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Chemistry
Separating Mixtures
 
Gravity: pour mixture into the funnel, which has cellulose filter paper 
o
 
Mechanical mixtures with large particles are best suited
o
 
Long procedure, and does not remove dissolved materials
o
 
F
ILTRATE
: items that passed through
o
 
R
ESIDUE
: things that are caught by the filter 
 
Vacuum: water aspirator creates low pressure necessary to draw mixture through filter paper,Bückner funnel, and into the sidearm flask
 
Distillation: heated solution, gases produced are condensed to form a liquid condensate
o
 
Boiling chips used to allow bubbles to form (surface of nucleation)
o
 
Condenser has cold water running up the outer tube
o
 
Gas produced is condensed by cold water, drips out on the other side
o
 
F
RACTIONAL DISTILLATION
: separate into distinct, multiple parts
 
Centrifugation: capsules with mixtures are spun inside the centrifuge, usually separates thesuspension into a solid and a liquid
o
 
D
ECANT
: pouring so that only a solid is left
o
 
P
RECIPITATE
: the solid that results
o
 
S
UPERNATANT
: the clear liquid that results from centrifugation
 
Separation funnel: a mixture of polar + non-polar substances; the stopcock is turned so thatthe bottom layer of the mixture will drip down, and closed when that layer nearly drains
o
 
Imprecise
 
Flocculation/coagulation: to separate a suspension of very fine particles,
ALUM
(aluminumpotassium sulphate) and
LIME
(calcium hydroxide) react in the suspension to form a solid of
FLOC
(aluminum hydroxide); the fine suspended particles sink with the floc
o
 
Often used in water treatment
 
Chromatography: to break a mixture into its components (often pigments), a small sample isplaced at the bottom of chromatography paper, and the rolled chromatography paper is thenplaced in water; highly soluble parts are carried high by the water, while less soluble partsappear lower 
o
 
Used to compare composition
Diagrams
 
Lewis Dot diagrams for ions:
o
 
[Na
+
] indicates +1 charge, one electron lost
o
 
[ O
-2
] (8 dots around O) indicates full valence shell and -2 charge; superscript -2 andthe square brackets are necessary to indicate that the element is charged
 
Ionic Bonds
 
O
XIDATION NUMBER
: no. of e
-
gained or lost by an atom in the formation of a chemical bond.
o
 
Positively charged ions: cations
o
 
Negatively charged ions: anions
 
Metal + non-metal elements transfer electrons to achieve a stable octet; the electrostaticattraction keeps them together 
 
Names:
o
 
First word is the metal’s name (e.g. magnesium)
o
 
Second word is the –ide form of the non-metal’s name (e.g. bromide)
 
Ionic compound properties
o
 
Crystalline, brittle
o
 
High melting points
o
 
Non-conductors of electricitywhen solids
 
Variable valence metals
o
 
Multiple possible charges
o
 
Stock system
 
In parentheses after metal name, roman numerals indicate charge of metal(e.g. iron (II) oxide indicates that the iron has a charge of +2)
o
 
“ic-ous” system
 
Only for metals with 2 possible valences
 
–ic indicates the higher valence
 
–ous indicates the lower valence
 
Latin: cupr– (copper), ferr– (iron), plumb– (lead), stann– (tin), aur– (gold)
 
(e.g. ferric oxide indicates that iron has a +3 charge)
Covalent Bonds
 
Non-metal + non-metal share electrons to form a covalent bond (a molecular compound)
 
Names:
o
 
Prefixes indicate number of each element(e.g. dinitrogen tetroxide indicates 2 nitrogen atoms and 4 oxygen atoms)
 
Mono 1
 
Di 2
 
Tri 3
 
Tetra 4
 
Penta 5
 
Hexa 6
 
Hepta 7
 
Octa 8
 
Nona 9
 
Deca 10
o
 
Mono is omitted for the first element if it has a subscript of 1
o
 
Usually
the atom with the greater bonding capacity is written first
 
Four valence electrons: bonding capacity = 4
 
Five valence: bonding capacity = 3
 
...
 
Seven valence: bonding capacity = 1
o
 
Second atom changes name to –ide
o
 
Exceptions:
 
Water (H
2
O)
 
Ammonia (NH
3
)
 
Polyatomic Ions
 
Important ones to know
:
o
 
OH
-1
hydroxide ion
o
 
NH
4+1
ammonium ion(ammonia NH
3
neutral plus H
+
)
o
 
CO
3-2
carbonate ion
o
 
HCO
3-1
hydrogen carbonate ion(a.k.a. bicarbonate ion)
o
 
NO
3-1
nitrate ion(extremely soluble)
o
 
SO
4-2
sulphate ion
o
 
SO
3-2
sulphite ion
o
 
CH
3
COO
-1
acetate ion
o
 
Cr 
2
O
7-2
dichromate ion
o
 
CrO
4-2
chromate ion
o
 
MnO
4-1
permanganate ion
o
 
CN
-1
cyanide ion
 
Negative polyatomics usually take place of non-metal in ionic bond
Acids/Bases
 
Acids = higher concentration of H
+
ions
 
Bases = higher concentration of OH
-
ions
 
Characteristics:
Acids Bases
Properties:
−
 
Sour taste
−
 
Water-soluble
−
 
Reacts with metals (to produce H
2
gas)
−
 
Reacts with carbonates(to produce CO
2
gas)
−
 
H
+
ions are released in solutionExamples:
−
 
HCl (toilet bowl cleaner – removes rustand scale [CaCO
3
+ MgCO
3
], pH controlfor pools, stomach acids)
−
 
H
2
SO
4
(car batteries, industrial uses)
−
 
H
3
PO
4
(coke, pepsi as flavouring)
−
 
CH
3
COOH (vinegar – food flavor, scaleremover)
−
 
Citric acid (citrus fruits, flavouring)Properties:
−
 
Bitter taste
−
 
Water-soluble
−
 
Does not react with metals
−
 
Reacts with fats to break them down(produces soapy substance when incontact with skin or fats, can causeblindness if splashed in eye)
−
 
OH
-
ions are released in solutionExamples:
−
 
Drain cleaner – NaOH
−
 
Baking soda
−
 
Cleaners – windex, etc
−
 
Soaps, medicine treatment for stomach
−
 
Hair dye
−
 
Bleach
 
pH =
−
log[H
+
]
 
[H
+
]= 10
−
pH
 
 
Strong acids
o
 
HNO
3
nitric
o
 
H
2
SO
4
sulphuric
o
 
HCl hydrochloric
o
 
HClO
3
chloric
o
 
HClO
4
perchloric
o
 
(HBr hydrobromic)
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