Review

Immediate complications of epidurals

Sympathetic nervous system disruption
Perioperative hypotension
Hypertension
Hypoxia and/or hypercarbia
Total spinal/epidural
Nausea and/or vomiting
Intravascular injection
Subarachnoid injection

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Review
Delayed complications of epidurals
Post dural puncture headache (PDPH)
Low back pain
Urinary retention
Infection
Intraneural injection
Injection of wrong medications
Undiagnosed neurological disease

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Peripheral Nerve
Blocks
 General information Contents

1. Preoperative: coagulation status should be determined.

2. Contraindications:
Absolute contraindications ：
 lack of patient consent
 nerve blockade would hinder the proposed surgery;
Relative contraindications ：
coagulopathy
infection
presence of neurologic disease.
.

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 General information Contents

3. Complications common to all regional

nerve blocks:
 complications to local anesthetics (intravascular
injection, overdose, allergic reaction)
 nerve damage(needle trauma, intraneural injection)

hematomas

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 General information Contents

4. Nerve localization: paresthesia

A. Placing a needle in direct contact with a nerve
or within the substance of the nerve will
stimulate that nerve causing paresthesias.
B. Injection into a perineural location often results

in a brief accentuation of the paresthesia; in

contrast, an intraneural injection produces an
intense, searing pain that signals the need to
immediately terminate the injection.
C. Correct needle placement can be determined by
elicitation of paresthesia, perivascular sheath
technique, transarterial placement, and a nerve
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 Peripheral Nerve Blocks
Cervical plexus block

1.Spinal accessory nerve

2.Supraclavicular nerve
3.Transverse cervical nerve
4.Great auricular nerve
5. Lesser occipital nerve
6. Greater occipital nerve
7. Facial nerve

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Cervical plexus block
A.Technique: With the patient’s head turned
to the opposite side, a line connecting the
tip of the mastoid process of the temporal
bone and the anterior tubercle of the
transverse process of the sixth cervical
vertebra identifies theapproximate plane
in which the cervical transverseprocesses
lie.

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Cervical plexus block
Using a 22-gauge needle, penetrate
the skin over each point, directing the
needle in aslightly caudal direction to
contact each transverseprocess.
Confirm the position by ‘walking’ the
needle off the tip of the transverse
process.
Ensure that neither blood nor CSF can
be aspirated.
Inject 3-5 mL of local anesthetic

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Cervical plexus block

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Cervical plexus block

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Cervical plexus block

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Cervical plexus block

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Cervical plexus block

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Cervical plexus block

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Cervical plexus block

B. Complications: blockade of the phrenic nerve,

Horner syndrome (ptosis, miosis, enophthalmos,
anhydrosis), hoarseness (recurrent laryngeal
nerveblock), accidental subarachnoid or epidural
injection.

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 Peripheral Nerve Blocks
Brachial plexus blocks
A. Interscalene block
1. Technique: The needle is inserted in the
interscalene groove at the level of the
cricoidcartilage and advanced perpendicular
to the skin until a paresthesia is elicited or a
transverse spinous process is contacted, at
which point 30-40 cc of local anesthetic is
injected.

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 Peripheral Nerve Blocks
 Brachial plexus blocks

A. Interscalene block
2. Indications: any procedure on the upper
extremity, including the shoulder. This

technique has a high rate of failure to

achieve full block ofthe ulnar nerve
(10-20%) for hand surgery.

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 Peripheral Nerve Blocks
Brachial plexus blocks
A. Interscalene block
3. Special contraindications: contralateral
phrenic paresis, severe asthma.
4. Side effects: Horner's syndrome, phrenic
paresis.

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 Brachial plexus blocks
A. Interscalene block
5. Complications:
• intra-arterial injection
• massive epidural, subarachnoid, or subdural
•Horner’s sign
Other complications
•laryngeal nerve block (30-50%) leading to
hoarseness
•phrenic nerve block
•pneumothorax, infection, bleeding, and nerve
injury.
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 Brachial plexus blocks
A. Interscalene block

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 Peripheral Nerve Blocks
 Brachial plexus blocks
A. Interscalene block

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 Brachial plexus blocks
A. Interscalene block

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 Brachial plexus blocks
A. Interscalene block

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 Peripheral Nerve Blocks
 Brachial plexus blocks
B. Supraclavicular block

1. Indications: procedures on the upper arm,

elbow, lower arm and hand.
2. Special contraindications: hemorrhagic
diathesis, contralateral phrenic paresis.

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 Brachial plexus blocks
B. Supraclavicular block

3. Side effects: Horner's syndrome, phrenic

paresis.
4. Complications: pneumothorax (1-6%) and
hemothorax are the most common. Phrenic
nerve block and Horner's syndrome may occur.

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 Brachial plexus blocks
B. Supraclavicular block

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 Peripheral Nerve Blocks
 Brachial plexus blocks
C. Axillary block
1. Indications: procedures on the lower arm and
hand.
2. Anatomy: it should be noted that in the axilla,
the musculocutaneous nerve has already left
its sheath and lies within the coracobrachialis.

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 Brachial plexus blocks
C. Axillary block

3. Special contraindications: lymphangitis

(presumed infected axillary nodes).
4. Complications:
• puncture of the axillary artery
• intravenous/intra-arterial injection
(systemic toxic reaction)
•postoperative neuropathies (more
common when multiple sites of
paresthesia are elicited).

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 Peripheral Nerve Blocks
 Brachial plexus blocks
C. Axillary block

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Brachial plexus blocks
C. Axillary block

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 Peripheral Nerve Blocks
Intercostal nerve block
A. Technique: optimally performed with patient
prone or sitting, a 22-gauge needle is inserted
perpendicular to the skin in the posterior axillary
line over the lower edge of the rib, the needle then
is ‘walked’ off the rib inferiorly until it slips off
the rib, after negative aspiration for blood 5 mL of

local anesthetic is injected.

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 Peripheral Nerve Blocks
Intercostal nerve block
B. Complications: the principle risks are
pneumothorax and accidental intravascular
injection of local anesthetic solutions.

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Nerve blocks of the lower extremity
A. Sciatic nerve block

The sciatic nerve is formed in the

pelvis by fibres from the lumbosacral
trunk (L4,5)and by fibres from S1,2,3.

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 Peripheral Nerve Blocks
 Nerve blocks of the lower extremity
A. Sciatic nerve block
Technique: the patient is placed in the Sim’s
position (the lateral decubitus position
with the leg to be blocked uppermost and
flexed at the hip and knee) a line is drawn
from the posterior iliac spine and the
greater trochanter of the femur,
the needle is inserted about 5 cm caudad
from the midpoint of this line, and about 25

mL of 1.5% lidocaine or 0.5% bupivacaine

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Nerve blocks of the lower extremity
B. Femoral nerve block
1. Indications: surgery of the foot and lower leg.
2. Technique: insert short-beveled 22 g block
needle in a 30-degree cephalad direction just
lateral to the femoral artery and just below the
inguinal ligament, fell for 2 ‘pops’ as the needle
passes first through the fascia lata and then the
fascia iliaca, inject 15 mL of bupivacaine 0.5%.

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Nerve blocks of the lower extremity
C. 3 in 1 block (femoral, obturator, and lateral
cutaneous nerves)
1. Technique: identical to femoral nerve block
but a greater volume of local anesthetic used
(inject 30 mL)

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Nerve blocks of the lower extremity
D. Ankle block (requires 5 separate nerve blocks)
1. Posterior tibial nerve: insert needle behind the
posterior tibial artery and advanced until a
paresthesia to the sole of the foot is elicited, inject
5 mL of local anesthetic.

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Nerve blocks of the lower extremity
D. Ankle block (requires 5 separate nerve blocks)

2. Sural nerve: inject 5 mL of local

anesthetic in the groove between the
lateral malleolus and calcaneus.

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Nerve blocks of the lower extremity
D. Ankle block (requires 5 separate nerve blocks)
3. Saphenous nerve: inject 5 mL of local
anesthetic anterior to the medial
malleolus.

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Nerve blocks of the lower extremity
D. Ankle block (requires 5 separate nerve blocks)
4. Deep peroneal nerve: inject 5 mL of local
anesthetic lateral to the anterior tibial artery
at the distal end of the tibia at the level of the

skin cease.

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Nerve blocks of the lower extremity
D. Ankle block (requires 5 separate nerve blocks)
5. Superficial peroneal nerve: infiltrate a
ridge of local anesthetic (10 mL) from
the anterior tibia to lateral malleolus.

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Postanesthesia Care Unit
（ P A C U）
 For most patients, recovery from anesthesia is
uneventful. Postoperative complications, however,
may be sudden and life-threatening. The
postanesthesia care unit (PACU) is designed to
provide close monitoring and care to patients
recovering from anesthesia and sedation, assuring
safety to the transition between anesthesia and the
fully awake state, before patients are transferred to
unmonitored general wards.

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 Admission

 Recovery from general anesthesia

 Recovery from regional anesthesia
regional blocks
spinal and epidural anesthesia

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 Transport

 direct supervision of the anesthetist

 the patient’s position
 oxygen delivered
 Report

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Monitor and management

Consciousness
Respiration
Circulation

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 Respiratory complications

 Airway obstruction
 Hypoventilation
 Hypoxemia

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 Airway Obstruction
 Tongue falled backwards
 Laryngospasm （喉痉挛）
 Airway edema
 Wound hematoma.
 Vocal cord (VC) paralysis （声带麻痹）
 Bronchospasm

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 Hypoventilation

 Decreased ventilatory drive

 Pulmonary and respiratory muscle insufficiency
inadequate reversal of neuromuscular blockade
bronchospasm
pneumothorax
Upper airway obstruction
Inadequate analgesia
　 Preexistent respiratory disease 　

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 Hypoxemia
 Atelectasis
 Hypoventilation
 Aspiration of gastric contents
 Pulmonary edema
 Pulmonary embolism.
 Bronchospasm,

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 Hemodynamic complications
 Hypotension
 Hypertension
 Arrhythmias
 Myocardial ischemia and infarction

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 Hypotension

 Inadequate venous return

true hypovolemia.
relative hypovolemia
 Vasodilation.
anaphylaxis ,adrenal insufficiency,
systemic inflammation
 Decreased inotropy
myocardial ischemia and infarction,
arrhythmias, congestive heart failure, negative
inotropic drugs

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 Hypertension

 preexisting hypertensive disease

 hypoxemia
 fluid overload
 bladder distention
 pain
 increased intracranial pressure
 vasoconstrictive agents

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 Beta-adrenergic blockers.
Labetalol esmolol
 Calcium-channel blockers.
Verapamil Nifedipine
 Nitrates. Nitroglycerin Sodium
nitroprusside,
 Alpha-adrenergic blockers phentolamine
labetalol
 Hydralazine

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 Arrhythmias

 Increased sympathetic outflow,

 hypoxemia hypercarbia
 electrolyte and acid-base imbalance
 myocardial ischemia,
 increased ICP
 drug toxicity
 body temperature

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 Neurologic complications

 Delayed awakening
persistent effect of anesthesia,
decreased cerebral perfusion,
hypoglycemia, sepsis,
electrolyte or acid-base derangements
neurologic damage
 Emergence delirium
 Peripheral neurologic lesions

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 Others

 Body temperature changes.

 Postoperative nausea and vomiting
 Pain management
 Renal complications

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 pharmacologic reversal
opioid naloxone
benzodiazepines flumazenil
neuromuscular neostigmine
blockade drug

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 Criteria for discharge
 easily arousable and oriented
 hemodynamically stable
 adequate ventilation
able to protect their airway

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 The PACU is staffed by a dedicated team of an
anesthesiologist, nurses, and aides.
 It is located in immediate proximity to the
operating room (OR) with access to radiology and
the laboratory.
 Drugs and equipment for routine care (O2, suction,
and monitors) and advanced support (mechanical
ventilators, pressure transducers, infusion pumps,
and code cart) must be readily available.

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Thanks
Thanks ！

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 Definition and History
Acute pain: a normal, predicted, physiological response

to an adverse chemical, thermal or mechanical stimulus

-Surgery, trauma and acute illness…
-Short duration, recent onset, poss. prolong or
chronic
Consequences of surgical procedure
-Cardiopulmonary compression
-Autonomic hyper-stimulation
-Increased blood clotting
-Water retention and delayed GI function
-Immune dysfunction
-Pain:
●Surgical injuries and emotional reactions
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