1

Integrated Project Report On

COMPUTER NETWORKS SUBMITTED TO MIT PUNES MIT SCHOOL OF TELECOM MANAGEMENT BY ARNAV SHARMA PRN NO-101008 BATCH-2010-2012

IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF POST GRADUATE DIPLOMA IN MANAGEMENT PGDM (T)

MIT SCHOOL OF TELECOM MANAGEMENT (MITSOT), PUNE

DECLARATION

I MR. ARNAV SHARMA Hereby declare that this Integrated Project Report is the record of authentic work carried out by me during the period from 5/10/2010 to 19/102010 and has not been submitted earlier to any University or Institute for the award of any degree/diploma etc.

ARNAV SHARMA 101008 21/10/2010

Table of Contents
DECLARATION ..................................................................................................................................... 2 INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................................... 5 PURPOSE ........................................................................................................................................... 5 NETWORK CRITERIA .......................................................................................................................... 6 Performance ........................................................................................................................................ 6 Reliability ............................................................................................................................................ 6 Security ............................................................................................................................................... 6 TYPES OF NETWORK CONNECTION ................................................................................................ 6 NETWORK CLASSIFICATION ............................................................................................................. 7 Connection method .............................................................................................................................. 7 Wired technologies ......................................................................................................................... 7 Wireless technologies ..................................................................................................................... 8 Scale .................................................................................................................................................... 9 Personal Area Network .................................................................................................................. 9 Local Area Network ....................................................................................................................... 9 Metropolitan Area Networks ....................................................................................................... 10 Wide Area Network ..................................................................................................................... 10 Network Architecture......................................................................................................................... 10 BASIC HARDWARE COMPONENTS ................................................................................................. 14 Network interface cards ............................................................................................................... 14 Repeaters ...................................................................................................................................... 14 Hubs ............................................................................................................................................. 14 Bridges .......................................................................................................................................... 15 Switches ........................................................................................................................................ 15 Routers ......................................................................................................................................... 15 Modem.......................................................................................................................................... 16 CABLE STANDARD............................................................................................................................ 16 Connectors and other information .............................................................................................. 16

4 Conductors required .................................................................................................................... 17 Characteristics ............................................................................................................................... 17 ACCESS CONTROL METHODS ......................................................................................................... 19 Token Based Access .......................................................................................................................... 19 Token priority ................................................................................................................................ 19 Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection (CSMA/CD) ................................................ 20 Collision detected procedure .......................................................................................................... 20

INTRODUCTION
A computer network, often simply referred to as a network, is a group of computers and devices interconnected by communications channels that facilitate communications among users and allows users to share resources. Networks may be classified according to a wide variety of characteristics. A computer network allows sharing of resources and information among interconnected devices. In the 1960s, the Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA) started funding the design of the Advanced Research Projects Agency Network (ARPANET) for the United States Department of Defense. It was the first computer network in the World. Development of the network began in 1969, based on designs developed during the 1960s. Most networks use distributed processing, in which a task is divided among multiple computers. Instead of one single large machine being responsible for all aspects of process, separate computers (usually a personal computer or workstation) handle a subset.

PURPOSE
Computer networks can be used for several purposes:


   

Facilitating communications. Using a network, people can communicate efficiently and easily via email, instant messaging, chat rooms, telephone, video telephone calls, and video conferencing. Sharing hardware. In a networked environment, each computer on a network may access and use hardware resources on the network, such as printing a document on a shared network printer. Sharing files, data, and information. In a network environment, authorized user may access data and information stored on other computers on the network. The capability of providing access to data and information on shared storage devices is an important feature of many networks. Sharing software. Users connected to a network may run application programs on remote computers. Information preservation. Security. Speed up.

NETWORK CRITERIA
A network must be able to meet a certain number of criteria. The most important of these are performance, reliability, and security.

Performance
Performance can be measured in many ways, including transit time and response time. Transit time is the amount of time required for a message to travel from one device to another. Response time is the elapsed time between an inquiry and a response. The performance of a network depends on a number of factors, including the number of users, the type of transmission medium, the capabilities of the connected hardware, and the efficiency of the software. Performance is often evaluated by two networking metrics: throughput and delay. We often need more throughputs and less delay. However, these two criteria are often contradictory. If we try to send more data to the network, we may increase throughput but we increase the delay because of traffic congestion in the network.

Reliability
In addition to accuracy of delivery, network reliability is measured by the frequency of failure, the time it takes a link to recover from a failure, and the network's robustness in a catastrophe.

Security
Network security issues include protecting data from unauthorized access, protecting data from damage and development, and implementing policies and procedures for recovery from breaches and data losses.

TYPES OF NETWORK CONNECTION

A network is two or more devices connected through links. A link is a communications pathway that transfers data from one device to another. For visualization purposes, it is Simplest to imagine any link as a line drawn between two points. For communication to occur, two devices must be connected in some way to the same link at the same time. There are two possible types of connections: point-to-point and multipoint. Point-to-Point A point-to-point connection provides a dedicated link between two devices. The entire capacity of the link is reserved for transmission between those two devices. Most point-to-point connections use an actual length of wire or cable to connect the two ends, but other options, such as microwave or satellite links, are also possible. When you

change television channels by infrared remote control, you are establishing a point-to-point connection between the remote control and the television's control system.

Multipoint A multipoint (also called multidrop) connection is one in which more than two
specific devices share a single link. In a multipoint environment, the capacity of the channel is shared, either spatially or temporally. If several devices can use the link simultaneously, it is a spatially shared connection. If users must take turns, it is a timeshared connection.

NETWORK CLASSIFICATION
Network can be classified on various bases i.e. connecting method, scale & network architecture.

Connection method
Computer networks can be classified according to the hardware and software technology that is used to interconnect the individual devices in the network.

Wired technologies


Twisted pair wire is the most widely used medium for telecommunication. Twisted-pair wires are ordinary telephone wires which consist of two insulated copper wires twisted into pairs and are used for both voice and data transmission. The use of two wires twisted together helps to reduce crosstalk and electromagnetic induction. The transmission speed ranges from 2 million bits per second to 100 million bits per second.

Coaxial cable is widely used for cable television systems, office buildings, and other worksites for local area networks. The cables consist of copper or aluminum wire wrapped with insulating layer typically of a flexible material with a high dielectric constant, all of which are surrounded by a conductive layer. The layers of insulation help minimize interference and distortion. Transmission speed range from 200 million to more than 500 million bits per second. Optical fiber cable consists of one or more filaments of glass fiber wrapped in protective layers. It transmits light which can travel over extended distances. Fiber-optic cables are not affected by electromagnetic radiation. Transmission speed may reach trillions of bits per second. The transmission speed of fiber optics is hundreds of times faster than for coaxial cables and thousands of times faster than a twisted-pair wire

Wireless technologies


Terrestrial microwave Terrestrial microwaves use Earth-based transmitter and receiver. The equipment looks similar to satellite dishes. Terrestrial microwaves use low-gigahertz range, which limits all communications to line-of-sight. Path between relay stations spaced approx, 30 miles apart. Microwave antennas are usually placed on top of buildings, towers, hills, and mountain peaks. Communications satellites The satellites use microwave radio as their telecommunications medium which are not deflected by the Earth's atmosphere. The satellites are stationed in space, typically 22,000 miles (for geosynchronous satellites) above the equator. These Earth-orbiting systems are capable of receiving and relaying voice, data, and TV signals. Cellular and PCS systems Use several radio communications technologies. The systems are divided to different geographic areas. Each area has a low-power transmitter or radio relay antenna device to relay calls from one area to the next area. Wireless LANs Wireless local area network use a high-frequency radio technology similar to digital cellular and a low-frequency radio technology. Wireless LANs use spread spectrum technology to enable communication between multiple devices in a limited area. An example of open-standards wireless radio-wave technology is IEEE. Infrared communication , which can transmit signals between devices within small distances not more than 10 meters peer to peer or (face to face) without anybody in the line of transmitting.

Scale
Networks are often classified as local area network (LAN), wide area network (WAN), metropolitan area network (MAN), personal area network (PAN).

Personal Area Network

A PAN is a network that is used for communicating among computers and computer devices in close proximity of around a few meters within a room. It can be used for communicating between the devices themselves, or for connecting to a larger network such as the internet. PANs can be wired or wireless:  PANs can be wired with a computer bus such as a universal serial bus: USB (a serial bus standard for connecting devices to a computer, where many devices can be connected concurrently) PANs can also be wireless through the use of bluetooth (a radio standard designed for low power consumption for interconnecting computers and devices such as telephones, printers or keyboards to the computer) or IrDA (infrared data association) technologies

Local Area Network

A local area network (LAN) is usually privately owned and links the devices in a single office, building, or campus (see Figure 1.10). Depending on the needs of an organization and the type of technology used, a LAN can be as simple as two PCs and a printer in someone's home office; or it can extend throughout a company and include audio and video peripherals. Currently, LAN size is limited to a few kilometers. LANs are designed to allow resources to be shared between personal computers or workstations. The resources to be shared can include hardware (e.g., a printer), software (e.g., an application program), or data. A common example of a LAN, found in many business environments, links a workgroup of task-related computers, for example, engineering workstations or accounting PCs. One of the computers may be given a large capacity disk drive and may become a server to clients. Software can be stored on this central server and used as needed by the whole group. In this example, the size of the LAN may be determined by licensing restrictions on the number of users per copy of software, or by restrictions on the number of users licensed to access the operating system. In addition to size, LANs are distinguished from other types of networks by their transmission media and topology. In general, a given LAN will use only one type of transmission medium. The most common LAN topologies are bus, ring, and star. Early LANs had data rates in the 4 to 16 megabits per second (Mbps) range. Today, however, speeds are normally 100 or 1000 Mbps.

10

Metropolitan Area Networks

A metropolitan area network (MAN) is a network with a size between a LAN and a WAN. It normally covers the area inside a town or a city. It is designed for customers who need a highspeed connectivity, normally to the Internet, and have endpoints spread over a city or part of city. A good example of a MAN is the part of the telephone company network that can provide a high-speed DSL line to the customer. Another example is the cable TV network that originally was designed for cable TV, but today can also be used for high-speed data connection to the Internet.

Wide Area Network

A wide area network (WAN) provides long-distance transmission of data, image, audio, and video information over large geographic areas that may comprise a country, a continent, or even the whole world. A WAN can be as complex as the backbones that connect the Internet or as simple as a dial-up line that connects a home computer to the Internet. The switched WAN connects the end systems, which usually comprise a router (internetworking connecting device) that connects to another LAN or WAN. The point-to-point WAN is normally a line leased from a telephone or cable TV provider that connects a home computer or a small LAN to an Internet service provider (lSP). This type of WAN is often used to provide Internet access.

Network Architecture
Computer networks may be classified according to the network architecture upon which the network is based, such as bus network, star network, ring network, mesh network. Network topology is the coordination by which devices in the network are arranged in their logical relations to one another, independent of physical arrangement.

11

Mesh: In a mesh topology, every device has a dedicated point-to-point link to every other device. The term dedicated means that the link carries traffic only between the two devices it connects. To find the number of physical links in a fully connected mesh network with n nodes, we first consider that each node must be connected to every other node. Node 1 must be connected to n - I nodes, node 2 must be connected to n 1 nodes, and finally node n must be connected to n - 1 nodes. We need n (n - 1) physical links. To accommodate that many links, every device on the network must have n 1 input/output (VO) ports to be connected to the other n - 1 station. A mesh offers several advantages over other network topologies. i. The use of dedicated links guarantees that each connection can carry its own data load, thus eliminating the traffic problems that can occur when links must be shared by multiple devices. ii. A mesh topology is robust. If one link becomes unusable, it does not incapacitate the entire system. iii. There is the advantage of privacy or security. When every message travels along a dedicated line, only the intended recipient sees it. Physical boundaries prevent other users from gaining access to messages. iv. Point-to-point links make fault identification and fault isolation easy. Traffic can be routed to avoid links with suspected problems. This facility enables the network manager to discover the precise location of the fault and aids in finding its cause and solution. The main disadvantages of a mesh are related to the amount of cabling and the number of I/O ports required. First, because every device must be connected to every other device, installation and reconnection are difficult. Second, the sheer bulk of the wiring can be greater than the available space. Finally, the hardware required to connect each link (I/O ports and cable) can be prohibitively expensive. For these reasons a mesh topology is usually implemented in a limited fashion, for example, as a backbone connecting the main computers of a hybrid network that can include several other topologies.

12

Star Topology: In a star topology, each device has a dedicated point-to-point link only to a
central controller, usually called a hub. The devices are not directly linked to one another. Unlike a mesh topology, a star topology does not allow direct traffic between devices. The controller acts as an exchange: If one device wants to send data to another, it sends the data to the controller, which then relays the data to the other connected device. A star topology is less expensive than a mesh topology. In a star, each device needs only one link and one I/O port to connect it to any number of others. This factor also makes it easy to install and reconfigure. Far less cabling needs to be housed, and additions, moves, and deletions involve only one connection: between that device and the hub. Other advantages include robustness. If one link fails, only that link is affected. All other links remain active. This factor also lends itself to easy fault identification and fault isolation One big disadvantage of a star topology is the dependency of the whole topology on one single point, the hub. If the hub goes down, the whole system is dead. Although a star requires far less cable than a mesh, each node must be linked to a central hub. For this reason, often more cabling is required in a star than in some other topologies. The star topology is used in local-area networks (LANs).

13

Bus Topology: A bus topology is multipoint connection. One long cable acts as a backbone to
link all the devices in a network. Nodes are connected to the bus cable by drop lines and taps. A drop line is a connection running between the device and the main cable. A tap is a connector that either splices into the main cable or punctures the sheathing of a cable to create a contact with the metallic core. As a signal travels along the backbone, some of its energy is transformed into heat. Therefore, it becomes weaker and weaker as it travels farther and farther. For this reason there is a limit on the number of taps a bus can support and on the distance between those taps. Advantages of a bus topology include ease of installation. Backbone cable can be laid along the most efficient path, and then connected to the nodes by drop lines of various lengths. In this way, a bus uses less cabling than mesh or star topologies. Disadvantages include difficult reconnection and fault isolation. A bus is usually designed to be optimally efficient at installation. It can therefore be difficult to add new devices. Signal reflection at the taps can cause degradation in quality. This degradation can be controlled by limiting the number and spacing of devices connected to a given length of cable. Adding new devices may therefore require modification or replacement of the backbone. In addition, a fault or break in the bus cable stops all transmission, even between devices on the same side of the problem. Ethernet LANs can use a bus topology, but they are less popular.

Ring Topology: In a ring topology, each device has a dedicated point-to-point connection with
only the two devices on either side of it. A signal is passed along the ring in one direction, from device to device, until it reaches its destination. Each device in the ring incorporates a repeater. When a device receives a signal intended for another device, its repeater regenerates the bits and passes them along. A ring is relatively easy to install and reconfigure. Each device is linked to only its immediate neighbors (either physically or logically). To add or delete a device requires changing only two connections. In addition, fault isolation is simplified. Generally in a ring, a signal is circulating at all times.

14

If one device does not receive a signal within a specified period, it can issue an alarm. The alarm alerts the network operator to the problem and its location. However, unidirectional traffic can be a disadvantage. In a simple ring, a break in the ring (such as a disabled station) can disable the entire network. This weakness can be solved by using a dual ring or a switch capable of closing off the break. Ring topology was prevalent when IBM introduced its local-area network Token Ring. Today, the need for higher-speed LANs has made this topology less popular.

BASIC HARDWARE COMPONENTS

All networks are made up of basic hardware building blocks to interconnect network nodes, such as Network Interface Cards (NICs), Bridges, Hubs, Switches, and Routers. In addition, some method of connecting these building blocks is required, usually in the form of galvanic cable.

Network interface cards

A network card, network adapter, or NIC (network interface card) is a piece of computer hardware designed to allow computers to communicate over a computer network. It provides physical access to a networking medium and often provides a low-level addressing system through the use of MAC addresses.

Repeaters
A repeater is an electronic device that receives a signal, cleans it of unnecessary noise, regenerates it, and retransmits it at a higher power level, or to the other side of an obstruction, so that the signal can cover longer distances without degradation. In most twisted pair Ethernet configurations, repeaters are required for cable that runs longer than 100 meters. Repeaters work on the Physical Layer of the OSI model.

Hubs
A network hub contains multiple ports. When a packet arrives at one port, it is copied unmodified to all ports of the hub for transmission. The destination address in the frame is not changed to a broadcast address. It works on the Physical Layer of the OSI model.

15

Bridges
A network bridge connects multiple network segments at the data link layer (layer 2) of the OSI model. Bridges broadcast to all ports except the port on which the broadcast was received. However, bridges do not promiscuously copy traffic to all ports, as hubs do, but learn which MAC addresses are reachable through specific ports. Once the bridge associates a port and an address, it will send traffic for that address to that port only. Bridges learn the association of ports and addresses by examining the source address of frames that it sees on various ports. Once a frame arrives through a port, its source address is stored and the bridge assumes that MAC address is associated with that port. The first time that a previously unknown destination address is seen, the bridge will forward the frame to all ports other than the one on which the frame arrived. Bridges come in three basic types: i. ii. Local bridges: Directly connect local area networks (LANs) Remote bridges: Can be used to create a wide area network (WAN) link between LANs. Remote bridges, where the connecting link is slower than the end networks, largely have been replaced with routers. Wireless bridges: Can be used to join LANs or connect remote stations to LANs.

iii.

Switches
A network switch is a device that forwards and filters OSI layer 2 datagrams (chunk of data communication) between ports (connected cables) based on the MAC addresses in the packets. A switch is distinct from a hub in that it only forwards the frames to the ports involved in the communication rather than all ports connected. A switch breaks the collision domain but represents itself as a broadcast domain. Switches make forwarding decisions of frames on the basis of MAC addresses. A switch normally has numerous ports, facilitating a star topology for devices, and cascading additional switches. Some switches are capable of routing based on Layer 3 addressing or additional logical levels; these are called multi-layer switches. The term switch is used loosely in marketing to encompass devices including routers and bridges, as well as devices that may distribute traffic on load or by application content (e.g., a Web URL identifier).

Routers
A router is an internetworking device that forwards packets between networks by processing information found in the datagram or packet (Internet protocol information from Layer 3 of the OSI Model). In many situations, this information is processed in conjunction with the routing table (also known as forwarding table). Routers use routing tables to determine what interface to forward packets (this can include the "null" also known as the "black hole" interface because data can go into it, however, no further processing is done for said data).

16

Conceptually, a router operates in two operational planes (or sub-systems):  Control plane: where a router builds a table (called routing table) as how a packet should be forwarded through which interface, by using either statically configured statements (called static routes) or by exchanging information with other routers in the network through a dynamical routing protocol; Forwarding plane: where the router actually forwards traffic (called packets in IP) from ingress (incoming) interfaces to an egress (outgoing) interface that is appropriate for the destination address that the packet carries with it, by following rules derived from the routing table that has been built in the control plane.

Modem
A modem (modulator-demodulator) is a device that modulates an analog carrier signal to encode digital information, and also demodulates such a carrier signal to decode the transmitted information. The goal is to produce a signal that can be transmitted easily and decoded to reproduce the original digital data. Modems can be used over any means of transmitting analog signals, from driven diodes to radio.
The most familiar example is a voice-band modem that turns the digital data of a personal computer into modulated electrical signals in the voice-frequency range of a telephone channel. These signals can be transmitted over telephone lines and demodulated by another modem at the receiver side to recover the digital data.

CABLE STANDARD
The specification for Category 5 cable was defined in ANSI/TIA/EIA-568-A, with clarification in TSB-95. These documents specified performance characteristics and test requirements for frequencies of up to 100 MHz. Category 5 cable includes 4 twisted pairs in a single cable jacket. This use of balanced lines helps preserve a high signal-to-noise ratio despite interference from both external sources and other pairs. It is most commonly used for 100 Mbit/s networks, such as 100BASE-TX Ethernet, although IEEE 802.3ab defines standards for 1000BASE-T Gigabit Ethernet over category 5 cable. Each of the four pairs in a Cat 5 cable has differing precise number of twists per meter based on prime numbers to minimize crosstalk between the pairs. On average there are 6 twists per 5 centimeters. The pairs are made from 24 gauge (AWG) copper wires within the cables.

Connectors and other information

The cable exists in both stranded and solid conductor forms. The stranded form is more flexible and withstands more bending without breaking and is suited for reliable connections with insulation piercing connectors, but makes unreliable connections in insulation-displacement connectors. The solid form is less expensive and makes reliable connections into insulation displace-

17

ment connectors, but makes unreliable connections in insulation piercing connectors. Cable types, connector types and cabling topologies are defined by TIA/EIA-568-B. Nearly always, 8P8C modular connectors, often incorrectly referred to as "RJ-45", are used for connecting category 5 cable. The specific category of cable in use can be identified by the printing on the side of the cable. The cable is terminated in either the T568A scheme or the T568B scheme. Canada and Australia use the T568A standard, and the United States commonly uses T568B scheme. It really doesn't make any difference which is used as long as you use only one of the standards so all connections are the same at your location to avoid confusion and potential problems. Mixed cable types should not be connected in series as the impedance per pair differs slightly and may cause signal degradation.

Conductors required
10BASE-T (IEEE) and 100BASE-TX (IEEE) Ethernet connections require two cable pairs. 1000BASE-T (IEEE) and 1000BASE-TX (TIA/EIA-854, requiring category 6 cabling) Ethernet

Characteristics
Electrical characteristics for Cat.5e UTP Property Nominal Value Tolerance Characteristic impedance @ 100 MHz 100 15 Nominal characteristic impedance @ 100 MHz 100 5 DC-Loop resistance 0.188 Propagation speed 0.64 Propagation delay 4.80-5.30 Delay skew < 100 MHz < 0.20 Capacitance at 800 Hz 52 Inductance 525 Cutoff frequency 50323 Max tensile load, during installation 100 Wire size AWG-24 (0.205 mm ) Insulation thickness 0.245 Maximum current per conductor 0.577 Temperature operating -55 to +60 Unit /m c ns/m ns/m pF/m nH/m Hz N mm A C

Individual twist lengths

By altering the length of each twist, crosstalk is reduced, without affecting the characteristic impedance.

18

Pair color [cm] per turn Turns per [m] Green Blue Orange Brown 1.53 1.54 1.78 1.94 65.2 64.8 56.2 51.7

TIA/EIA-568-A.12001 T568A Wiring Pin 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Pair 3 3 2 1 1 2 4 4 Wire 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 Color white/green green white/orange blue white/blue orange white/brown brown

TIA/EIA-568-B.1-2001 T568B Wiring Pin 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Pair 2 2 3 1 1 3 4 4 Wire 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 Color white/orange orange white/green blue white/blue green white/brown brown

19

ACCESS CONTROL METHODS

Two primary access control methods exist for computers to communicate with each other over the network.   Token based access Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection (CSMA/CD)

Token Based Access

Used in bus and ring network topologies. Each computer in the network can only send its data if it has the token. This prevents collisions that occur when data is sent at the same time over the network. The token is a special pattern of bits/bit in a frame that is directly detectible by each node in the network. A computer may only transmit information if it is in possession of the token. The message is sent to all other computers in the network. When no station is transmitting a data frame, a special token frame circles the loop. This special token frame is repeated from station to station until arriving at a station that needs to transmit data. When a station needs to transmit data, it converts the token frame into a data frame for transmission. Once the sending station receives its own data frame, it converts the frame back into a token. If a transmission error occurs and no token frame, or more than one, is present, a special station referred to as the Active Monitor detects the problem and removes and/or reinserts tokens as necessary.
Token priority

Token ring specifies an optional medium access scheme allowing a station with a high-priority transmission to request priority access to the token. 8 priority levels, 0-7, are used. When the station wishing to transmit receives a token or data frame with a priority less than or equal to the station's requested priority, it sets the priority bits to its desired priority. The station does not immediately transmit; the token circulates around the medium until it returns to the station. Upon sending and receiving its own data frame, the station downgrades the token priority back to the original priority.

20

Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection (CSMA/CD)

Is a computer networking access method in which:   A carrier sensing scheme is used. A transmitting data station that detects another signal while transmitting a frame, stops transmitting that frame, transmits a jam signal, and then waits for a random time interval (known as "backoff delay" and determined using the truncated binary exponential backoff algorithm) before trying to send that frame again.

CSMA/CD is a modification of pure Carrier sense multiple access (CSMA). CSMA/CD is used to improve CSMA performance by terminating transmission as soon as a collision is detected, thus reducing the probability of a second collision on retry. A jam signal is sent which will cause all transmitters to back off by random intervals, reducing the probability of a collision when the first retry is attempted. CSMA/CD is a layer 2 access method, not a protocol of the OSI model When a station wants to send some information, it uses the following step are followed 1. Frame ready for transmission. 2. Is medium idle? If not, wait until it becomes ready. 3. Start transmitting. 4. Did a collision occur? If so, go to collision detected procedure. 5. Reset retransmission counters and end frame transmission. Collision detected procedure 1. Continue transmission until minimum packet time is reached (jam signal) to ensure that all receivers detect the collision. 2. Increment retransmission counter. 3. Was the maximum number of transmission attempts reached? If so, abort transmission. 4. Calculate and wait random back off period based on number of collisions. 5. Re-enter main procedure at stage 1. This can be likened to what happens at a dinner party, where all the guests talk to each other through a common medium (the air). Before speaking, each guest politely waits for the current speaker to finish. If two guests start speaking at the same time, both stop and wait for short, random periods of time (in Ethernet, this time is measured in microseconds). The hope is that by each choosing a random period of time, both guests will not choose the same time to try to speak again, thus avoiding another collision.

21