be alleged.
2. Kant claims that an action that is not done from the motive of duty has no moral
truth. Do you agree or not?
I agree to it because in any sense you did not do a task because you are considering
it as a job.
3. Some commentators think that the categorical imperative can be used to justify
nonmoral or immoral actions. Is this a good criticism?
I do not think it can be considered as a good criticism because not at once you can
say what that object thinks of it. You cannot criticize someone easily because you know
what it contains. I think there are still different factors to consider before criticizing
issues.
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TITLE: Contemporary Moral Problems: Happiness and Virtue (Chapter 8)
QUOTATION: “All humans beings, seek happiness is not pleasure, honor, wealth, but an activity
of the soul in accordance with the virtue”
LEARNING EXPECTATIONS:
REVIEW:
Happiness is not a pleasure, honor or wealth, but an activity of the soul in accordance of
virtue. Happiness is always for the sake of itself but never for the sake of something else just like
the honor, pleasure, reason and every virtue we choose indeed for themselves but we choose
them also for the sake of happiness, judging that they by means of them we shall be happy.
Happiness is neither no one chooses for the sake of these or for anything other than itself.
Happiness is related to virtue in the sense that it makes no small difference whether we
place the chief good in possession or in use, in state of mind or activity. For the state of mind
may exist without producing any good result.
Similar to virtue, happiness is related to pleasure because it is a state of the soul in which it
depends on the man or individual how they will find happiness in the things they are doing.
Conflicts occur because sometimes it is just not by nature pleasant but as an adventure charm.
The moral virtue is a mean and in what sense it is so, and that it is a mean between two
vices, the one involving excess, and the other as a deficiency, and that is such because its
characteristic is to aim at what is intermediate in passions and in actions, has been sufficiently
stated.
A person has the virtue in studying, in any sense there will be times that failure in any form
can be experienced then it is either that person accept that failure as a challenge as a positive
approach or down himself and treat the failure as the end of his life. As said it is not easy but
then it is not for everyone.
As my understanding, it is possible that all people is happy but if we will include the
creatures or creation by God then I do not think so it is possible that all creatures will be happy.
In the reading, it states that “by the fact that the other animals have no share in happiness,
being completely deprived of such activity. I think those creatures by God that incapable of the
virtuous activities are those who cannot be happy.
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- I have acquainted the two kinds of virtue.
INTEGRATIVE QUESTIONS:
1. What is virtue?
REVIEW QUESTIONS:
Happiness is related to virtue in the sense that it makes no small difference whether
we place the chief good in possession or in use, in state of mind or activity. For the state
of mind may exist without producing any good result.
The moral virtue is a mean and in what sense it is so, and that it is a mean between
two vices, the one involving excess, and the other as a deficiency, and that is such
because its characteristic is to aim at what is intermediate in passions and in actions, has
been sufficiently stated.
A person has the virtue in studying, in any sense there will be times that failure in
any form can be experienced then it is either that person accept that failure as a
challenge as a positive approach or down himself and treat the failure as the end of his
life. As said it is not easy but then it is not for everyone.
3. Is it possible for everyone in our society to be happy, as Aristotle explains it? If not,
who cannot be happy?
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As my understanding, it is possible that all people is happy but if we will include the
creatures or creation by God then I do not think so it is possible that all creatures will be
happy. In the reading, it states that “by the fact that the other animals have no share in
happiness, being completely deprived of such activity. I think those creatures by God
that incapable of the virtuous activities are those who cannot be happy.
DISCUSSION QUESTIONS:
1. Aristotle characterizes a life of pleasure as suitable for beasts. But what, if anything, is
wrong with a life of pleasure?
In my own opinion, the only wrong thing with a life of pleasure is that if someone
will experience this either a deficiency or excess but will be a little bit of acceptance and
behavior to one person.
In any form of excess or deficiency is bad because the value given to it will be a
terrible one for anyone in the form of personality.
2. Aristotle claims that the philosopher will be happier than anyone else. Why is this? Do
you agree or not?
Philosopher will be happier than anyone else because they have more knowledge
and their moral are well disciplined because of the different studies they undergone. I
do agree with this because they have experience and study different fields and even
different ideas in this world that I think can make them more happier and their
willingness for understanding and learning are more wider than us.
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TITLE: Contemporary Moral Problems: The Nature and Value of Rights (Chapter 9)
QUOTATION: “Today servants qualify for their wages by doing their agreed upon chores, no
more and no less.
LEARNING EXPECTATIONS:
REVIEW:
“Doctrine of logical correlativity of rights and duties is the doctrine that all duties
entail other people’s rights and all rights entail other people’s duties. Only the first part
of the doctrine, the alleged entailment from duties to rights, need concern us here.
Etymologically is associated with actions that are due someone else, the payments of
debts to creditors, the keeping of the agreements with promises, the payment of club
dues, or legal fees, or tariff levies to appropriate authorities or their representatives. All
duties are correlated with the right of those to whom the duties is owned. There seem
to be numerous classes of duties, both of a legal and non-legal kind, that are not
logically correlated with the rights of other persons. When the notion of requirement is
in clear focus it is likely to seem the only element in the idea of duty that is essential, the
other component notion that a duty is something due someone else drops off.
Origin of the idea deserving good or bad treatment from others: A master or lord
was under no obligation to reward servant for especially good service; still a master
might naturally feel that there would be a special fittingness in giving a gratuitous
reward as a grateful response to the good service.
The idea of desert has evolved a good bit away from its beginning by now, but
nevertheless, it seems clearly to be one of those words. Today servants quality for their
wages by ding their agreed upon chores, no more and no less. In our age of organized
labor, for almost every kind of exchange of service is governed by hard bargained
contracts so that even bonuses can sometimes be demanded as a matter of right, and
nothing is given for nothing on either side of the bargaining table.
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to treat his subjects well, but this duty was owned not to the subjects directly, but to
God, as we might have duty to a person to treat his property well, of course no duty to
the property itself but only to its owner. The sovereign was quite capable of harming his
subjects; he could commit no wrong against them that they could complain about, since
they had no prior claims against his conduct.
In the Leviathan, however, ordinary people had ordinary rights against one another.
They played roles, occupied offices, made agreements, and signed contracts. In a
genuine obligation toward one another; but the obligations will not be owned directly to
promises, creditors, and parents and the like, but rather to God alone, or to the member
or to the member of some elite, or to a single sovereign under God.
This is not quite an accurate account of the matter, for it fails to do justice to the
way claim-rights are somehow prior to, or more basic than, the duties with which they
are necessary correlated. Many philosophical writers have simply identified rights with
claims. Claims defines as assertions of right a dizzying piece of circularity that led one
philosopher to complain.
Even if there are conceivable circumstances in which one would admit rights
diffidently, there is no doubt that their characteristics use and that for which they are
distinctively well suited, is to be claimed, demanded, affirmed, insisted upon.
INTEGRATIVE QUESTIONS:
2. What is Sovereignty?
3. What is Nowheresville?
REVIEW QUESTIONS:
Nowheresville is a world like our own except that people do not have rights. People
in this world cannot make moral claims when they are treated unjustly. They cannot
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demand or claim just treatment, and so they are deprived of self respect and human
dignity.
2. Explain the doctrine of the logical correlativity of rights and duties. What is Feinberg’s
position on this doctrine?
According to this chapter, doctrine of logical correlativity of rights and duties is the
doctrine that all duties entail other people’s rights and all rights entail other people’s
duties. Only the first part of the doctrine, the alleged entailment from duties to rights,
need concern us here. Etymologically is associated with actions that are due someone
else, the payments of debts to creditors, the keeping of the agreements with promises,
the payment of club dues, or legal fees, or tariff levies to appropriate authorities or their
representatives. All duties are correlated with the right of those to whom the duties is
owned.
3. How does Feinberg explain the concept of personal desert? How would personal
desert work in Nowheresville?
Feinberg states or explains that the concept of personal desert is a moral notion
concerned with, as Feinberg puts it, a certain “kind of fittingness between one party’s
character or action and another party’s … respond”.
Personal desert will work only to Nowheresville if this place will going to practice
the importance of rights to people morally and equally. The idea of desert has evolved a
good bit away from its beginning by now, but nevertheless, it seems clearly to be one of
those words. Today servants quality for their wages by ding their agreed upon chores,
no more and no less.
4. Explain the notion of a sovereign right monopoly. How would this work in
Nowheresville according to Feinberg?
The sovereign to be sure had a certain duty to treat his subjects as well, but this
duty was owed not to the subject directly, but to God just as wee might have a duty to a
person to treat his property well, but of course no duty to the property itself but only to
its owner. The sovereign was quite capable of harming his subjects; he could commit no
wrong against them that they could complain about, since they had no prior claims
against his conduct. Genuine sovereign monopoly they will do all those things too, and
thus incur genuine obligations will not be owed directly to promise creditors, parents,
and the like but rather to god alone, or to the members of some elite or to a single
sovereign under god.
5. What are claim rights? Why does Feinberg think they are morally important?
A claim right is a right which entails responsibilities, duties, or obligations for other
parties. This is to petition or seek by virtue of supposed right; to demand as due. This is
done by acknowledged right holder when he serves notice that he now wants turned
over to him that which has already been acknowledged to be his, something borrowed,
say, or improperly taken from him.
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DISCUSSION QUESTIONS:
1. Does Feinberg make a convincing case for the importance of rights? Why or why not?
Feinberg convinces me that rights are essential or important because the mutuality
and relativism of it is really confused to anyone in the society today. Also, right is one of
the important things that a man possesses especially in any society today because it
guides anyone to perfect acceptance and freedom.
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TITLE: Contemporary Moral Problems: Taking Rights Seriously (Chapter 10)
QUOTATION: “Not all legal rights or an even constitutional right represents moral rights against
the government.”
LEARNING EXPECTATIONS:
- I want to be acquainted with what are the rights and what are the rights to break the
law.
REVIEW:
In this section, it discusses Dworkin’s view which is “if people have a right to do
something, then it is wrong to interfere with them. He believes rests on Kantian idea of
treating people with dignity as members of the moral community and also the idea of
political equity.
It also tackles the language of rights now dominates political debate in the United
States. The concept of rights, and particularly the concept of rights against the
Government, has its most natural use when a political society as divide, and appeals to
co-operation or a common goal are pointless.
The debate does not include the issue of whether citizens have some moral rights
against their Government. Conventional lawyers and politicians take it as a point of
pride that our legal system recognizes. They base their claim that our law deserves
respect for they would not claim that totalitarian systems deserve the same loyalty.
Philosophers rejected the idea that citizens have right apart from what the law happens
to give them.
The constitution fuses legal and moral issues, by making the validity of a law depend
on the answer to complex moral problems. It does not tell us whether the Constitution
recognizes all the moral rights that citizens have, and it does not tell us whether, as
many suppose, citizens would have a duty to obey the law even if it did invade their
moral rights. The constitutional system adds something to the protection of moral rights
against the Government; it falls far short of guaranteeing these rights, or even
establishing what they are.
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claim would not argue that individuals have special protection against the law when
their rights are in play, and that is just the point of the claim.
If they take their duty seriously, they must try to limit their mistakes, and they must
therefore try to discover where the dangers of mistakes lie. They might choose one of
two very different models for this purpose.
The first model recommends striking a balance between the rights of the individual
and the demands of society at large. The first model has great plausibility, and most
laymen and lawyers would response to it warmly. The metaphor of balancing the public
interest against personal claims is established in our political and juridical rhetoric. It
gives the model both familiarity and appeal.
The second is the more familiar idea of political equality. This supposes that the
weaker members of a political community are entitled to the same concern and respect
of their government as the more powerful members have secured for themselves, so
that if some men have freedom of decision whatever the effect on the general good,
then all men must have the same freedom.
The institution requires an act of faith on the part of the minorities because the
scope of their rights will be controversial whenever they are important, and because the
officers of the majority will act on their own notions of what these rights really are.
- I have discovered the two different models for taking rights seriously.
INTEGRATIVE QUESTIONS:
REVIEW QUESTIONS:
1. What does Dworkin mean by rights in the strong sense? What rights in this sense are
protected by the USA Constitution?
According to Dworkin, if the people have the right to do something, then it is wrong
to interfere with them. This notion of rights according to him rest on the Kantian’s idea
of treating people with dignity as members of the moral community and also to the idea
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of political equality. The concept of rights and particularly the concepts of rights against
the government have its most natural use when a political society is divided and appeals
to co-operation or a common goal are pointless.
The rights that are protected by the USA Constitutions are those rights that are
known and agreed upon by their country and by their people. They are protecting all
rights that they have as long as it is not violated and abused.
2. Distinguish between legal and moral rights. Give some examples of legal rights that
are not moral rights, and moral rights that are not legal rights.
Legal rights are rights which exist under the rules of legal systems. These are the
rights that are under the legal systems for example individual rights of free speech,
equality and due process and the like.
Moral rights are rights that are based from morality and conscience of an individual.
It is also called moral rights or inalienable rights, are rights which are not contingent
upon the laws, customs, or beliefs or a particular society or polity.
3. What are the two models of how a government might define the rights of its citizens?
Which does Dworkin find more attractive?
The first model recommends striking a balance between the rights of the individual
and the demands of society at large. The first model has great plausibility, and most
laymen and lawyers would response to it warmly. The metaphor of balancing the public
interest against personal claims is established in our political and juridical rhetoric. It
gives the model both familiarity and appeal.
The second is the more familiar idea of political equality. This supposes that the
weaker members of a political community are entitled to the same concern and respect
of their government as the more powerful members have secured for themselves, so
that if some men have freedom of decision whatever the effect on the general good,
then all men must have the same freedom.
Dworkin become more attracted with the second model for way government deifne
the rights of citizens.
4. According to Dworkin, what two important ideas are behind the institution of rights?
The two important ideas behind the institution of rights are act of faith by the
majorities and minorities and justifications of rights.
DISCUSSION QUESTIONS:
All of us have right to be free in which if you choose to break laws then it is still
under the right of yours to be free.
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2. Are rights in the strong sense compatible with Mill's utilitarianism?
I think there is strong sense compatible with Mill’s utilitarianism because of similar
concepts and views discussed in this section as well as Mill’s utilitarianism.
3. Do you think that Kant would accept rights in the strong sense?
I do not think so Kant would accept or agree rights in the strong sense.
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TITLE: Contemporary Moral Problems: A Theory of Justice (Chapter 11)
LEARNING EXPECTATIONS:
REVIEW:
John Rawls is the author of Justice as Fairness: A Restatement which in his theory he
states that there are two principles of justice. The first principle involves equal basic
liberties, and the second principle concerns he arrangement of social and economic
inequalities. These are the principles tree and rational persons would accept in a
hypothetical original position where there is a veil of ignorance hiding from the
contractors all the particular facts about themselves.
Rawls says that the rules of justice are chosen in an Original Position, behind a 'veil
of ignorance' that conceals from the parties facts about themselves such as sex, age,
physical and strength, that might be envisaged in attempts to tailor the rules to give
some a systematic advantage.
The first principle of justice according to Rawl’s states that “Each person is to have
an equal right to the most extensive total system of equal basic liberties compatible
with a similar system of liberty for all”. It must be treated equally and we must know
how to treat equally not only to others but as well as to all aspects of life.
“The second principle is also called the difference principle, and it specifies how
economic advantages should be distributed. It has two parts. Firstly, there is the
difference principle proper, the principle for the distribution of acquired wealth in
society. This is basically the principle to regulate taxation and redistribution. The second
part of the second principle is the principle of equal opportunity. It regulates access to
coveted social positions - basically jobs and positions of authority”.
- I have discovered the two different models for taking rights seriously.
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INTEGRATIVE QUESTIONS:
REVIEW QUESTIONS:
Rawls says that the rules of justice are chosen in an Original Position, behind a 'veil
of ignorance' that conceals from the parties facts about themselves such as sex, age,
physical and strength, that might be envisaged in attempts to tailor the rules to give
some a systematic advantage.
The first principle of justice according to Rawl’s states that “Each person is to have
an equal right to the most extensive total system of equal basic liberties compatible
with a similar system of liberty for all”. It must be treated equally and we must know
how to treat equally not only to others but as well as to all aspects of life.
3. State and Explain the second principle. Which principle has priority such that it cannot
be sacrificed?
“The second principle is also called the difference principle, and it specifies how
economic advantages should be distributed. It has two parts. Firstly, there is the
difference principle proper, the principle for the distribution of acquired wealth in
society. This is basically the principle to regulate taxation and redistribution. The second
part of the second principle is the principle of equal opportunity. It regulates access to
coveted social positions - basically jobs and positions of authority”
DISCUSSION QUESTIONS:
1. On the first principle, each person has an equal right to the most extensive basic
liberty as long as this does not interfere with similar liberty for others. What does this
allow to do?
The first principle each person has an equal right to the most extensive basic liberty
as long as this does not interfere with similar liberty for others allows each individual in
the community or in the society to weight and to know the goodness and the badness of
a certain act which we cannot deny the fact most of the times happening.
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2. Is it possible for free and rational persons in the original position to agree upon
different principles than those given by Rawls?
I think it is possible for free and rational persons in the original position to agree
upon different principles than those given by Rawls.
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TITLE: Contemporary Moral Problems: A Theory of Justice (Chapter 12)
LEARNING EXPECTATIONS:
REVIEW:
Annette Baier describes the system of ethics based solely on justice. Baier says, is
the introduction of “care” as an ethical system to supplement traditional liberal theories
of justice. She contends that women are more likely to have feelings of care, while men
generally claimed to take only the justice perspective. Baier argues that the perspective
of caretakers fulfils people’s emotional needs to be attached to something.
These are the criticisms does Giligan and Baier make of this theory: the empirical
correlation between gender and moral perspective was not uniform and the data
themselves were open to various interpretations. Women’s orientation toward care and
personal relationships seemed mainly to reflect the social role of the traditional, full-
time heterosexual wife and mother. A third objection is that the empirical research
underlying Gilligan's discussion of care ethics was based only on white, middle-class,
heterosexual women, and her writings did not acknowledge that differences among
women might make a difference to their moral perspectives.
The three important differences between Kantian liberals and their ethics based on
what Baiers’s states are the relative weight put on relationships between equal, the
relative weight put on freedom of choice, and the authority of intellect over emotions.
- I have discovered the three important differences between Kantian liberals and their
ethics.
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INTEGRATIVE QUESTIONS:
REVIEW QUESTIONS:
1. Distinguish between the justice and care perspective. According to Gilligan, how do
these perspectives develop?
Annette Baier describes the system of ethics based solely on justice. Baier says, is
the introduction of “care” as an ethical system to supplement traditional liberal theories
of justice. She contends that women are more likely to have feelings of care, while men
generally claimed to take only the justice perspective. Baier argues that the perspective
of caretakers fulfills people’s emotional needs to be attached to something.
2. Explain Kohlberg’s theory of moral development. What criticisms do Gilligan and Baier
make of this theory?
These are the criticisms does Giligan and Baier make of this theory: the empirical
correlation between gender and moral perspective was not uniform and the data
themselves were open to various interpretations. Women’s orientation toward care and
personal relationships seemed mainly to reflect the social role of the traditional, full-
time heterosexual wife and mother. A third objection is that the empirical research
underlying Gilligan's discussion of care ethics was based only on white, middle-class,
heterosexual women, and her writings did not acknowledge that differences among
women might make a difference to their moral perspectives.
3. Baier says there are three important differences between Kantian liberals and their
critics. What are these differences?
The three important differences between Kantian liberals and their ethics based on
what Baiers’s states are the relative weight put on relationships between equal, the
relative weight put on freedom of choice, and the authority of intellect over emotions.
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4. Why does Baier attack the Kantian view that the reason should control unruly
passions?
In my own opinion Baeir attack the Kantian view to just enlighten up anyone with
his message.
DISCUSSION QUESTIONS:
1. What does Baier mean when she speaks of the need "to trans value the values of our
patriarchal past"? Do new values replace the old ones? If so, do we abandon justice,
freedom, and rights?
Replacing the old with a new one is really accepted, I think so, especially in the
society today. The views on moral issues are been developing and yields to a more new
approach which is sometimes opposing to the old one. We do not abandon justice,
freedom and rights.
2. What is wrong with Kantian view that extends equal rights to all rational beings,
including women and minorities? What would Baier say? What do you think?
Baier’s view was insufficient that’s why she is in favor to other views.
3. Baier seems to reject the Kantian emphasis on freedom of choice. Granted, we do not
choose our parents, but still don't we have freedom of choice about many things, and
isn't this very important?
I really understand why this opinions is stressed out but I be to disagree to treat this
kind of issue to test as freedom because it would be unfair for people and it does not
show certain equality and fairness because there will be people who will not be lucky to
be chosen. Another point is that not all people are capacitated to have a baby and in
that sense they also do not have freedom.
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