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International Conference on Systemics, Cybernetics and Informatics
503
 
Computer Networks
Tejaswitha.M.
Student,Department of Computer Science & SystemsEngineering,Sree Vidyanikethan Engineering College,JNTU, Rangampet, Tirupathi, INDIAmanchirt@yahoo.co.in
 
M.Jyothsna
Student,Department of Computer Science & SystemsEngineering,Sree Vidyanikethan Engineering College,JNTU, Rangampet, Tirupathi,INDIA jyothsna_331@yahoo.co.in
 
Abstract
“
SECURITY” in this contemporaryscenarios has become a more sensible issue either itmay be in the “REAL WORLD” or in the “CYBERWORLD”. In the real world as opposed to the cyberworld an attack is often preceded by informationgathering. Movie gangsters “case the joint”; soldiers“scout the area”. This is also true in the cyber world.Here the “bad guys” are referred to as intruders,eavesdroppers, hackers, hijackers, etc. The intruderswould first have a panoramic view of the victimsnetwork and then start digging the holes.Today the illicit activities of the hackers are growingby leaps and bounds, viz., “THE RECENT ATTACKON THE DNS SERVERS HAS CAUSED A LOT OFHULLABALOO ALL OVER THE WORLD”.However, fortunately, the antagonists reacted promptlyand resurrected the Internet world from the brink of prostration..Since the inception of conglomeratingComputers with Networks the consequence of whichshrunk the communication world, hitherto, umpteenilks of security breaches took their origin. Terselyquoting some security ditherers – Eavesdropping,Hacking, Hijacking, Mapping, Packet Sniffing,1Spoofing, DoS & DDoS attacks, etc. Newton’s lawsays “Every action has got an equal but oppositereaction”. So is the case with this. Nevertheless thesecurity breaches and eavesdroppers, the technologicalprowess has been stupendously developed to defyagainst each of the assaults. Our paper covers the
 
ADVANCED technical combats that have beendevised all through the way, thus giving birth to thenotion of “NETWORK -SECURITY”. Variousantidotes that are in fact inextricable with securityissues are – Cryptography, Authentication, Integrityand Non Repudiation, Key Distribution andcertification, Access control by implementing Firewallsetc.
Introduction
The field of computer networks has made rapidadvancement over the last decade and this was naturallyaccompanied by the development of various network protocols. Each protocol serves a unique purpose andcontributes to establishing efficient network communications. This paper dwells on the importance of various major protocols, their evolution and functionality.Only a cursory description of each protocol is provided andintricate technical details are omitted for the sake of easyreadability.
Firewalls
AN EXAMPLE FIREWALL- “A PROXYSERVER” :Each of the techniques employed by the attackersto obtain the target system’s IP address can be counter-attacked. However, the most comprehensive solution that iscommon to all (which can be used to foil an attackersattempt), is to connect to the concerned Internet/Chat servermail server through a PROXY SERVER. A proxy serverbasically acts as a shield by protecting your IP address formgetting into malicious hands. It acts as a very own personalsecretary and a buffer between thy and thy host. A proxyserver removes the need of a system to receive or sendmessages directly to the remote host. When any message isintended to be transmitted, then it is actually sent to theproxy server, which in turn passes it on to the remote host.During this entire time, the transmission machine is never indirect contact with the remote host.All communicationbetween the two parties is conducted indirectly, via the proxyserver. Such a scenario can be depicted in the followingmanner:
 
Computer Network 
The term “computer network” means an
interconnected 
collection of 
autonomous
computers.Networking and communications has never been more
OUR SYS.
PROXYSERVERREMOTESYSTEM
 
Copyright © 2008
Paper Identification Number: SI-3.1
This peer-reviewed paper has beenpublished by the Pentagram ResearchCentre (P) Limited. Responsibility of contents of this paper rests upon the authorsand not upon Pentagram Research Centre(P) Limited. Copies can be obtained fromthe company for a cost.
 
Computer Networks
504
critical for organizations faced with the challenge of competing in the global marketplace.Employees need to connect to the network whereverthey are and from any device. Partners, vendors, andothers outside the network need to interact efficientlywith key resources. And security is more importantthan ever.
Novell NetWare
 
The most popular network system in the pcworld is Novell NetWare. It is based on the client-server model. It was designed to be used by companiesdownsizing from a mainframe to a network of pc’.
The ARPANET
ARPA was created with a mission of advancing technology that might be useful to themilitary. APPA decided that the network the DoDneeded should be a packet-switched network,consisting of a subnet and host computers. Thenetwork grew quickly as more IMPs(Interface MessageProcessors) are delivered and installed. It has enormousimpact on university research, allowing scientistsacross the country to share data and collaborate onresearch projects. However it lacked universal access.
NSFNET
The U.S National Science Foundation has setup a virtual network, CSNET, that would be open to alluniversity research groups. The complete network,including the backbone and the regional networks , wascalled NSFNET.IT connected to the ARPANETthrough a link between an IMP and a fuzz ball.
The Internet
 
The number of networks, machines, andusers connected to the interconnected
 
NSFNET andARPANET grew exponentially. Many other regionalnetworks joined up, and the collection of networks isviewed as Internet. The glue that holds the Internettogether is the TCP/IP reference model and TCP/IPprotocol stack.
The Internet has the following mainapplications
Email, News, Remote login, File transfer,World Wide Web.
Protocol
 Basically, a protocol is an agreementbetween the communicating parties on howcommunication is to proceed. Protocols allow one to specifyor understand communication without knowing the details of a particular vendor’s network hardware. Protocols are tocommunication what algorithms are to computation.Complex data communication systems do not use a singleprotocol to handle all transmission tasks. Instead, theyrequire a set of cooperative protocols called a protocol familyor protocol suite.
Protocol hierarchies
Most networks are organized as a series of “layers”or “levels”, each one built upon the one below it.The purpose of each layer is to offer certain services to thehigher layers, shielding those layers from the details of howthe offered services are actually implemented.Layer n on one machine carries on a conversation with layern on another machine. The rules and conventions used in thisconversation are collectively know as the layer n protocol.Between each pair of adjacent layers there is an interface.The interface defines which primitive operations and servicesthe lower layer offers to the upper one. A set of layers andprotocols is called network architecture. The specification of architecture must contain enough information to allow animplementer to write the program or build the hardware of each layer so that it will correctly obey the appropriateprotocol. A list of protocols used by a certain system, oneprotocol per layer is called a protocol stack .
Reference Models
The two important network architectures are
•
 
OSI reference model.
•
 
TCP/IP reference model
OSI reference model
 
The OSI(Open Systems Interconnection) model isbased on a proposal developed by the International StandardsOrganization(ISO) as a first step toward internationalstandardization of the protocols used in the various layers.The model is called the ISO-OSI reference model because itdeals with connecting opensystems that is, systems that areopen for communication with other systems.The OSI model has seven layers.The principles that were applied to arrive at the seven layersare as follows : A layer should be created where a differentlevel of abstraction is needed.Each layer should perform a well defined function.The function of each layer should be chosen with an eyetowards defining internationally standardized protocols.The layer boundaries should be chosen to minimize theinformation flow across the interfaces.
TCP/IP reference model:
 
International Conference on Systemics, Cybernetics and Informatics
505
The ARPANET was a research network sponsored by the DoD. When satellite and radionetworks were added later, the existing protocols hadtrouble interworking with them, so a new referencearchitecture was needed. Thus the ability to connectmultiple networks together in a seamless way was oneof the major design goals from the very beginning.This architecture later became known as theTCP/IPmodel , after its two primary protocols.This reference model contains four layers
:
Internet Layer
 
This layer, called the Internet layer is thelinchpin that holds the whole architecture together. Its job is to permit hosts to inject packets into any network and have them travel independently to the destination.Internet Layer defines an official packet format andprotocol called IP.The job of the internet layer is todeliver IP packets where they are supposed to go.
Transport Layer
 
The layer above the internet layer in theTCP/IP model is now usually called theTransportLayer.It is designed to allow peer entities onthe source and destination hosts to carry on aconversation, the same as in the OSI transport layer.This layer contains two end-to-end protocols.The first one, TCP(Transmission Control Protocol) is areliable connection oriented protocol that allows a bytesteam originating on one machine to be deliveredwithout error on any other machine in the internet .Itfragments the incoming byte
 
steams into discretemessages and passes each one onto the internet layer..The second protocol in this layer, UDP(User DatagramProtocol) is an unreliable connectionless protocols forapplications that do not want TCP’s sequencing or flowcontrol and wish to provide their own. It is also widelyused for one-shot, client-server type request-replyqueries and applications in which prompt delivery ismore important than
 
accurate delivery, such astransmitting speech or video.
Application Layer
 
It contains all the higher-level protocols. Theearly ones included virtual terminal (TELNET), Filetransfer(FTP), and electronic mail (SMPT). The virtualterminal protocol allows a user on one machine to loginto a distance machine and work there. The filetransfer protocol provides a way to move dataefficiently from one machine to another
.
 
Internet Control Protocols
In addition to IP, which is used for data transfer,The Internet has several control protocols used in thenetwork layer, including ICMP, RARP and BOOTP.
The Internet ControlMessage Protocol(ICMP)
 The operation of the Internet is monitored closelyby the routers. When some thing unexpected occurs, theevent is reported by the ICMP which is also used to test theInternet. About a dozen types of ICMP messages are defined.Each ICMP message type is encapsulated in an IP packet.The DESTINATION UNREACHABLE message is usedwhen the subnet or a router cannot locate the destination, or apacket with the DF bit cannot be delivered because a smallpacket network stands in the way. The TIME EXCEEDEDmessage is sent when a protocol packet is dropped due to itscounter reaching zero. This event is a symptom that packetsare looping, that there is enormous congestion, or that thetimer values are being set too low.
ARP (Address Resolution Protocols)
To solve the problems of finding out whichEthernet address corresponds to a given IP address ,ARP isused. The advantage of using ARP over configuration files isthe simplicity. The system manager does not have to domuch except assign each machine an IP address
 
and decideabout subnet masks.ARP does the rest.
BOOTP
 
To get around the above stated problem, analternative bootstrap protocol called BOOTP has beeninvented. Unlike RARP, it uses UDP messages, which areforwarded over routers. It also provides a disklessworkstation with additional information, including the IPaddress of the file server holding the memory image, the IPaddress of the default router and the subnet mask to use.
Interior Gateway Routing Protocol (
OSPF)The internet is made up of a large number of autonomous systems. Each AS is operated by a differentorganization and can use its own routing algorithm inside.
 
A routing algorithm within an AS is called an InteriorGateway Protocol. An algorithm for routing between ASes iscalled an Exterior Gateway Protocol. Exterior GatewayProtocol: BGP Between Ases, a different protocol,BGP(Border Gateway Protocol) is used. A different protocol
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