1.B. ORGANIZING A WRITTEN TEXT I. II. III. IV.

Writing a paragraph Organizing compositions Cohesive devises Activities

I. WRITING A PARAGRAPH A paragraph (in Greek, paragraphos = to write beside or written beside) is a self-contained unit of a discourse in writing dealing with a particular point or idea. Paragraphs may consist of one or more related sentences. The start of a paragraph is always indicated by beginning on a new line, whether the style is indented or blocked. The structure of the paragraph is the following: one topic sentence: is usually placed first in the paragraph; is the most general sentence of the paragraph; introduces or summarizes the main topic of the paragraph; gives the reader an idea of what the paragraph will be about. . one or more supporting sentences: develop and support the main idea of the paragraph; explain why the main idea is true; contain examples, facts, details. one concluding sentence, which is optional: is usually placed last in the paragraph; restates the main idea or makes the transition to the following paragraph.

E.g. a. Paragraphs are helpful to both writers and readers. They help writers group together and develop associated ideas into coherent units, which is useful both at the planning and writing stages. As readers, we very much like to recognize threads of thought, to feel that things are at their right place in the text. Thus, we feel the presence of a good writer, a good guide through the subject we are reading about. b. There are several reasons why this country should be part of the EU. First of all, it seems to be technically prepared for joining the Union. Secondly, significant support has been received lately from the businesspeople of Germany and France, as well as from their EU representatives. Thirdly, important steps have been taken as regards the he studies using public opinion. However, the homework that Turkey needs to do in this respect cannot be disregarded. c. Time management is much more of an issue at university than at high school. Why? Because in higher education one must take greater responsibility for ones learning. There will be no one, for instance, to constantly remind you of deadlines. But it will be still up to you to meet them. You will not usually be given course books, as you will have to buy or borrow them yourself. This is because, to a large extent, university assumes that you are already highly developed in autonomous learning. Under these circumstances, a course like Learning Strategies can help you think about what autonomous learning really means and enable you to learn some strategies to take responsibility for your study.

d. The way a company approaches customer service is one of the most important factors in determining its future success or failure. No matter what a company does, it is always in the business of providing customer service. If one takes a look at companies that are not doing well or have gone under, one of their common features is their inability to deliver reliable and efficient customer service. Remember: each paragraph should focus on one main idea only; the paragraph should be coherent and easy to read; each paragraph should be checked for content, structure, form.

II. ORGANIZING COMPOSITIONS In any text, all paragraphs should support each other, leading the reader from the first idea to the final resolution of the written work. The structure of most types of writing consists of three parts: introduction body conclusion. 1. Introduction consists of the first paragraph; aims at: o giving the reader a general idea of the subject of the composition; o enticing the reader to further read the text. identifies the topic of the text and defines it/ limits it to one specific issue; provides relevant background information. 2. Body usually consists of two or more inter-connected paragraphs; its purpose is to develop points related to the subject of the composition; analyses the major issues and supplies relevant evidence; the number of paragraphs depends on the specific topic of the composition.

3. Conclusion is a short final paragraph; may: o summarize the main idea of the subject o restate the writers opinion in different words o make general comments; o refer to a plan of action/ proposal. III. COHESIVE DEVISES

Cohesive devices are means by which parts of the text are linked as logically related sequences. They: signal the relationship between ideas; make obvious the developing thread of meaning; often help us to anticipate what is coming next;

include a variety of devices such as: o pronouns o articles o conjunctions o demonstratives o synonyms o repetition of key words.

List of connectors a. ENUMERATION indicates a cataloguing of what is being said. Some enumerations belong to clearly defined sets: first, furthermost, finally, one, two, .. three, etc. first(ly), . second(ly), third(ly), . etc. to begin/ start with, in the second place, . / moreover, / next, / then, / afterward, lastly, / finally, / to conclude, above all/ last but not least: mark the end of an ascending order first and foremost/ first and most important(ly): mark the beginning of a descending order

b. ADDITION adds something to what has been previously indicated. It includes: a. Reinforcement: also/ again/ furthermore/ further/ moreover/ what is more/ then/ in addition/ besides/ above all/ too/ as well as b. Equation: equally/ likewise/ similarly/ correspondingly/ in the same way From the point of view of meaning, there could also be negative equivalents of and: neithernor c. TRANSITION can lead to a new stage in the sequence of thought. a. now/ with reference to/ with respect to/ with regard to/ regarding/ let us turn to/ as for/ as to/ as per b. talking/ speaking of/ apropos/ that reminds me of: introduce a digression c. incidentally/ by the way/ come to think of it: indicate a digression and an afterthought d. SUMMATION indicates a generalization or summing-up of what has preceded: in conclusion/ to conclude/ to sum up briefly/ in brief/ to summarize/ altogether/ overall/ then/ therefore/ thus. e. APPOSITION is used to refer back to previous sentences or to parallel or related references: i.e./ that is/ that is to say/ namely/ in other words/ or/ or rather/ or better/ e.g./ for example/ for instance/ such as/ including f. RESULT expresses the consequence or result of what was said before: so/ therefore/ as a result/ as a consequence/ the result was/ the consequence was/ accordingly/ consequently/ because of this/ thus/ hence/ for this reason/ for that reason g. INFERENCE indicates a deduction from what is implicit in the preceding sentence(s): then/ in other words/ in that case/ if so/ if not/ that implies/ my conclusion is/ else/ otherwise h. REPLACEMENT expresses an alternative to what has preceded: again/ alternatively/ rather/ better/ worse/ on the other hand/ the alternative is/ another possibility would be

i. CONTRAST expresses an opposition with what has preceded: instead/ conversely/ then/ on the contrary/ by way of contrast/ in comparison/ on the one handon the other hand j. CONCESSION indicates the unexpected, surprising nature of what is being said in view of what was said before: besides/ else/ however/ nevertheless/ nonetheless/ only/ still/ while/ although/ yet/ an any case/ at any rate/ for all that/ in spite of/ despite/ after all/ at the same time/ on the other hand/ even if/ even though/ whilst (Based upon Appendix 8 from Academic Writing Course, R.R. Jordan, CollinsELT, 1990) IV. ACTIVITIES

1. From the list of statements below, decide which ones are true: a. a paragraph is a section of writing that begins on a new line b. a paragraph must be at least five sentences long c. a paragraph consists of one or more sentences d. a paragraph deals with a single thought, idea or topic e. a paragraph must be made up of closely related sentences that develop a main idea f. a paragraph can express more than one thought, idea or topic. 2. Read the paragraph below and try to pick out the transition words or phrases. Underline all the transition words or phrases that you identify. A paragraph consists of a unifying main point, thought or idea accompanied by supporting details. Paragraphs can be divided into two broad styles: non-fiction and prose. On one hand, the non-fiction paragraph usually begins with the general and moves towards the more specific in order to advance an argument or point of view. In this way, each paragraph builds on what came before and lays the ground for what comes next. In contrast, the prose paragraph has a more abstract structure that depends on the author's technique and the action of the narrative. For example, a paragraph in prose fiction can start with a single detail and enlarge with successive details, but it's just as common for the point of a prose paragraph to occur in the middle or at the end. Additionally, paragraphs are generally between three and seven sentences long. However, a paragraph can be as short as one word, or run to many pages. 3. Choose the correct linking word/ phrase and join the sentences: a. b. c. d. e. f. g. h. i. j. k. Simon failed the test. He had not studied enough. (since, while) Ordering take-away food is very convenient. It can be rather expensive. (although, such as) Jack wanted to participate in the training. He had to voice his desire. (but, therefore) Adventure parks can be a very good business. They can be quite risky. (nevertheless, and) Mobile phones are expensive. They are very convenient. (but/ so) As a manager, she is very kind and assists everybody. She can be moody at times. (since/ on the other hand) Growing your own produces is cheaper than buying them. Home-grown produces are usually tastier. (even though/ what is more) Many young people are taught computer skills at school. They have a better chance of finding a job. (despite/ as a result) I admire Jackie. She has found happiness in both her professional and private life. (because/ therefore) Air travel is the most expensive form of transport. It is the fastest. (all in all/ however) It will take us all day to finish this report. The boss will have to wait till tomorrow for it. (instead/ consequently)

l. Labour costs in this country are very high. The company is relocating in Asia. (that is why/ despite) m. Most people use word processors these days. A few still prefer to use pen and paper. (as for/ however) n. Businessmen enjoy visiting the Far East on business. They would not like to live there. (after all/ on the other hand) o. Women are considered better than men in human resources. Men are thought to be better planners. (so/ whilst) 4. Replace the linking words/ phrases in bold with synonymous ones from the list of connectors: a. I saw a lot of incidents while I was the head of the department. b. He was born in Poland, but moved to Spain when he was 20. So he cannot be totally unaware of the Polish culture. c. The employee took three days to complete the proposal, in spite of the fact that it should have been ready in 24 hours. d. There are many places to visit in Rome like the Colosseum, the Trevi Fountain and the Pantheon. e. Although Rachel has just graduated from university, she has a lot of practical knowledge of accounting. f. CEOs may sound very enthusiastic in their reports, but you should always insist on hard evidence. g. Our efficiency has earned us a place among the top ten software companies in this country. Furthermore, investors appear to have full confidence in our capacity to grow our business. h. It has been a difficult year. Nevertheless, earnings per share increased 15%. i. Besides the Middle East, the West has now discovered another obsession: the rising power of China. j. Despite their very competitive prices, they failed to retain their customer base. k. As our supplier was unable to meet the deadline for delivery, we had to cancel our order. l. Secondly, it is important to realize that very few people have all the skills, experience, contacts or reputation that are required to get business running. m. As a result of some unfair tactics by competitive call centres, some multinationals are now opening call centres in more remote places. n. Some experts predict that the expansion of the European Union will produce a more mobile work force, since people are moving around more for work. o. Then, there are misunderstandings which are compounded when people speak different languages. 5. Put the following paragraphs in the right order, so as to obtain a coherent text. The first paragraph is indicated to you. a. 1. The total number of international students in the US for academic year 2009/10 increased by 3 per cent to just over 690,000, the highest its ever been, according to the Institute of International Educations Open Doors report. b. However, the majority of countries sending students to the US actually dispatched fewer in 2009/10. Total Japanese enrolments fell 15 per cent, but within the higher education sector went up slightly. There are now just over 14,000 Mexican students in the US, which represents a fall of 9 per cent, and there were slight drops in the numbers of students coming from Taiwan (26,685), Germany (9,548), Thailand (8,531), Hong Kong (just over 8,000) and Russia (4,829). Two countries that had seen sharp rises in enrolments in recent years Vietnam (45 per cent up in the previous two years), and Nepal (30 per cent up in 2008/09) both saw this trend reverse. Vietnamese enrolments dropped by 2 per cent in 2009/10, while Nepal fell by 3 per cent. c. Countries showing significant growth also included Saudi Arabia, now the seventh biggest exporter of students to the US. Tenth-place Turkey was up slightly to over 12,000, seventeenth-place France climbed by 4 per cent to over 7,000, and twentieth-place Nigeria rose by 5 per cent to over 6,500. d. Business, engineering and management remain the top subjects taken by international students, of which more than 300,000 are postgraduates. On the whole, the US Department of Commerce estimates that in 2009 foreign students tuition fees and living expenses contributed almost $20 billion (12.8 billion) to the US economy.

e. Total growth for 2009 was primarily driven by a 30 per cent increase in Chinese enrolments, with China overtaking India as the biggest exporter of international students to the US. There were 128,000 Chinese students in the US in autumn 2009, accounting for 18 per cent of the total international student body. f. As regards intensive English language course enrolments, they declined in 2008/09 by 1 per cent and fell a further 9 per cent, now making up only 4 per cent of total international enrolments. g. The intake of students from India, now in second place, rose by 2 per cent to almost 105,000 15 per cent of all international students in higher education. China, India and South Korea now make up 44 per cent of all international enrolments in higher education. (adapted from US foreign students hit a new high by Matt Salusbury, issued in ELGazette, February 2011) 6. Read the twelve sentences below and decide which ones are more likely to be topic (4) or supporting sentences (8). Then arrange then in a logical order in paragraphs and then in a text. a. Predicting stress is quite a problem. b. There is a key difference between healthy and harmful stress. c. Many of these adjustments take place without our being conscious of them. d. Remember that you are right, but you are not the only one who is! e. It is easy to look back on an experience, knowing it has done harm and to say that it was stress that caused it. f. But this is always easier said than done. g. As a matter of fact, our lives are full of change, and we continually try to adjust as well as possible to all the changes going on about us. h. In healthy stress there is a rapid adjustment to the change. i. Stress can be described as the reaction of the mind and the body to change. j. It is only those changes which we have no answer to and can not adjust to which cause physical and mental suffering. k. But it is not so easy to predict in advance that we will be harmed by going through a particular experience. l. Consequently, we should always try to have an approach in which flexibility is a key. 7. Think about your university/ faculty. Write a paragraph to say why you consider it a good choice for your education. 8. Read the topic sentences below and think of appropriate supporting sentences to complete each paragraph, so as to have a coherent text in the end. a. The romance of travel may not be what it was in the old days of steam or carriages, but it is the most important industry in the world. b. The democratization of travel over the last decades has definitely been a key factor. c. In this respect, Europe seems to remain the motor of this industry, although its old dominance is progressively slipping in face of Asian competition. d. It is true that nowadays we are all travellers, but some also proudly declare to be passionate tourists. e. Consequently, the mystery and promise of travel are likely to remain alive to each new generation.