Lip Mouth Sinus Tongue Tooth

cheil(o), labi(o) stom(at)-, or(o) sin gloss(o), glott-, linguaodont(o), dent-

:-) :-) :-) :-) :-)

Brain Cheek Ear Eye Forehead Head Nose Neck Skull

encephal(o), cerebr(o) bucc(o) ot(o), auri ophthalm(o), ocul(o) frons cephal(o), capit(o) rhin(o), nas(o) trachel(o), cervic(o) crani(o)

:-) :-) :-) :-) :-) :-) :-) :-) :-)

Bladder Kidney Ureter Urethra Urine

cyst(o), vesic(o) nephr(o), ren(o) ureter(o) urethr(o) urin(o)

:-) :-) :-) :-) :-)

Aorta Artery Blood Blood Clot Blood Vessel Heart Vein

aort(o) arteri(o) haem(o), sangui(o) thromb(o) angi(o), vas(o) cardi(o) phleb(o), ven(o)

:-) :-) :-) :-) :-) :-) :-)

Abdomen Arm Breast Chest Finger Foot Hand Rib Toe Wrist

abdomin(o), lapar(o) brachi(o) mast(o), mamm(o) thorac(o), steth(o) dactyl(o) pod(o), ped(o) chir(o) pleur(o), cost(o) pod(o), ped(o) carp(o)

:-) :-) :-) :-) :-) :-) :-) :-) X :-)

Ovary Uterine or Fallopian Tube Vagina Womb

oo(o), oophor(o), ovar(o)

:-)

salping(o)

:-)

colp(o), vagin(o) hyster(o), metr(o), uter(o)

:-) :-)

The following word parts also appear in medical terms.

Word Starch (amylo-) amylolysis

Defintion digestion of starch production of glucose

Sugar (gluco- glucogenesis glycosaccharo-) Potassium (kalo-) Milk (lacto-) kalemia lactosuria

Water (hydro-) hydrocephalus excess of fluid inside the skull presence of potassium in the blood lactose in the urine benign tumour containing fatty tissue instrument for crushing a stone in the urinary bladder abnormal amounts of sodium in the urine a type of fat
Laymen's term beside between bile birth birth, labour black bladder, sac bladder, sac blood body bone bone marrow, both, two bowl of kidney brain brain breast Medical prefix para inter chole natus part melan cysto vesic haemo soma osteo myelo bi pyelo cerebro encephal mamm-, mast-

Fat (lipolipoma stearo- adipo-) Stone (litho-) lithotrite Sodium (natro-) Fat
Laymen's term abdomen above above acros agains against all arm around around artery away from back backward band (fibrous) before before

natriuresis stearate
Medical prefix laparsuper supra trans anti contra pan brachio circum peri arterio ab dors retro fascia pre ante -

behind below

post sub -

bronchial

bronchi-,broncho -

Layman's term cancer cartilage cell cheek child clot colon cornea; scaly covering deficient diaphragm double ear, hearing ear, hearing egg elbow, forearm excessive eye Layman's term inside inside, within intestine intestine (part) iris (eye) joint kidney kidney knee large larynx like, similar carcin -

Medical term

Layman's term eye facies, face false fat finger, toe nail fluid foot forward gallbladder gland gums half hand head heart heat hip hip bone Layman's term mouth mouth, bone mucus muscle narrowing neck neck nerve new nipple nose nose, nostrils ophthalfaci pseudolip onych lymph -

Medical term

chondro cyt -, cyte buccal paed thrombo col kerat cort hypo phrenic diplo oto aud-, aur ovi cubitus hyper ocul Medical prefix intra endo enter ile iri arthronephroren genu macro laryngal -

ped -, pod pro cholecyst aden gingiva hemi chiro -.chiro -. cephalocardio thermcoxa ili Medical prefix stomaor myx myo stric cervictrachelneuro neo thel rhin nares-/nas -

crooked, looped ankyl -

hundredth(100th) centi -

lip liver lung lung many membrane menstruate middle milk mind, soul

labia hepato pneumopulm Poly meningmeno- mens mesolacto psycho-

one, single organ outside ovary ovary pharynx pleura of lung pregnant pus

mono viscera ecto oophoroovariopharyngpleur gravidpyo -

painful, abdominal dys -

Layman's term rapid rectum red ribs saliva scaly seed skin skin skull slow small spinal cord spine spleen starch stomach stone straight swelling (fluid) tail tenth (10th) testes thorax

Medical prefix tachy procto erythrocosto sial squam semin cut derma cranio brady micro myelo spondylsplen amyl gastro lith ortho edem caud deci orchidthorac -

Layman's term thousand thousandth(1000th) tongue tongue tooth tooth toward trachea tube upper, above uterus, womb uterus, womb vagina vein vessel vessel (blood) water wax, suet weakness, lack weight white without woman wrist

Medical prefix kilo milli gloss lingua dent odont ad trache salpingoepi hyster metro colp phleb vas angio hydro sebum asthenbar leuko a -, an gyne carpo -

Medical suffix blood -emia breakdown -olysis contraction -spasm crushing - tripsyc deficiency -penia disease -pathy disease, condition -osis dropping down -ptosis enlarged -megaly enlargement -ectasis fear -phobia finger, toe -dactyl fixation (tissue) -pexy flowing -rrhea Layman's term growth (physical) - physis

Medical suffix hardening - sclerosis hemorrhage -rrhagia incision -otomy inflammation -itis like, similar - oid mental disorder -phrenia opening -duct pain -algia pain -dynia paralysis -plegia picture -gram,-graph picture, inspection - scope plastic surgery - plasty puncture - centesis Layman's term

Layman's term rupture secrete within separation softening source, origin speech disorder stoppage study of surgical fixation surgical opening surgical removal suture, stitch swallow swelling (fluid) swelling tumor tumor, cancer urine

Medical term -rrhexis -crine - lysis -malacia -genic -phasia -stasis - ology - desis -ostomy - ectomy - rrhaphy -phagia -dema -cele -oma - sarcoma - uria

English, a West Germanic language originating in England, is the first language for most people in Australia, Canada, Ireland, New Zealand, the United Kingdom, and the United States. It is used extensively as a second language and as an official language throughout the world, especially in the Commonwealth of Nations, in countries such as in India or South Africa, as well as in many international organizations. Modern English is sometimes described as the world lingua franca. A lingua franca is any language widely used beyond the population of its native speakers. The de facto status of lingua franca is usually "awarded" by the masses to the language of the most influential nation(s) of the time. Any given language normally becomes a lingua franca primarily by being used for international commerce, but can be accepted in other cultural exchanges, especially diplomacy. Occasionally the term "lingua franca" is applied to a fully established formal language; thus formerly it was said that French was the lingua franca of diplomacy. The term "lingua franca" was originally used by Arabs to name all Romance languages, and especially Italian (Arabs used the name 'Franks' for all peoples in Western Europe). Then, it meant a language with a Romance lexicon (most words derived from Latin which then evolved into early forms of Spanish and Italian) and a very simple grammar, that till the end of the 19th century was used by mariners in the Mediterranean Sea, particularly in the Middle East and Northern Africa. A related concept is that of a vehicular language. It is defined as a basic linguistic structure for proposed international auxiliary languages, for example, the use of an Indo-European language, or Indo-European itself, in the development of Esperanto.[1]

English is the dominant international language in communications, science, business, aviation, entertainment, and diplomacy and also on the Internet. It has been one of the official languages of the United Nations since its founding in 1945 and is considered by many to be on its way to becoming the world's first universal language.[2] The influence of the British Empire is often cited as one of the primary reasons for the language's initial spread far beyond the British Isles.[3] Following World War II, the increased economic and cultural influence of the United States led to English permeating many other cultures, chiefly through development of telecommunications technology.[4] Because a working knowledge of English is required in many fields, professions, and occupations, education ministries throughout the world mandate the teaching of English to at least a basic level (see English language learning and teaching) in an effort to increase the competitiveness of their economies.

Borrowing Many words in English seem to have a Latin quality to them - this is because some of them have developed from French vocabulary learnt during the Norman occupancy many

years ago. However, words have been borrowed from many languages, not just French some of them are now extinct or almost never used. Borrowing Many words in English seem to have a Latin quality to them - this is because some of them have developed from French vocabulary learnt during the Norman occupancy many years ago. However, words have been borrowed from many languages, not just French some of them are now extinct or almost never used.

Latin was not the language of a conquered people. It was the language of a
higher civilization, a civilization from which the Anglo-Saxons had much to learn. Contact with that civilization, at first commercial and military, later religious and intellectual, extended over many centuries and was constantly renewed. It began long before the Anglo-Saxons came to England and continued throughout the Old English period. For several hundred years, while the Germanic tribes who later became the English were still occupying their continental homes, they had various relations with the Romans through which they acquired a considerable number of Latin words. Later when they came to England they saw the evidences of the long Roman rule in the island and learned from the Celts a few additional Latin words which had been acquired by them. And a century and a half later still, when Roman missionaries reintroduced Christianity into the island, this new cultural influence resulted in a really extensive adoption of Latin elements into the language. There were thus three distinct occasions on which borrowing from Latin occurred before the end of the Old English period, and it will be of interest to consider more in detail the character and extent of these borrowings.

Industrial Age
The dawn of the age of scientific discovery in the 17th and 18th centuries created the need for new words to describe newfound knowledge. Many words were borrowed from Latin, while others were coined from Latin roots, prefixes, and suffixes, and Latin word elements freely combine with elements from all other languages including native AngloSaxon words. Some of the words which entered English at this time are: analysis, apparatus, aqueous, atomic, carnivorous, component, corpuscle, data, experiment, formula, incubate, machinery, mechanics, molecule, nucleus, organic, ratio, structure, synthesis, theory, vertebra.

Consequences for English

As with Latinate/Germanic doublets from the Norman period, the use of Latinate words in the sciences gives us pairs with a native Germanic noun and a Latinate adjective:

animals: ant/formicid, bee/apian, bird/avian, crow/corvine, songbird/oniscine, cod/gadoid, carp/cyprine, fish/piscine, gull/laridine, wasp/vespine, butterfly/papilionaceous, worm/vermian, spider/arachnidan, snake/anguine,

turtle/testudinian, cat/feline, rabbit/cunicular, hare/leporine, dog/canine, deer/cervine, reindeer/rangiferine, fox/vulpine, wolf/lupine, goat/caprine, sheep/ovine, swan/cygnean, starling/sturnine, goose/anserine, mongoose/herpestine, grouse/tetraonine, ostrich/struthionine, horse/equine, chicken/gallinaceous, cattle/bovine, pig/porcine, agouti/dasyproctine, whale/cetacean, kangaroo/macropine, ape/simian, bear/ursine, man/human or hominid. physiology: head/capital, ear/aural, tooth/dental, tongue/lingual, lips/labial, neck/cervical, finger/digital, hand/manual, arm/bracchial, foot/pedal, sole of the foot/plantar, leg/crural, eye/ocular or visual, mouth/oral, chest/pectoral, nipple/papillary, brain/cerebral, mind/mental, nail/unguial, hair/pilar, heart/cardial, lung/pulmonary, bone/osteotic, liver/hepatic, kidney/renal, blood/sanguine. astronomy: moon/lunar, sun/solar, earth/terrestrial, star/stellar. sociology: son or daughter/filial, mother/maternal, father/paternal, brother/fraternal, sister/sororal, wife/uxorial. other: book/literary, edge/marginal, fire/igneous, water/aquatic, boat/naval, house/domestic, door/portal, town/urban, light/optical, sight/visual, tree/arboreal, marsh/paludal, sword/gladiate, king/regal, soldier/military, bell/tintinnabulary.

It is not always easy to tell at what point a word entered English, nor in what form. Some words have come into English from Latin more than once, through French or another Romance language at one time and directly from Latin at another. Thus we have pairs like fragile/frail, army/armada, corona/crown, ratio/reason, and rotund/round. The first word in each pair came directly from Latin, while the second entered English from French (or Spanish, in the case of armada). In addition, some words have entered English twice from French, with the result that they have the same source, but different pronunciations reflecting changing pronunciation in French, for example chief/chef (the former a Middle English borrowing and the latter modern). Multiple borrowings explain other word pairs and groups with similar roots but different meanings and/or pronunciations: canal/channel, poor/pauper, coy/quiet, straight/strait/strict, disc/disk/dish/desk/dais/discus.

Major Periods of Borrowing in the History of English

Loanwords are words adopted by the speakers of one language from a different language (the source language). A loanword can also be called a borrowing. The abstract noun borrowing refers to the process of speakers adopting words from a source language into their native language. "Loan" and "borrowing" are of course metaphors, because there is no literal lending process. There is no transfer from one language to another, and no "returning" words to the source

language. They simply come to be used by a speech community that speaks a different language from the one they originated in. Borrowing is a consequence of cultural contact between two language communities. Borrowing of words can go in both directions between the two languages in contact, but often there is an asymmetry, such that more words go from one side to the other. In this case the source language community has some advantage of power, prestige and/or wealth that makes the objects and ideas it brings desirable and useful to the borrowing language community. For example, the Germanic tribes in the first few centuries A.D. adopted numerous loanwords from Latin as they adopted new products via trade with the Romans. Few Germanic words, on the other hand, passed into Latin. The actual process of borrowing is complex and involves many usage events (i.e. instances of use of the new word). Generally, some speakers of the borrowing language know the source language too, or at least enough of it to utilize the relevant words. They adopt them when speaking the borrowing language. If they are bilingual in the source language, which is often the case, they might pronounce the words the same or similar to the way they are pronounced in the source language. For example, English speakers adopted the word garage from French, at first with a pronunciation nearer to the French pronunciation than is now usually found. Presumably the very first speakers who used the word in English knew at least some French and heard the word used by French speakers. Those who first use the new word might use it at first only with speakers of the source language who know the word, but at some point they come to use the word with those to whom the word was not previously known. To these speakers the word may sound 'foreign'. At this stage, when most speakers do not know the word and if they hear it think it is from another language, the word can be called a foreign word. However, in time more speakers can become familiar with a new foreign word. The community of users can grow to the point where even people who know little or nothing of the source language understand, and even use the novel word themselves. The new word becomes conventionalized. At this point we call it a borrowing or loanword. (Not all foreign words do become loanwords; if they fall out of use before they become widespread, they do not reach the loanword stage.) Conventionalization is a gradual process in which a word progressively permeates a larger and larger speech community. As part of its becoming more

familiar to more people, with conventionalization a newly borrowed word gradually adopts sound and other characteristics of the borrowing language. In time, people in the borrowing community do not perceive the word as a loanword at all. Generally, the longer a borrowed word has been in the language, and the more frequently it is used, the more it resembles the native words of the language. English has gone through many periods in which large numbers of words from a particular language were borrowed. These periods coincide with times of major cultural contact between English speakers and those speaking other languages. The waves of borrowing during periods of especially strong cultural contacts are not sharply delimited, and can overlap. For example, the Norse influence on English began already in the 8th century A.D. and continued strongly well after the Norman Conquest brought a large influx of Norman French to the language. It is part of the cultural history of English speakers that they have always adopted loanwords from the languages of whatever cultures they have come in contact with. There have been few periods when borrowing became unfashionable, and there has never been a national academy in Britain, the U.S., or other English-speaking countries to attempt to restrict new loanwords, as there has been in many continental European countries. The following list is a small sampling of the loanwords that came into English in different periods and from different languages.

I. Germanic period
Latin The forms given in this section are the Old English ones. The original Latin source word is given in parentheses where significantly different. Some Latin words were themselves originally borrowed from Greek. It can be deduced that these borrowings date from the time before the Angles and Saxons left the continent for England, because of very similar forms found in the other old Germanic languages (Old High German, Old Saxon, etc.). The source words are generally attested in Latin texts, in the large body of Latin writings that were preserved through the ages.
ancor butere cealc ceas 'anchor' 'butter' (L < Gr. butyros) 'chalk' 'cheese' (caseum)

cetel cycene cirice disc mil piper pund sacc sicol straet weall win

'kettle' 'kitchen' 'church' (ecclesia < Gr. ecclesia) 'dish' (discus) 'mile' (milia [passuum] 'a thousand paces') 'pepper' 'pound' (pondo 'a weight') 'sack' (saccus) 'sickle' 'street' ([via] strata 'straight way' or stone-paved road) 'wall' (vallum) 'wine' (vinum < Gr. oinos)

II. Old English Period (600-1100)

Old English was not an entirely uniform language. On one hand there were differences between the language of the earliest written documents, around the year 700 AD, and the language of the later literary texts. On the other hand, languages differed from one place to another. The manuscripts that have been preserved allow us to establish the main dialects. There were four dialects: Northumbrian (Northern Scotland) Mercian (Central) Kentish (in the county of Kent, the south-eastern part of the island) West Saxon (in the county of Wessex, in the south-west) In the 19th century, Wessex began to enjoy political supremacy over the other countries under King Alfred the Great. The West Saxon dialect began to be used as a sort of literary language, owing to the hegemony established by Alfred the Great and to the influences of his writings. The vocabulary used in this period is almost purely Germanic. An Old English dictionary contains around 20,000 words of which only a few hundred are not Germanic. 85% of the Old English vocabulary has gone out of use. Many of the Old English words that have disappeared were replaced by other words of French/ Latin origin or they are now archaic or dialectal. Nevertheless, the 15% of the words which have been preserved constitute the basic word stock and this is of Germanic origin (auxiliary verbs, strong/ irregular verbs, prepositions, conjunctions, etc) The principal means of enriching the vocabulary were represented by wordformation and borrowing. a) Word building The main devices were affixation (conversion did not exist) and composition. The use of prefixes was particularly important in the formation of verbs. There were several prefixes which occurred with great frequency: be-; for-; miss-; with- (some are still ffound in Modern English but they are not as productive as they were in Old English) e.g. for- (negative meaning): to forgo=to give up; to forsake=to desert, to leave mis- (negative meaning): to misunderstand=to understand incorrectly

Composition was extremely productive in Old English, being based on selfexplaining compounds (compounds of two or more words whose meaning in combination is self evident). e.g. railway steamboat This type of composition was extremely prevalent in Old English as it is in Modern German. (e.g. Fernsprecher=telephone) b) Borrowings (foreign influences on Old English) Old English was not merely the product of the dialects brought to England by the Angles, Saxons and Jutes. These Germanic dialects formed its basis. They were the sole basis of its grammar and the source of the largest part of its vocabulary. But, in the course of its existence in England, Old English vocabulary was brought into contact with three other languages: Celtic, Latin and Scandinavian. From each of these contacts it shows certain effects, especially additions to its vocabulary. The main Celtic borrowings referred to names of places (Cornwall, London, the Thames). Apart from this, the influence of the Celtic language on the Old English vocabulary was a slight one, probably because the Germanic conquerors had enough terms to denote the various notions existind=g at the time. The situation was different with the second great influence exerted upon English, that of Latin. Latin was the language of a higher civilization, from which the English had much to learn. The contact with the Latin civilization extended over many centuries. During the roman occupation the linguistic contact was military and commercial. Starting with the introduction of Christianity in Britain (597), the contact became religious and intellectual. Even after the Scandinavian invasion, Latin remained the language of learning. This fact was going to facilitate later Latin influences as well as French influences in the Middle and Modern English period.

Latin
apostol casere ceaster cest circul cometa maegester martir paper tigle 'apostle' (apostolus < Gr. apostolos) 'caesar, emperor' 'city' (castra 'camp') 'chest' (cista 'box') 'circle' 'comet' (cometa < Greek) 'master' (magister) 'martyr' 'paper' (papyrus, from Gr.) 'tile' (tegula)

Celtic
brocc 'badger' cumb 'combe, valley' (few ordinary words, but thousands of place and river names: London, Carlisle, Devon, Dover, Cornwall, Thames, Avon...)

III. Middle English Period (1100-1500)

Middle English vocabulary development is due to the inner resources of the language as well as to borrowings from other languages. a) Inner resources are represented by affixation, composition and changes of meaning. Old English had enriched its vocabulary chiefly by use of prefixes and suffixes. In the Middle English period, there is a visible decline in the use of these old methods of word formation. Many of the Old English prefixes and suffixes gradually lost their productivity because of the large influx of French words. e.g. In Old English, almost every word could be negated through the prefix un-: unable unbold unfriend French and Latin brought some other negative prefixes: Dis- (French): dishonorable In- (Latin): immovable Composition also lost some of its productive power in Middle English. On the other hand, the types of composition began to be diversified starting with Middle English. Endocentric compounds are compounds in which one of the words determines the meaning of the compound. Starting with this period, exocentric compounds began to be used, that is the meaning of the new word is determined by neither of the elements. (e.g. pickpurse-nowadays pickpocket) Changes of meaning occurred due to the fact that the meaning of words is not fixed, it is liable to change. It has been observed that in their development of meaning, words often pursue certain tendencies: - Extention of meaning (generalization) e.g. Husband originally meant the master of a house. It later began to be used with a more generic meaning, a man to whom a woman was married. - Narrowing of meaning (specialization) e.g. Meat had the meaning of any kind of food. Its meaning restricted to edible flesh. - Elevation of meaning (the new meaning of a word acquires a higher status) e.g. Knight originally meant boy, servant - Degradation of meaning (a neutral word becomes depreciating in meaning) e.g. Knabe (boy) became knave meaning a young person of loose morals b) Borrowings The greatest number of words come from French and Latin. The French influence was strongest in the years 1250-1400. French has enriched the English vocabulary by about 10,000 words, three quarters of which are still in use. A consequence of the French

terms which were introduced in English was the enrichment of synonymy. The English words are used in colloquial style, while the French word has a more formal, abstract meaning.

Scandinavian Most of these first appeared in the written language in Middle English; but many were no doubt borrowed earlier, during the period of the Danelaw (9th10th centuries).
anger, blight, by-law, cake, call, clumsy, doze, egg, fellow, gear, get, give, hale, hit, husband, kick, kill, kilt, kindle, law, low, lump, rag, raise, root, scathe, scorch, score, scowl, scrape, scrub, seat, skill, skin, skirt, sky, sly, take, they, them, their, thrall, thrust, ugly, want, window, wing Place name suffixes: -by, -thorpe, -gate

French Law and government

attorney, bailiff, chancellor, chattel, country, court, crime, defendent, evidence, government, jail, judge, jury, larceny, noble, parliament, plaintiff, plea, prison, revenue, state, tax, verdict

Church
abbot, chaplain, chapter, clergy, friar, prayer, preach, priest, religion, sacrament, saint, sermon

Nobility:
baron, baroness; count, countess; duke, duchess; marquis, marquess; prince, princess; viscount, viscountess; noble, royal (contrast native words: king, queen, earl, lord, lady, knight, kingly, queenly)

Military
army, artillery, battle, captain, company, corporal, defense,enemy,marine, navy, sergeant, soldier, volunteer

Cooking
beef, boil, broil, butcher, dine, fry, mutton, pork, poultry, roast, salmon, stew, veal

Culture and luxury goods

art, bracelet, claret, clarinet, dance, diamond, fashion, fur, jewel, oboe, painting, pendant, satin, ruby, sculpture

Other
adventure, change, charge, chart, courage, devout, dignity, enamor, feign, fruit, letter, literature, magic, male, female, mirror, pilgrimage, proud, question, regard, special

Also Middle English French loans: a huge number of words in age, -ance/ence, -ant/-ent, -ity, -ment, -tion, con-, de-, and pre-. Sometimes it's hard to tell whether a given word came from French or whether it was taken straight from Latin. Words for which this difficulty occurs are those in which there were no special sound and/or spelling changes of the sort that distinguished French from Latin.

IV. Modern English Period (16th-20th century)

The effects of the renaissance begin to be seriously felt in England. We see the beginnings of a huge influx of Latin and Greek words, many of them learned words imported by scholars well versed in those languages. But many are borrowings from other languages, as words from European high culture begin to make their presence felt and the first words come in from the earliest period of colonial expansion.
The beginning of the Modern English period are the same as the beginning of the Renaissance in England. The 16th century was a period when science, art and literature flourised. The English language faced a number of problems, the most important of which was the struggle with Latin in science and literature, that is the struggle for recognition in the fields where Latin had for centuries been supreme. However, as we approach the end of the 16th century we see that English had slowly won recognition as a language of serious thought. Another major influence upon the English language was Greek, which also occurred during the Renaissance. During this period, the study of classics was stressed. The classicists of that time intentionally tried to enrich the English language by borrowing from such classic languages as Greek and Latin. Because of their efforts, the English language now includes such words as "catastrophe" and "lexicon", which came directly from Greek, and "chaos" , "climax," and "crisis," which came from Greek through Latin. Modern science has also failed to escape Greek influences in its vocabulary. Not only do its different fields exhibit signs of a Greek influence in the histories of their respective vocabularies, but science as a whole often uses Greek when forming words to express new ideas. Many concepts and discoveries need to be communicated internationally, so a uniform method of communication is

necessary. For example, the SI international measurement system, previously known as the metric system, uses a system of Greek prefixes to identify the various measurements as powers of ten (centi, deci, deka, kilo, etc.) When one speaks of anatomy, much of the technical terminology is Latin in form. However, a closer inspection reveals that many of these words are Latinized Greek. Many common anatomical terms, such as cranium, epidermis, larynx, iris, and retina are from Greek. Botany, although using a two-part Latin naming system, is also dependent on Greek for many words. In a glossary of 726 botanical terms, at least 183 of them (or about 25 percent) are either Greek or hybrids of Latin and Greek. Another area of science greatly influenced by Greek is chemistry. If one only considers the periodic table of the elements, around half are Greek in origin. Some common examples include arsenic, calcium, copper, helium, hydrogen, iodine, magnesium, manganese, nitrogen, oxygen, phosphorus, and platinum. However, chemistry cannot claim a greater Greek heritage than the science of medicine. Many medical terms, occupations, and college courses are directly derived from the Greek language. A Pediatrician, a doctor who works with children, owes his occupational name to the Greek (paidos, child). A hypodermic needle is so-called because it goes under (Greek hypo) the skin (Greek derma). Even the title of a doctor of female ills, gynecology, is from Greek: v (gyne) means woman.

Latin agile, abdomen, anatomy, area, capsule, compensate, dexterity, discus, disc/disk, excavate, expensive, fictitious, gradual, habitual, insane, janitor, meditate, notorious, orbit, peninsula, physician, superintendent, ultimate, vindicate Greek (many of these via Latin) anonymous, atmosphere, autograph, catastrophe, climax, comedy, critic, data, ectasy, history, ostracize, parasite, pneumonia, skeleton, tonic, tragedy Greek bound morphemes: -ism, -ize Arabic via Spanish alcove, algebra, zenith, algorithm, almanac, azimuth, alchemy, admiral Arabic via other Romance languages: amber, cipher, orange, saffron, sugar, zero, coffee V. Modern English (1650-present)

Period of major colonial expansion, industrial/technological revolution, and American immigration. Words from European languages French French continues to be the largest single source of new words outside of very specialized vocabulary domains (scientific/technical vocabulary, still dominated by classical borrowings). High culture ballet, bouillabaise, cabernet, cachet, chaise longue, champagne, chic, cognac, corsage, faux pas, nom de plume, quiche, rouge, roulet, sachet, salon, saloon, sang froid, savoir faire War and Military bastion, brigade, battalion, cavalry, grenade, infantry, pallisade, rebuff, bayonet Other bigot, chassis, clique, denim, garage, grotesque, jean(s), niche, shock French Canadian chowder Louisiana French (Cajun) jambalaya Spanish armada, adobe, alligator, alpaca, armadillo, barricade, bravado, cannibal, canyon, coyote, desperado, embargo, enchilada, guitar, marijuana, mesa, mosquito, mustang, ranch, taco, tornado, tortilla, vigilante Italian alto, arsenal, balcony, broccoli, cameo, casino, cupola, duo, fresco, fugue, gazette (via French), ghetto, gondola, grotto, macaroni, madrigal, motto, piano, opera, pantaloons, prima donna, regatta, sequin, soprano, opera, stanza, stucco, studio, tempo, torso, umbrella, viola, violin,

Words from Italian American immigrants: cappuccino, espresso, linguini, mafioso, pasta, pizza, ravioli, spaghetti, spumante, zabaglione, zucchini

Dutch, Flemish Shipping, naval terms avast, boom, bow, bowsprit, buoy, commodore, cruise, dock, freight, keel, keelhaul, leak, pump, reef, scoop, scour, skipper, sloop, smuggle, splice, tackle, yawl, yacht

Cloth industry bale, cambric, duck (fabric), fuller's earth, mart, nap (of cloth), selvage, spool, stripe Art easel, etching, landscape, sketch War beleaguer, holster, freebooter, furlough, onslaught Food and drink booze, brandy(wine), coleslaw, cookie, cranberry, crullers, gin, hops, stockfish, waffle Other bugger (orig. French), crap, curl, dollar, scum, split (orig. nautical term), uproar German bum, dunk, feldspar, quartz, hex, lager, knackwurst, liverwurst, loafer, noodle, poodle, dachshund, pretzel, pinochle, pumpernickel, sauerkraut, schnitzel, zwieback, (beer)stein, lederhosen, dirndl 20th century German loanwords: blitzkrieg, zeppelin, strafe, U-boat, delicatessen, hamburger, frankfurter, wiener, hausfrau, kindergarten, Oktoberfest, schuss, wunderkind, bundt (cake), spritz (cookies), (apple) strudel Yiddish (most are 20th century borrowings) bagel, Chanukkah (Hanukkah), chutzpah, dreidel, kibbitzer, kosher, lox, pastrami (orig. from Romanian), schlep, spiel, schlepp, schlemiel, schlimazel, gefilte fish, goy, klutz, knish, matzoh, oy vey, schmuck, schnook, Scandinavian fjord, maelstrom, ombudsman, ski, slalom, smorgasbord Russian apparatchik, borscht, czar/tsar, glasnost, icon, perestroika, vodka Words from other parts of the world Sanskrit avatar, karma, mahatma, swastika, yoga Hindi bandanna, bangle, bungalow, chintz, cot, cummerbund, dungaree, juggernaut, jungle, loot, maharaja, nabob, pajamas, punch (the drink), shampoo, thug, kedgeree, jamboree

Dravidian curry, mango, teak, pariah Persian (Farsi) check, checkmate, chess Arabic bedouin, emir, jakir, gazelle, giraffe, harem, hashish, lute, minaret, mosque, myrrh, salaam, sirocco, sultan, vizier, bazaar, caravan African languages banana (via Portuguese), banjo, boogie-woogie, chigger, goober, gorilla, gumbo, jazz, jitterbug, jitters, juke(box), voodoo, yam, zebra, zombie American Indian languages avocado, cacao, cannibal, canoe, chipmunk, chocolate, chili, hammock, hominy, hurricane, maize, moccasin, moose, papoose, pecan, possum, potato, skunk, squaw, succotash, squash, tamale (via Spanish), teepee, terrapin, tobacco, toboggan, tomahawk, tomato, wigwam, woodchuck (plus thousands of place names, including Ottawa, Toronto, Saskatchewan and the names of more than half the states of the U.S., including Michigan, Texas, Nebraska, Illinois) Chinese chop suey, chow mein, dim sum, ketchup, tea, ginseng, kowtow, litchee Japanese geisha, hara kiri, judo, jujitsu, kamikaze, karaoke, kimono, samurai, soy, sumo, sushi, tsunami Pacific Islands bamboo, gingham, rattan, taboo, tattoo, ukulele, boondocks Australia boomerang, budgerigar, didgeridoo, kangaroo (and many more in Australian English)

History of the English language

English is a West Germanic language that originated from the Anglo-Frisian dialects brought to Britain by Germanic settlers and Roman auxiliary troops from various parts of what is now northwest Germany and the Northern Netherlands. Initially, Old English was a diverse group of dialects, reflecting the varied origins of the Anglo-Saxon Kingdoms of England. One of these dialects, West Saxon, eventually came to dominate. The original Old English language was then influenced by two waves of invasion. The first was by language speakers of the Scandinavian branch of the Germanic family; they conquered and colonized parts of Britain in the 8th and 9th centuries. The second was the Normans

in the 11th century, who spoke a variety of French. These two invasions caused English to become "mixed" to some degree (though it was never a truly mixed language in the strict linguistic sense of the word; mixed languages arise from the cohabitation of speakers of different languages, who develop a hybrid tongue for basic communication). Cohabitation with the Scandinavians resulted in a significant grammatical simplification and lexical enrichment of the Anglo-Frisian core of English; the later Norman occupation led to the grafting onto that Germanic core of a more elaborate layer of words from the Romance branch of the European languages. This Norman influence entered English largely through the courts and government. Thus, English developed into a "borrowing" language of great flexibility and with a huge vocabulary.

Proto-English
The Germanic tribes who gave rise to the English language (the Angles, Saxons, Frisians, Jutes and perhaps even the Franks), traded with and fought with the Latin-speaking Roman Empire in the process of the Germanic invasion of Europe from the East. Many Latin words for common objects therefore entered the vocabulary of these Germanic people even before any of these tribes reached Britain; examples include camp, cheese, cook, dragon, fork, giant, gem, inch, kettle, kitchen, linen, mile, mill, mint (coin), noon, oil, pillow, pin, pound, punt (boat), street, table, wall and wine. The Romans also gave English words which they had themselves borrowed from other languages: anchor, butter, cat, chest, devil, dish and sack. According to the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, around the year 449, Vortigern, King of the Britons, invited the "Angle kin" (Angles led by Hengest and Horsa) to help him in conflicts with the Picts. In return, the Angles were granted lands in the south-east of England. Further aid was sought and in response "came men of Ald Seaxum of Anglum of Iotum" (Saxons, Angles and Jutes). The Chronicle talks of a subsequent influx of settlers who eventually established seven kingdoms, known as the heptarchy. Modern scholarship considers most of this story to be legendary and politically motivated and the identification of the tribes with the Angles, Saxons and Jutes is no longer accepted as an accurate description (Myres, 1986, p. 46ff), especially since the Anglo-Saxon language is more similar to Frisian than any single one of the others.

Old English
The invaders' Germanic language displaced the indigenous Brythonic languages of what became England. The Celtic languages remained in Scotland, Wales and Cornwall. The dialects spoken by the Anglo-Saxons formed what is now called Old English. Later, it was strongly influenced by the North Germanic language Norse, spoken by the Vikings who invaded and settled mainly in the north-east of England (see Jrvk and Danelaw). The new and the earlier settlers spoke languages from different branches of the Germanic family; many of their lexical roots were the same or similar, although their grammars were more distinct, including the prefix, suffix and inflection patterns for many of their

words. The Germanic language of these Old English speaking inhabitants of Britain was influenced by contact with Norse invaders, which may have been responsible for some of the morphological simplification of Old English, including loss of grammatical gender and explicitly marked case (with the notable exception of the pronouns). The most famous surviving work from the Old English period is a fragment of the epic poem "Beowulf", by an unknown poet, though substantially modified, likely by one or more Christian clerics long after its composition. The introduction of Christianity added another wave of Latin and some Greek words. The Old English period formally ended with the Norman conquest, when the language was influenced, to an even greater extent, by the Norman French-speaking Normans. The use of Anglo-Saxon to describe a merging of Anglian and Saxon languages and cultures is a relatively modern development. According to Lois Fundis, (Stumpers-L, Fri, 14 Dec 2001) "The first citation for the second definition of 'Anglo-Saxon', referring to early English language or a certain dialect thereof, comes during the reign of Elizabeth I, from a historian named Camden, who seems to be the person most responsible for the term becoming well-known in modern times."

Middle English
For about 300 years following the Norman Conquest in 1066, the Norman kings and their high nobility spoke only a variety of French called Anglo-Norman. English continued to be the language of the common people. Various contemporary sources suggest that within fifty years of the Invasion most of the Normans outside the royal court had switched to English, with French remaining the prestige language of government and law largely out of social inertia. For example, Orderic Vitalis, a historian born in 1075 and the son of a Norman knight, said that he learned French only as a second language. A tendency for French-derived words to have more formal connotations has continued to the present day; most modern English speakers would consider a "cordial reception" (from French) to be more formal than a "hearty welcome" (Germanic). Another example is that of the names for meats, such as beef and pork from French boeuf and porc. While the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle continued until 1154, most other literature from this period was in Old French or Latin. A large number of Norman words were taken into Old English, with many doubling for Old English words (examples include, ox/beef, sheep/mutton and so on). The Norman influence reinforced the continued changes in the language over the following centuries, producing what is now referred to as Middle English. Among the changes was an increase in the use of a unique aspect of English grammar, the "continuous" tenses, with the suffix "-ing". English spelling was also influenced by French in this period, with the // and // sounds being spelled th rather than with the Old English letters and , which did not exist in French. The best-known writer from the Middle English period is Geoffrey Chaucer and of his works The Canterbury Tales is best known.

English literature started to reappear ca 1200, when a changing political climate and the decline in Anglo-Norman made it more respectable. By the end of that century, even the royal court had switched to English. Anglo-Norman remained in use in limited circles somewhat longer, but it had ceased to be a living language.

Early Modern English

Modern English is often dated from the Great Vowel Shift which took place mainly during the 15th century. English was further transformed by the spread of a standardised London-based dialect in government and administration and by the standardising effect of printing. By the time of William Shakespeare (mid-late 16th century) the language had become clearly recognizable as Modern English. English has continuously adopted foreign words, especially from Latin and Greek since the Renaissance. As there are many words from different languages and English spelling is variable (to be charitable), the risk of mispronunciation is high, but remnants of the older forms remain in a few regional dialects, most notably in the West Country. In 1755 Samuel Johnson published the first significant English dictionary, his Dictionary of the English Language.

GREEK WORDS The Greek language has contributed to the English vocabulary in three ways: 1. directly as an immediate donor, 2. indirectly through other intermediate language(s), as an original donor (mainly through Latin and French), and 3. with modern coinages or new Greek.

Overview

One can estimate the contribution of Greek words to English in two basic ways. One is to count the proportion of distinct words in the vocabulary (type frequency); another is to count the proportion of words in continuous text (token frequency). To estimate type frequency, we can use a typical English dictionary of 80,000 words, corresponding very roughly to the vocabulary of an English-speaking adult. Based on this sample, about 5% of the English vocabulary comes from Greek directly, and about 25% indirectly. If modern technical and scientific coinages using Greek roots are also counted, the percentage increases. Conversely, if token frequency in typical running text is used, the percentage decreases dramatically.205.201.93.228 22:57, 13 February 2007 (UTC) Since the living Greek and English languages were not in direct contact until modern times, borrowings were necessarily indirect, coming either through Latin (through texts or various vernaculars), or from Ancient Greek texts, not the living language. More recently, a huge number of scientific, medical, and technical neologisms have been coined from Greek rootsand often re-borrowed back into Modern Greek. Still, there are a few Greek words which were borrowed organicallythough indirectly. The English word olive comes through the Romance from the Latin word olva, which in turn comes from the Greek . This must have been an early borrowing, since the Latin v reflects a still-pronounced digamma. The Greek word was in turn apparently borrowed from a pre-Indo-European Mediterranean substrate (see also Greek substrate language). A later Greek word, , either borrowed from or calqued on a Scythian word,[1] becomes Latin butyrum and eventually English butter. A larger group of early borrowings, again transmitted first through Latin, then through various vernaculars, comes from Christian language: bishop from episkopos (originally meaning just an 'overseer'), priest from presbyter, and church from kyriakon. Unlike later borrowings, which came from a written, learned tradition, olive, bishop, and so on were transmitted through vernaculars, so their English spelling does not reflect its Greek form. Until the 16th century, the few Greek words that were absorbed into English came through their Latin derivatives. Most of the early borrowings are for expressions in theology for which there were no English equivalents. In the late 16th century an influx of Greek words were derived directly, in intellectual fields and the new science. In the 19th and 20th centuries a few learned words and phrases were introduced using a more or less direct transliteration of Ancient Greek (rather than the traditional Latinbased orthography) for instance nous, hoi polloi. Finally with the growth of tourism, some words, mainly reflecting aspects of current Greek life, have been introduced with orthography reflecting Modern Greek.

The written form of Greek words in English

Greek words borrowed through the literary tradition (not butter and bishop) are often recognizable from their spelling. Already in Latin, there were specific conventions for

borrowing Greek. So Greek was written as 'y', as '', as '', as 'ph', etc. These conventions (which originally reflected differences in pronunciation) have carried over into English and other languages with historical orthography (like French, but not Italian or Spanish). They make it possible to recognize words of Greek origin, and give hints as to their pronunciation and inflection. The Ancient Greek diphthongs and may be spelled in three different ways in English: the digraphs ae and oe; the ligatures and ; or the simple letter e. The digraphs and ligatures are uncommon in American usage, but usual in British usage. Examples include: encyclopaedia /encyclopdia / encyclopedia, haemoglobin / hmoglobin / hemoglobin, oedema / dema / edema, Oedipus / dipus / Edipus (rare). The verbal ending - is spelled -ize in American English and -ise or -ize in British English. In some cases, a word's spelling clearly shows its Greek origin. If it includes ph or includes y between consonants, it is very likely Greek. If it includes rrh, phth, or chth, or starts with hy-, ps-, pn-, or chr-, or the rarer pt-, ct-, chth-, rh-, x-, sth-, mn-, or bd-, then it is with very few exceptions Greek. One exception is ptarmigan, which is from a Gaelic word, the p having been added by false etymology. In English, Greek prefixes and suffixes are usually attached to Greek stems, but some have become productive in English, and will combine with other stems, so we now have not only metaphor (good Greek word) and metamathematics (modern word using Greek roots), but also metalinguistic (Greek prefix, Latin stem). In clusters such as ps- at the start of a word, the usual English pronunciation drops the first consonant; initial x- is pronounced z. Ch is pronounced like k rather than as in "church" (e.g. character, chaos). Consecutive vowels are often pronounced separately rather than forming a single vowel sound or one of them becoming silent (e.g. "theatre" contrast "feat").

Plurals
The plurals of learned Greek-derived words sometimes follow the Greek rules: phenomenon, phenomena; tetrahedron, tetrahedra; crisis, crises; hypothesis, hypotheses; stigma, stigmata; topos, topoi; but often do not: colon, colons not *cola (except for the very rare technical term of rhetoric); pentathlon, pentathlons not *pentathla; demon, demons not *demones. Usage is mixed in some cases: schema, schemas or schemata; lexicon, lexicons or lexica. And there are misleading cases: pentagon comes from Greek pentagonon, so its plural cannot be *pentaga; it is pentagons (Greek /pentagona).

There are considerable differences between the various transliterations used to represent the Greek alphabet in English. The table in the sidebar shows:

the "traditional" transliteration, in other words that used in Latin, representing classical Greek: this is the form in which most Greek words have made their way into English a "classical" transliteration, commonly used to represent more accurately the pronunciation of Ancient Greek the "modern" transliteration often used for Modern Greek see Transliteration of Greek into English for some variations. Greek had no letter h: a rough breathing over an initial vowel or diphthong indicates that the word was pronounced with an initial h, and a smooth breathing indicates the absence of an h, but this has since disappeared in speech, and Modern Greek omits the breathings. An initial upsilon () always had the rough breathing hence hy is very common at the start of words derived from Greek, but no (or very few) such words start with y. The letter rho () at the start of a word always had the rough breathing and is transliterated rh. If a rho occurred doubled within a word, the first always had the smooth breathing and the second the rough breathing leading to the transiliteration rrh. For a fuller discussion of these matters, see the Greek alphabet.
Note: the distinction between the rough and smooth breathings as shown above may not be very clear on certain browsers.

Greek Words with Modern Derivatives

The Citation form shown is the form most commonly shown in dictionaries, but this form is often unrepresentative of the word as used to form a compound word, hence the Root form is also shown. The "classical" transliteration as described above is used for both the Citation form and the Root form. The Greek words are shown in polytonic orthography, in other words showing the breathings and the fuller range of accents, as used in Ancient Greek and in Modern Greek for those who do not accept the 1982 "monotonic reform".

(h)a

Citation form

Root form

Meaning

English Derivative

a-

aan-

without, not

adiabatic, agnostic, ahistorical, am anaemia, anaesthesia, anhydrous, anonymous, apathy, asymmetric, asymptote, atrophic

boulos

aboul-

indecisive

abulia, hyperboulia

ageustos

ageus-

not tasting or having tasted with bent legs [1]

ageusia, ageustia,

ankulpous ankulos

- ancylpancylangulankyl-

ancylopoda ancylus, angle

crooked, curved [2] stiffening of the joints

ankulsis

ankylosis, ankyloglossia, ankylosa

ankhein

angianxiagnadenoemhemhaemAeolaepiaepy-

to compress, press tight, to strangle, throttle, choke agony gland

angina anxious agonize, antagonistic, agony adenoma, adenomelablastoma, adenomyosis, adenosine anemia, anemic, hemophilia, hemorrhage

agnia adn

A or

haima Aeolus aipeinos aipus or aipos

A-

blood

Keeper of the Winds Aeolic, Aeolian, Aeolotropy Gk. Myth high, lofty high and steep, utter to perceive, apprehend by the senses headless highest point facial eruption follower to hear pain salt sea fox aepisaurus,

aepycamelus, aepyornis, aepyornit aepyceros anesthesia acephali, acephaly, acephalous acme acne, acnestis anacoluthon, acolyte

aisthanesthai akephalos akm akoluthos akouein algos hals alpx hals ametros amnsia amnstia -

esthacephalacmacn

- acoluth- acousticalghalalophaloametroamnsamnst-

acoustic guitar, acoustic nerve, aco theory, acoustical engineering, aco

-algia, arthralgia, cardialgia, cepha fibromyalgia, myalgia, neuralgia, nostalgia, odontalgia, otalgia

halogen, haloaromatic, halobacteri halosaur alopecia

round shape, the disk of the sun, circular halo arcade at Delphi without measure oblivion forgetfulness, ametropia amnesia, amnesiac, amnesiphobia amnesty, amnestic

amnesty amnos amorphos amylon amphoreus ana amnamorphamylamphoranalamb shapeless starch bearer again, backward, upward amnion, amniotic, amniocentesis, amnioscope, amorphous, amorphic

amylin, amyloid, amylose, amylop amylase, amyls, amylophagia, amy amphora, ampulla

anabolism, anachronism, anaplasia anaesthesia, anaesthesiologist, anaesthetic analgesia, analgetic, analgesics aneurysm, microaneurysm

anaisthsia analgesia aneurusma

lack of sensation, anaesthe- insensibility under surgical treatment painlessnes

- analges-

- aneurysm- dilation

anr

andr-andri

man (male human)

androcentrism, androgen, android, andrologist, andrology, androsteph androsterone misandry, monandry, polyandry

antidoton antron anhudros andunos aort apaths

antidotantranhydranodynaortapathapoplearthritarthrarthrasthenasthma-

to give as a remedy against cave, cavity waterless, arid waterless, arid the great artery without feeling

antidote, antidoting antrum anodyne, anodynous aortic, aorta

anhydrite, anhydrous, anhydrobios

apatheism, apatheist, apathetic, ap

apoplssein arthritis arthron arthrsis astheneia asthma

to cripple by a stroke apoplexy, apoplectic inflammation of joint arthritis, osteoarthritis joint articulation weakness asthma vertebra, knucklebone

arthropod, arthroscopy, arthropath dysarthria, diarthrosis, anarthrous asthenia, asthenopia asthmatic astragalus, astragal

astragalos

- astragal-

astron asulon asphuxia atropos atrophos

astroasylasphyxatropatroph-

constellation sanctuary inexorable ill-nourished

astronomy, astrology, astrophysics astrodynamics, astronaut, astrolabe asylum atropos, atropine, atropa atrophy

stopping of the pulse asphyxiant

Citation form

Root form

Meaning

English Derivative

bios

bio-

life

biology, biopsy,bios

boreas - borea- north, the north wind Aurora Borealis,hyperborean

brachus - brachu- short

brachycephalic

Citation form

Root form

Meaning

English Derivative

gamos

gam-

marriage

polygamy, gamete

genesis

gen-

to give birth, beget

genetic,genesis , gene

gignskein -

gngn-

to know

diagnostic, agnostic

gun

- gunaik- woman

polygyny, gynecology misogynist

(h)e

Citation form

Root form

Meaning

English Derivative

encyclopedia, enkyklopaideia - encycloped- lit. rounded encyclopedia education

(h)i

Citation form Root form

Meaning

English Derivative

iatros - iatro- physician, healer psychiatrist

k, c

Citation form

Root form

Meaning

English Derivative

kakos

kako-

bad

cacophony

kinesthai - kinesis-

to move, motion

psychokinesis,kinetic energy,kinesis

 klnos

kln-

branch, twig

clone, cloning

Citation form

Root form

Meaning

English Derivative

lexis

lexi-

word

dyslexia, lexicon, Alexia

leukos - leuko- white

leukocyte, leukemia

lyein

- lysis- to break, loosen lysis, electrolysis, analysis, Lysistrata

Citation form

Root form

Meaning

English Derivative

mathimatika - mathematik- mathematics

mathematics, mathematical

makros

makro-

long

macron, macrobiotic

megas

mega-

big, large

Mega- (prefix), as in megabyte, megafauna, megaphone

methodos

method-

method

method

melas

melan-

pigmented, black, ink

Melanesia, melanocyte, melancholy

mikros

mikro-

small

microscope

mnstis

mne-

memory

amnesia, amnesty, mnemonic

Citation form Root form

Meaning

English Derivative

xenos - xeno- strange, stranger, guest xenophobia

xeros - xero- dry

xerophyte, xerophthalmia

(h)o

Citation form

Root form - odont-

Meaning

English Derivative

odous

tooth

orthodontia

homoios - homoio- similar -

homeopathy

oxus

oxu-

sharp, acid, sour

oxygen

 organon - organ-

organ, instrument, tool organ, organism

Citation form Root form Meaning

English Derivative

pais

- paid- boy, child paediatrician, pedophilia

r(h)

Citation form

Root form

Meaning

English Derivative

rheuma - rheumat- a flowing, rheum rheumatism, rheum -

rhis

rhin-

nose

rhinoceros, rhinoplasty

Citation form Root form

Meaning

English Derivative

tachys - tach(y)- fast

tachycardia, tachometer

techni - techn-

art

technique

 tle

- tle-

distant

telephone, telepathy, telemedicine

toxon - tox-

archers bow, poison toxin

(h)u, (h)y

Citation form Root form Meaning hudr - hudro- water hupnos - hupno- sleep

English Derivative

hydrodynamics, hydrolysis

hypnotism

ph

Citation form

Root form

Meaning

English Derivative

phagein

phage-

to eat

bacteriophage,sarcophagus

phaenomenon - phaenomen-

observable phenomenon phenomenon

philia, philos

philia-, philo-

friendship friend

Philadelphia, philosophy, zoophilia, pedophilia

phos

phos-

light

phosphorus, photography, photogenic

phobia phobos

phobia phobo-

irrational fear fear

phobia, Cryophobia Phobos,

kh, ch

Citation form Root form

Meaning

English Derivative

khait - khait- loose, flowing hair polychaete

kheir

- kheir- hand

Chiroptera, chiromancy, chiropractor

ps

Citation form

Root form

Meaning

English Derivative

psukh - psukh- spirit, soul psychology, psychedelic

]
(h)

Citation form Root form Meaning English Derivative - o- egg

on

oocyte, oology

Prepositions used to form compound words

Latin Preposition Latin word Meaning Compound Form , ab away from, by abad to, toward ad-, ac-, ar-, alante before, in front of antecum with, together con-, com-, colld down from, about de, ex out of ex, e-, ecin in, into in-, im-, illinter between inter-, intelljuxt near, close to juxt ob in front of, on account of ob-, occprae before prae-(pre-) re again, back re-, redse away from sper through perpr for, in front of, on behalf of prpost after, behind postsub under sub-, sus-, succsuper above, on top of supertrns across trns-

Other parts of speech

Latin word meaning cur? why? et and & in in, on is he, she, it id it, that paene almost pen-, peninsula quis who quid what quo where ubique from all sides ubiquitous esse to be essence laudare to praise laud annum year annual cogitare to think cognition

scire

to know

science

MEDICAL WORDS AND PHRASES

post mortem "after the death" id "it," is a word used to describe a person's unconscious desires ego "I," is a word used to describe a person's conscious self superego "above the ego," is a word used to describe a person's conscience libido "lust" persona "mask," is a word used to describe the personality that you show to others

FRENCH

Bill Bryson calls the Norman conquest of 1066 the "final cataclysm [which] awaited the English language." (1) When William the Conqueror became king of England, French took over as the language of the court, administration, and culture - and stayed there for 300 years. Meanwhile, English was "demoted" to everyday, unprestigious uses. These two languages existed side by side in England with no noticeable difficulties; in fact, since English was essentially ignored by grammarians during this time, it took advantage of its lowly status to become a grammatically simpler language and, after only 70 or 80 years existing side-by-side with French, Old English segued into Middle English.

Vocabulary During the Norman occupation, about 10,000 French words were adopted into English, some three-fourths of which are still in use today. This French vocabulary is found in every domain, from government and law to art and literature - learn some. More than a third of all English words are derived directly or indirectly from French, and it's estimated that English speakers who have never studied French already

know 15,000 French words. (2)

Pronunciation English pronunciation owes a lot to French as well. Whereas Old English had the unvoiced fricative sounds , , (as in thin), and (shin), French influence helped to distinguish their voiced counterparts , , (the), and (mirage), and also contributed the diphthong (boy). (3) (What is voiced/unvoiced/fricative?)

Grammar Another rare but interesting remnant of French influence is in the word order of expressions like secretary general and surgeon general, where English has retained the noun + adjective word order typical in French, rather than the usual adjective + noun used in English.

Ab-: Prefix meaning "from, away from, off" as in abduction (movement of a limb away from the midline of the body), ablate (carry or cut away), abnormal (away from normal), absorb (to suck away). Ab in Latin means "from." Adenocarcinoma: A cancer that develops in the lining or inner surface of an organ. More than 95 percent of prostate cancers are adenocarcinoma. Ad-: Latin prefix meaning "toward" and "in the direction of," as in adduction (movement of a limb toward the midline of the body), adhesion, and adrenal (toward the kidney). Amyl-: (Amylo- before a consonant.) A prefix pertaining to starch. From the Greek amylon, meaning starch. Amyloidosis: A disorder that results from the abnormal deposition of a particular protein, called amyloid, in various tissues of the body. Amyloid protein can be deposited in a localized area, and not be harmful, or in can cause serious changes in virtually any organ of the body. Angina pectoris: Chest pain that is typically severe and crushing with a feeling just behind the breastbone (the sternum) of pressure and suffocation, due to an inadequate supply of oxygen to the heart muscle. The term "angina pectoris" comes from the Latin "angere" meaning "to choke or throttle" + "pectus" meaning "chest". Angina pectoris was first described by the English physician William Heberden (1710-1801) and may be referred to simply as angina. Antero-: Prefix signifying before, earlier, front. From the Latin anterior meaning before. Anterograde: Moving forward or extending forward. Anterograde memory is memory for what occurs after an event such as an accident. Also called antegrade. From the Latin antero- + gredior (to step or go). Anti-: Prefix generally meaning "against, opposite or opposing, and contrary." In medicine, antioften connotes "counteracting or effective against" as in antibacterial, anti-infective, and antiviral. Sometimes medical terms containing anti- take on new meanings as has occurred with antibiotic and antibody. As a prefix, anti- may be shortened to ant- as in antacid. "Anti" is the Greek word for "against." Antibiotic: A drug used to treat infections caused by bacteria and other microorganisms. Originally, an antibiotic was a substance produced by one microorganism that selectively inhibits the growth of another. Synthetic antibiotics, usually chemically related to natural antibiotics, have since been produced that accomplish comparable tasks. In 1926, Alexander Fleming discovered penicillin, a substance produced by fungi that appeared able to inhibit bacterial growth. In 1939, Edward Chain and Howard Florey further studied penicillin and later carried out trials of penicillin on humans (with what were deemed fatal bacterial infections). Fleming, Florey and Chain shared the Nobel Prize in 1945 for their work which ushered in the era of antibiotics. Another antibiotic, for example, is tetracycline (brand names: Achromycin and Sumycin), a broadspectrum agent effective against a wide variety of bacteria including Hemophilus influenzae, Streptococcus pneumoniae, Mycoplasma pneumoniae, Chlamydia psittaci, Chlamydia trachomatis, Neisseria gonorrhoea, and many others. The first drug of the tetracycline family, chlortetracycline, was introduced in 1948.

Antibody: An immunoglobulin, a specialized immune protein, produced because of the introduction of an antigen into the body, and which possesses the remarkable ability to combine with the very antigen that triggered its production. The production of antibodies is a major function of the immune system and is carried out by a type of white blood cell called a B cell (B lymphocyte). Antibodies can be triggered by and directed at foreign proteins, microorganisms, or toxins. Some antibodies are autoantibodies and home in against our own tissues. The term "antibody" dates to 1901. Prior to that time, an "antibody" referred to any of a host of different substances that served as "bodies" (foot soldiers) in the fight against infection and its ill effects. Anticoagulant: Any agent used to prevent the formation of blood clots. Anticoagulants have various uses. Some are used for the prophylaxis (prevention) or the treatment of thromboembolic disorders. Thrombi are clots. Emboli are clots that break free, travel through the bloodstream, and lodge therein. The anticoagulant drugs used for these clinical purposes include: Intravenous heparin -- which acts by inactivating thrombin and several other clotting factors required for a clot to form; Oral anticoagulants such as warfarin and dicumarol -- which act by inhibiting the liver's production of vitamin K dependent factors crucial to clotting. Antidote: An agent that counteracts a poison and neutralizes its effects. A chemical antidote is a substance that unites with a poison to form a harmless chemical compound. A mechanical antidote is a substance that prevents the absorption of a poison from the intestine into the body. The word "antidote" is from the Greek antidotos which came from anti, against, + dotos, what is given = what is given against (something). Antidepressant: Anything, and especially a drug, used to prevent or treat depression. The available antidepressant drugs include the SSRIs or selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors, MAOIs or monoamine oxidase inhibitors, tricyclic antidepressants, tetracyclic antidepressants, and others. The SSRIs or selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors include: citalopram (Celexa, Cipramil) escitalopram oxalate (Cipralex, Lexapro) fluvoxamine maleate (Luvox) paroxetine (Paxil, Seroxat, Aropax) fluoxetine (Prozac) sertraline (Zoloft, Lustral) The MAOIs or monoamine oxidase inhibitors include: phenelzine (Nardil) tranylcypromine (Parnate)

The tricyclic antidepressants include: amitriptyline (Elavil, Endep) clomipramine (Anafranil) desipramine (Norpramin, Pertofrane) doxepin (Adapin, Sinequan) imipramine (Tofranil) nortryptyline (Pamelor) protriptyline (Vivactil) trimipramine (Surmontil) The tetracyclic antidepressant is maprotiline (Ludiomil). Other antidepressant drugs include: bupropion (Wellbutrin) buspirone (Buspar) duloxetine (Cymbalta) mirtazapine (Remeron, Zispin, Avanza, Norset, Remergil) nefazodone (Serzone) reboxetine (Edronax, Vestra) trazodone (Desyrel) venlafaxine (Effexor) Arteriosclerosis: Hardening and thickening of the walls of the arteries. Arteriosclerosis can occur because of fatty deposits on the inner lining of arteries (atherosclerosis), calcification of the wall of the arteries, or thickening of the muscular wall of the arteries from chronically elevated blood pressure (hypertension). Arteritis, temporal: Also called giant cell arteritis or cranial arteritis, this is a serious disease characterized by inflammation of the walls of the blood vessels (vasculitis). The vessels affected by inflammation are the arteries (hence the name "arteritis"). The age of affected patients is usually over 50 years of age. Giant cell arteritis can lead to blindness and/or stroke. It is detected by a biopsy of an artery. It is treated with high dose cortisone. Bi-: Prefix meaning two, as in biceps or bicuspid. Binaural: Relating to both ears. From the Latin bini, a pair, + auris, ear = a pair (of) ears = both ears. Synonymous with stereophonic. While hearing aids may be binaural (in both ears) or monaural (in just one ear), binaural aids are generally considered to be superior. Bronchi: The large air tubes leading from the trachea to the lungs that convey air to and from the lungs. The bronchi have cartilage as part of their supporting wall structure. The trachea divides to form the right and left main bronchi which, in turn, divide to form the lobar, segmental, and finally the subsegmental bronchi. Bronchi is the plural of bronchus from the Greek word bronchos, a conduit to the lungs. Bronchoscopy: A procedure that permits the doctor to see the breathing passages through a lighted tube.

Brachial artery: The artery that runs from the shoulder down to the elbow. Brachy-: Short. From the Greek brachys meaning short. The prefix "brachy-" appears in a number of medical terms including brachycephaly, brachydactyly, and brachytherapy: Brachycephaly is a short head, one that is short in diameter from front to back. Brachydactyly means short, stubby fingers and toes. Brachdactyly is a frequent feature of syndromes of congenital malformation (constellations of birth defects) including Down syndrome (trisomy 21). Brachytherapy is radiation treatment given by placing radioactive material directly in or near the target, which is often a tumor. The opposite of brachytherapy is teletherapy, treatment in which the radiation source is at a distance from the target. Cephalgia: Headache. (One of those things we all know but that defies an easy definition.) Literally, headache is an ache in the head. It is pain in the head. The Greek "algos" means "pain." Cerebral: Pertaining to the brain, the cerebrum or the intellect. The word "cerebral" was borrowed directly from the French "crbral" which was derived from "cerebrum" (Latin for the "brain"). Cerebritis: Inflammation of the brain

Cholecyst: The gallbladder. The word cholecyst is not much used today but it figures into a number of other terms to do with the gallbladder Cholecystectomy is removal of the gallbladder. Cholecystitis is inflammation of the gallbladder. Cholecystogram is an x-ray of the gallbladder. Cholecyst, literally, means, bilebladder. It comes from chol, referring to bile + cyst, a bladder. Cholecystectomy Cholecystitis: Inflammation of the gallbladder, a complication of gallstones which are formed by cholesterol and pigment (bilirubin) in bile. (Bile is produced in the liver and stored in the gallbladder). Cholecystitis is frequently associated with infection in the gallbladder. Risk factors for cholesterol gallstones include age, obesity, female gender, multiple pregnancies, birth control pills, and heredity. The most common symptom is pain in the upper abdomen. Diagnosis is usually made with ultrasound of the abdomen. Some patients have no symptoms. Patients with mild and infrequent symptoms may consider oral medication to dissolve gallstones. Surgery (standard or laparoscopic) is considered for patients with severe symptoms and for patient with cholecystitis. Circum-: Prefix meaning around, surrounding, or encircling. As in circumcision, circumflex, and circumjacent. From the Latin preposition circum meaning round.

Contraceptive, pill: Commonly called "the pill," combined oral contraceptives are the most commonly used form of reversible birth control in the United States. Contraindication: A condition which makes a particular treatment or procedure inadvisable. A contraindication may be absolute or relative.

An absolute contraindication is a situation which makes a particular treatment or procedure absolutely inadvisable. In a baby, for example, aspirin is absolutely contraindicated because of the danger that aspirin will cause Reye syndrome. A relative contraindication is a condition which makes a particular treatment or procedure somewhat inadvisable but does not rule it out. For example, X-rays in pregnancy are relatively contraindicated (because of concern for the developing fetus) unless the X-rays are absolutely necessary. Encephalitis: Inflammation of the brain. Encephalitis occurs, for example, in 1 in 1,000 cases of measles. It may start (up to 3 weeks) after onset of the measles rash and present with high fever, convulsions, and coma. It usually runs a blessedly short course with full recovery within a week. Or it may eventuate in central nervous system impairment or death. Encephalopathy, mitochondrial (MELAS): MELAS is the acronym for Mitochondrial Encephalopathy, Lactic Acidosis, and Strokelike episodes. MELAS is a form of dementia. It is caused by mutations in the genetic material (DNA) in the mitochondria. While most of our DNA is in the chromosomes in the cell nucleus, another important cell structure that carries DNA is the mitochondrion. Much of the DNA within the mitochondrion is used to manufacture proteins that help in the mitochondrion's energy-producing function. Facial nerve paralysis: Loss of voluntary movement of the muscles on one side of the face due to abnormal function of the facial nerve (also known as the 7th cranial nerve) which supplies those muscles. Facial nerve paralysis is also called Bell's palsy. The cause of facial nerve paralysis is often not known, but is thought to be due to a virus. The disease typically starts suddenly and causes paralysis of the muscles of the side of the face on which the facial nerve is affected.

haemoglobin UK, US hemoglobin

noun [U] a substance in red blood cells which combines with and carries oxygen around the body, and gives blood its red colour

Hematoma: An abnormal localized collection of blood in which the blood is usually clotted or partially clotted and is usually situated within an organ or a soft tissue space, such as within a muscle. A hematoma is caused by a break in the wall of a blood vessel. The break may be spontaneous, as in the case of an aneurysm, or caused by trauma. Hematophobia: An abnormal and persistent fear of blood is called hematophobia. Laparoscopy: A type of minimally invasive surgery in which a small incision (cut) is made in the abdominal wall through which an instrument called a laparoscope is inserted to permit structures within the abdomen and pelvis to be seen. Laparotomy: An operation to open the abdomen.

The word "laparotomy" was first used to designate this operation in 1878 by an English surgeon, Thomas Bryant. The word has an interesting derivation. It was compounded from Greek roots "lapara" referring to "the soft parts of the body between the rib cage and the hips" and "tome" meaning "a cutting" = a cutting into that area. Mastectomy: A general term for removal of the breast, usually to remove cancerous tissue. Mastalgia: Pain in the breast or mammary gland. From the Greek masto-, breast + algos, pain. Mammaplasty, reduction Breast reduction. Mammogram: An X-ray of the breast with the breast in a device that compresses and flattens it. There are two basic mammogram tests -- screening mammograms and diagnostic mammograms.

Melan- (prefix): Prefix meaning dark or black. It comes from the Greek "melas", black. Examples of terms containing melan- include melancholia, melanin, melanocytes, melanoma and melena. Melanoderma: Increased skin pigmentation, darkening of the skin. Myelitis: Inflammation of the spinal cord. Myelodysplastic syndrome: A group of bone marrow disorders characterized by the underproduction of one or more types of blood cells due to dysfuntion of the marrow. Osteoarthritis: A type of arthritis caused by inflammation, breakdown, and eventual loss of cartilage in the joints. Also known as degenerative arthritis.

Osteomalacia: Softening of bone, particularly in the sense of bone weakened by demineralization (the loss of mineral) and most notably by the depletion of calcium from bone. Osteomalacia may be caused by poor dietary intake or poor absorption of calcium and other minerals needed to harden bones. Osteomalacia is a characteristic feature of vitamin D deficiency in adults. From the Greek osteo- (bone) + malakia (softness) = softness of bone Osteoporosis: Thinning of the bones with reduction in bone mass due to depletion of calcium and bone protein. Osteoporosis predisposes a person to fractures, which are often slow to heal and heal poorly. It is more common in older adults, particularly post-menopausal women; in patients on steroids; and in those who take steroidal drugs. Unchecked osteoporosis can lead to changes in posture, physical abnormality (particularly the form of hunched back known colloquially as "dowager's hump"), and decreased mobility. Para- (prefix): A prefix with many meanings, including: alongside of, beside, near, resembling, beyond, apart from, and abnormal. For example, the parathyroid glands are called "para-thyroid" because they are adjacent to the thyroid. For another example, paraumbilical means alongside the umbilicus (the belly button). The prefix "para-" comes straight from the Greek. Pancolitis:Ulcerative colitis that involves the entire colon (the large intestine).

Perianal: Located around the anus, the opening of the rectum to the outside of the body. Peri- is a prefix borrowed from the Greek. It means "around or about." So pericardial is around the heart. Perinatal is around birth. And periumbilical is around the umbilicus (the belly button). Peri- is a useful prefix in anatomy and so is much employed in medicine. Pericardial fluid is fluid around the heart. Periaortic lymph nodes are lymph nodes around the aorta. A perianal abscess is an abscess (a local accumulation of pus) that forms next to the anus causing tender swelling in that area and pain on defecation. Premature birth: A birth that takes place before 37 weeks of gestation have passed. Prehypertension: A systolic pressure of 120 to 139 mm Hg or a diastolic pressure of between 80 and 89 mm Hg. Prehypertension is a precursor to chronic high blood pressure.

Prepuce: The fold of skin that covers the head of the penis. Also known as the foreskin. Pyelo: Short for pyelonephritis, which is bacterial infection of the kidney. Pyelonephritis can be acute (sudden) or chronic (slow, subtle, and stubborn). It is most often due to the ascent of bacteria from the bladder up the ureters to infect the kidneys. The symptoms of pyelonephritis include flank (side) pain, fever, shaking chills, sometimes foulsmelling urine, urgency (to urinate), frequency (urinating), and general malaise. Tenderness is elicited on gently tapping over the kidney with a fist (percussion). Retromingent: Urinating backwards. Also an animal such as a raccoon that urinates backwards. As in: "You have revealed yourself as a miserable, carping, retromingent vigilante, and I for one am sick of wasting my time communicating with you" (Benjamin C. Bradlee, Editor, The Washington Post). From the Latin retro- (back) + mingent from mingere (to urinate). Retrosternal: Behind the sternum (the breastbone). Somatic: 1. Relating to the body. a. As distinguished from the mind (the psyche). b. As distinguished from the gonads. From the Greek word somatikos meaning body. Somatoform disorder: Body dysmorphic disorder Superficial: In anatomy, on the surface or shallow. As opposed to deep. The skin is superficial to the muscles. The cornea is on the superficial surface of the eye. Supraglottis: The part of the larynx above the glottis (where the vocal cords are located). The supraglottic larynx includes the epiglottis as well as the false vocal cords, ventricles, aryepiglottic folds, and arytenoids. Transcranial: Through the cranium. As, for example, in transcranial magnetic stimulation.

A (adenine): In genetics, A stands for adenine, one member of the A-T (adenine-thymine) base pair in DNA. The other base pair in DNA is G-C (guanine-cytosine). Each base pair forms a "rung of the DNA ladder." A DNA nucleotide is made of a molecule of sugar, a molecule of phosphoric acid, and a molecule called a base. The bases are the "letters" that spell out the genetic code. In DNA, the code letters are A, T, G, and C, which stand for the chemicals adenine, thymine, guanine, and cytosine, respectively. In DNA base pairing, adenine always pairs with thymine, and guanine always pairs with cytosine. Adenine is also one of the bases in RNA. There it always pairs with uracil (U). The base pairs in RNA are therefore A-U and G-C. a.c.: Abbreviation on a prescription meaning before meals; from the Latin "ante cibum", before meals. This is one of a number of hallowed abbreviations of Latin terms that have traditionally been used in writing prescriptions. Some others: b.i.d. = twice a day (from "bis in die", twice a day) gtt. = drops (from "guttae", drops) p.c. = after meals (from "post cibum", after meals) p.o. = by mouth, orally (from "per os", by mouth) p.r.n. = when necessary (from "pro re nata", for an occasion that has arisen, as circumstances require, as needed) q.d. = once a day (from "quaque die", once a day) q.i.d. = four times a day (from "quater in die", 4 times a day) q._h.: If a medicine is to be taken every so-many hours (from "quaque", every and the "h" indicating the number of hours) q.h. = every hour q.2h. = every 2 hours q.3h. = every 3 hours q.4h. = every 4 hours t.i.d. = three times a day (from "ter in die", 3 times a day) ut dict. = as directed (from "ut dictum", as directed)

Aarskog-Scott syndrome: A syndrome of wide spaced eyes (ocular hypertelorism), front-facing (anteverted) nostrils, a broad upper lip, a malformed ("saddle-bag") scrotum, and laxity of the ligaments resulting in bending back of the knees (genu recurvatum), flat feet, and overly extensible fingers. There are X-linked and autosomal forms of the disease. The gene for the Xlinked form has been mapped to chromosome band Xp11.21 and identified as the FGD1 gene. The disease is named for DJ Aarskog (1928-) and CI Scott, Jr. (1934-), Norwegian and American pediatricians, who described it in 1970 and 1971. It is also known as Aarskog syndrome, faciodigitogenital dysplasia, and faciogenital dysplasia. Aase-Smith syndrome I: A syndrome of congenital malformations (birth defects) characterized by hydrocephalus, cleft palate, and severe arthrogryposis (joint contractures). Other anomalies may include deformed ears, ptosis (drooping) of the eyelids, inability to open the mouth fully,

heart defects, and clubfoot. The fingers are thin with absent knuckles, reduced creases over the joints and inability to make a full fist. The syndrome is inherited as an autosomal dominant trait, transmitted from generation to generation, affecting both males and females. It is named for the American dysmorphologists (birth-defect experts) Jon Aase and David W. Smith. Aase-Smith syndrome II: A genetic disorder that may be detected during early infancy and is characterized by the presence of three bones (phalanges) within the thumbs (triphalangeal thumbs) rather than the normal two and abnormally reduced production of red blood cells (hypoplastic anemia). The exact cause of the syndrome is unknown. However, most evidence suggests that the disorder is inherited as an autosomal recessive trait. The syndrome is named for the American dysmorphologists (birth-defect experts) Jon Aase and David W. Smith. Alternative names for the syndrome include: Anemia and triphalangeal thumbs Congenital anemia and triphalangeal thumbs Hypoplastic anemia-triphalangeal thumbs, Aase-Smith type. Ab ovo: Latin expression for "from the beginning." Ab ovo literally means "from the egg." "Abs" in the plural is commonly used slang for the abdominal muscles. Abbreviations, prescription: A prescription, as is well known, is a physician's order for the preparation and administration of a drug or device for a patient. What may be less well known is that a prescription has several parts: The superscription (or heading) with the symbol R or Rx which stands for the word Recipe, meaning (in Latin) to take; The inscription which contains the names and quantities of the ingredients; The subscription or directions for compounding the drug; and The signature which is often preceded by the sign s. standing for signa, mark, giving the directions to be marked on the container. You may see some chicken scrawl marks on a prescription. For example, b.i.d. It means twice (two times) a day and is an abbreviation for "bis in die" which in Latin means, not too surprisingly, twice a day. It is one of a number of hallowed abbreviations of Latin terms that have been traditionally used in prescriptions to specify the frequency with which medicines should be taken. Some of the abbreviations of terms commonly used in prescriptions with their meanings are: a.c. = before meals (from "ante cibum," before meals) ad lib: use as much as one desires (from "ad libitum") b.i.d. = twice a day caps = capsules da or daw = dispense as written g (or gm or GM) = gram gtt. = drops (from "guttae," drops) h. = hour mg = milligram ml = milliliter

p.c. = after meals (from "post cibum," after meals) p.o. = by mouth, orally (from "per os," by mouth) p.r.n. = when necessary (from "pro re nata," for an occasion that has arisen, as circumstances require, as needed) q.d. = once a day (from "quaque die," once a day) q.i.d. = four times a day (from "quater in die," 4 times a day) q._h.: If a medicine is to be taken every so-many hours (from "quaque," every and the "h" indicating the number of hours) q.h. = every hour q.2h. = every 2 hours q.3h. = every 3 hours q.4h. = every 4 hours t.i.d. = three times a day (from "ter in die," 3 times a day) ut dict. = as directed (from "ut dictum," as directed) The word "prescription" also comes from the Latin "praescriptus" and is made up of "prae," before + "scribere," to write, so that prescription meant "to write before." This reflected the historic fact that a prescription had traditionally to be written before a drug could be prepared and then administered to a patient. Drug caution codes: Abbreviations on medications that indicate caution. While not a part of the historical heritage of ancient prescription abbreviations, drug caution codes provide very valuable warnings. They include both universal and specific caution codes: Universal caution codes: D = drowsiness H = habit forming I = interaction X = SOS (contains a substance such as acetaminophen that could cause problems -- consult your pharmacist) Special caution codes ASA = contains acetylsalicylic acid (aspirin) C = caution G = glaucoma S = diabetes These special caution codes are intended to be warnings for patients with specific medical conditions. For example, a person with hypertension might see the generic "C" code on a prescription bottle or vial if the medication might raise his or her blood pressure. If you see one of the universal or special caution codes on a prescription, talk to your pharmacist about it before using the medicine. In the United States and some other countries, a system of stickers with pictographs is also used to warn of side effects such as drowsiness. ABCD rating: A staging system for prostate cancer.

Abdomen: The belly, that part of the body that contains all of the structures between the chest and the pelvis. The abdomen is separated anatomically from the chest by the diaphragm, the powerful muscle spanning the body cavity below the lungs.

The abdomen includes a host of organs including the stomach, small intestine, colon, rectum, liver, spleen, pancreas, kidneys, appendix, gallbladder, and bladder Abdomen, acute:The abrupt (acute) onset of abdominal pain. A potential medical emergency, an acute abdomen may reflect a major problem with one of the organs in the abdomen such as the appendix (being inflamed = appendicitis), the gallbladder (inflamed = cholecystitis), the intestine (an ulcer that has perforated), the spleen (that has ruptured), etc. The term "acute abdomen" is medical shorthand. It has nonetheless come into common usage in medical parlance. Abdominal aneurysm: An aneurysm situated within the abdomen (belly). An aneurysm is a localized widening (dilatation) of an artery, vein, or the heart. At the area of an aneurysm, there is typically a bulge and the wall is weakened and may rupture. The word "aneurysm" comes from the Greek "aneurysma" meaning "a widening." An aneurysm may involve the aorta, the largest artery in the body, as it courses down through the abdomen. Because of the great volume of blood flowing under high pressure in the aorta, rupture of an abdominal aortic aneurysm is a surefire catastrophe. Abdominal hysterectomy: Surgical removal of the uterus (a hysterectomy) done through an incision made in the abdominal wall. As opposed to a vaginal hysterectomy in which the incision is made within the vagina. Abducent nerve: A small motor nerve that has one task: to supply a muscle called the lateral rectus muscle that moves the eye outward. Paralysis of the abducent nerve causes inward turning of the eye (internal strabismus) leading to double vision. The abducent nerve is the sixth cranial nerve. All 12 cranial nerves, the abducent nerve included, emerge from or enter the skull (the cranium), as opposed to the spinal nerves which emerge from the vertebral column. The word "abducent" comes from the Latin "ab-", away from + "ducere", to draw = to draw away. The abducent (or abducens) operates the lateral rectus muscle that draws the eye toward the side of the head. The abducent nerve is also called the abducens nerve. Abduction: In medicine, the movement of a limb away from the midline of the body. Abduction of both legs spreads the legs. The opposite of abduction is adduction. Adduction of the legs brings them together. From the Latin "ab-" meaning "away from" + "ducere" meaning "to draw or lead" = "to draw away from." Abductor spasmodic dysphonia: A disorder in which sudden muscle spasms cause the vocal folds (or vocal cords) to stay open. See: spasmodic dysphonia. ABG (arterial blood gas): The sampling of the blood levels of oxygen and carbon dioxide within the arteries, as opposed to the levels of oxygen and carbon dioxide in venous blood. Typically, the acidity, or pH, of the blood is measured simultaneously in ABG sampling. Abiotic: 1. Not associated with living organisms. 2. Anything in the environment incapable of life, such as the soil or weather. 3. Incompatible with life or antagonist to it. Also called abiological.

Abiotrophy: Loss of function or degeneration for reasons unknown. For example, cerebellar abiotrophy may affect coordination while cone-rod abiotrophy may cause blindness at birth. Ablation: Removal or excision. Ablation is usually carried out surgically. For example, surgical removal of the thyroid gland (a total thyroidectomy) is ablation of the thyroid. The word ablation comes from the Latin ablatum meaning to carry away. Historically, the word ablation once had mainly a general meaning so that in 1671 the ablation (removal) of a disease was a matter for consideration. But by 1846 "ablation" had taken on a specifically surgical edge and today it applies principally to the surgical removal of any part of the body. ABO blood group: The major human blood group system. A person's ABO type depends upon the presence of absence of two genes --the A and B genes. These genes are encoded on chromosome 9 (in band 9q34.1). They determine part of the configuration of the red blood cell surface. A person can be A, B, AB, or O. If a person has two A genes, their red blood cells are type A. If a person has two B genes, their red cells are type B. If the person has one A and one B gene, their red cells are type AB. If the person has neither the A nor B gene, they are type O. The situation with antibodies in blood plasma is just the opposite. Someone with type A red cells has anti-B antibodies (antibodies directed against type B red cells) in their blood plasma. Someone with type B red cells has anti-A antibodies in plasma. Someone who is type O has both anti-A and anti-B antibodies in plasma. And someone who is type AB has neither anti-A nor anti-B antibodies in plasma. It is most important to determine the ABO status of both donor and recipient in transplants and transfusions by typing and cross-matching. ABO incompatibility in such procedures can be a disaster. The first recorded blood transfusion may have taken place in 1492 when Pope Innocent VIII, laying in a coma, was given the blood of 3 young men. Blood typing and crossmatching was not done. The pope died, as did the 3 donors. In 1901 a Viennese pathologist named Karl Landsteiner (1868-1943) published an article entitled "On Agglutination Phenomena of Normal Human Blood," in which he observed that, when blood was transfused from one human to another, the body often clumped the transfused blood cells and rejected the transfusion, sometimes going in shock. In 1909 Landsteiner classified red blood cells into types A, B, AB and O and showed that the body rejects transfusions of a different blood type. After moving to the Rockefeller Institute in New York, Landsteiner received the Nobel Prize in 1930 for his pioneering research in immunology and blood grouping. Abortifacient: A substance that causes pregnancy to end prematurely and causes an abortion. Abortion, artificial: An abortion that is brought about intentionally. Also called an induced or therapeutic abortion. As opposed to a spontaneous abortion (a miscarriage). Abortion, induced: An abortion that is brought about intentionally. Also called an artificial or therapeutic abortion. As opposed to a spontaneous abortion (a miscarriage). Abortion, spontaneous: A miscarriage, that is, any pregnancy that is not viable (the fetus cannot survive) or in which the fetus is born before the 20th week of pregnancy. Spontaneous

abortion occurs in at least 15-20% of all recognized pregnancies and usually takes place before the 13th week of pregnancy. A spontaneous abortion is as opposed to an induced abortion. In a spontaneous abortion, it is purely accidental, that is spontaneous. ABR (auditory brainstem response): Abbreviation for auditory brainstem response.

ABR test: Auditory brainstem response test. A test for hearing and brain (neurological) functioning. ABR may be used in the evaluation of: Hearing integrity (and neurologic normalcy) in infants and young children. Neurologic integrity (and hearing) in patients who are comatose, unresponsive, or impaired due to a stroke, an acoustic neuroma (tumor on the hearing nerve), Meniere's disease, etc. The ABR test involves attaching electrodes to the head to record electrical activity from the auditory nerve (the hearing nerve) and other parts of the brain. Also known as brainstem auditory evoked potentials (BAEP). Abscess: A local accumulation of pus anywhere in the body. The following are some examples of abscesses: 1. A skin abscess is better known as a common boil; 2. A peritonsillar abscess is a persistent collection of pus behind the tonsils; and 3. A perianal abscess is a pool of pus that forms next to the anus, often causing considerable tenderness and swelling in that area and pain on sitting down and on defecating. Abscission: To remove tissue by cutting it away, as in surgery

Absinthe: Once a major medical hazard, absinthe is an emerald-green liqueur flavored with extracts of the wormwood plant, licorice and aromatic flavorings in a alcohol base. Absinthe was manufactured, commercialized and popularized in France in the late 1700s by Henri-Louis Pernod. It became an extremely popular and addictive drink. Among the famous figures who made absinthe a symbol of decadence were the writer Oscar Wilde, the poet Charles Baudelaire, and the artists Edouard Manet, Vincent Van Gogh, Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec and Pablo Picasso. The first important medical research on absinthe was initiated in 1864 by a psychiatrist, Valentin Jacques Joseph Magnan, who exposed a veritable Noah's arkful of animals to wormwood oil (the essence of absinthe) and alcohol (the base of absinthe). He put cats, rabbits, and guinea pigs under an individual glass case next to a saucer of either wormwood oil or alcohol. The animals that breathed the alcohol fumes became drunk while those that inhaled the vapors of wormwood had epileptic seizures, reported Dr. Magnan in the medical journal The Lancet. Prolonged drinking of absinthe causes convulsions, blindness, hallucinations, and mental deterioration. Absinthe has been banned but something of its taste of absinthe is still available in such drinks as ouzo in Greece and in France, pastis, long considered "the mother's milk of Provence."

Absinthism: The disorder associated with the habitual abuse of absinthe. The symptoms included hallucinations, sleeplessness, tremors, and convulsions. There has been debate over whether absinthism was due to absinthe or the alcohol contained therein.

Absolute CD4 count: The number of "helper" CD4 T-lymphocytes in a cubic millimeter of blood. With HIV, the absolute CD4 count declines as the infection progresses. The absolute CD4 count is frequently used to monitor the extent of immune suppression in persons with HIV. Also called a T4 count. Abstemious: Marked by restraint, especially in the consumption of food or alcohol. From the Latin prefix "abs-," meaning "from" or "away," and the Latin noun "temetum," meaning "intoxicating drink." AC: Abbreviation for a.c. (ante cibum on a prescription); acromioclavicular (shoulder joint); antecubital (crook of elbow). AC joint: Acromioclavicular joint located between the acromion (a projection of the scapula that forms the point of the shoulder) and the clavicle (the collar bone). This is a gliding type of joint. The ligaments that serve to support and strengthen this joint are called the capsular; superior and inferior acromioclavicular; articular disk; and coracoclavicular (trapezoid and conoid) ligaments. Acanthosis nigricans: A skin condition characterized by dark thickened velvety patches, especially in the folds of skin in the axilla (armpit), groin and back of the neck. The condition is complex. It can occur with endocrine diseases such as Cushing disease, tumors of the pituitary, and diabetes mellitus. It is common in people who have insulin resistance -- whose body is not responding correctly to the insulin that they make in their pancreas. Acanthosis nigricans also occurs with underlying malignancies (especially carcinomas of the vicera), administration of certain drugs, and as a genetic disorder inherited in an autosomal dominant manner. Acapnia: Less than the normal level of carbon dioxide in the blood. The opposite of hypercapnia. The origin of the word "acapnia" is curious. It comes from the Greek "a-" meaning "without" + "kapnos" meaning "smoke" so acapnia literally means "smokeless" referring to carbon dioxide which is a principal part of smoke. Acaricide: An agent, usually a chemical, that kills mites. This class of pesticides is large and includes antibiotic acaricides, carbamate acaricides, formamidine acaricides, mite growth regulators, organophosphate acaricides, and many others. From the Latin acarus, a mite + -cide, to kill. ACC: Adenoid cystic carcinoma

Accessory: Additional, extra, supplementary, subsidiary to the main thing. An accessory digestive organ is an organ that helps with digestion but is not part of the digestive tract. The accessory nerve is so-called because it receives an additional (accessory) root from the upper part of the spinal cord. An accessory placenta is an extra placenta separate from the main placenta. Accoucheur: French for a male obstetrician, a physician skilled in the art and science of managing pregnancy, labor and the puerperium (the time after delivery).

ACE (angiotensin converting enzyme): The angiotensins are peptides (substances smaller than proteins) that act as vasoconstricting agents (causing blood vessels to narrow). Narrowing the diameter of the blood vessels sends up the blood pressure. ACE converts angiotensin to its activated form (called angiotensin II) enabling it to function. The ACE inhibitors are drugs that inhibit the formation of angiotensin II and are used for blood pressure control and congestive heart failure. The ACE inhibitors include benazepril (brand name: Lotensin), captopril (brand name: Capoten), lisinopril (brand names: Zestril and Prinivil), quinapril (brand name: Accupril), and ramipril (brand name: Altace). Aceruloplasminemia: A genetic disorder in which there is absence of the protein ceruloplasmin from blood and accumulation of iron in the pancreas, liver and brain, causing diabetes and progressive neurodegeneration with the tremors and gait abnormalities characteristic of Parkinson disease. Ceruloplasmin normally removes iron from cells. The absence of ceruloplasmin leads to the abnormal deposition of iron in cells, including those of the pancreas, liver, retina and the basal ganglia region of the brain. The iron deposition damages these tissues and leads to the clinical features of the disease which usually appear between 30 and 50 years of age. In a typical case, a man in his 40s had a recent history of excessive thirst and urination (due to diabetes) and of progressive confusion. Treatment of the diabetes was begun. One day he suddenly left work and was found at home the next day sitting in a chair with the appearance of not having been to bed. When asked why he was not at work he replied, "What work?" Dementia progressed thereafter. Aggressive treatment with deferoxamine, a chelating agent that takes up iron, may halt the progression of these complications. Acetabulum: The cup-shaped socket of the hip joint. In fact, in Latin an "acetabulum" is cup, a vinegar cup. The acetabulum is a feature of the pelvis. The head (upper end) of the femur (the thighbone) fits into the acetabulum and articulates with it, forming a ball-and-socket joint. Acetaminophen: A pain reliever and fever reducer. Brand name: Tylenol. The exact mechanism of action of acetaminophen is not known. Acetaminophen relieves pain by elevating the pain threshold (that is, by requiring a greater amount of pain to develop before it is felt by a person). Acetaminophen reduces fever through its action on the heat-regulating center (the "thermostat") of the brain.

Achalasia: A disease of the esophagus caused by the abnormal function of nerves and muscles of the esophagus that makes swallowing difficult. There may sometimes be chest pain. Regurgitation of undigested food can occur, as can coughing or breathing problems due to entry of food into the lungs. The underlying problems are weakness of the lower portion of the esophagus and failure of the lower esophageal sphincter to open and allow passage of food. Achalasia may occur at any age but is predominantly a disease of young adults. Diagnosis is made by an X-ray, endoscopy, or esophageal manometry (to measure the pressure in the esophagus). Treatment includes medication, dilation (stretching) to widen the lower part of the esophagus, and surgery to open the lower esophagus. A fairly recent approach involves injecting medicines into the lower esophagus to relax the sphincter.

The "ch" in achalasia is pronounced "k" as in "ache". The word achalasia comes from the Greek "a-", failure or absence + "chalasis", relaxation = a failure of relaxation, referring to failure of the lower sphincter muscle of the esophagus to relax. Achillobursitis: Pain due to inflammation of the bursa associated with the Achilles tendon. . The Achilles tendon is one of the better known anatomic features in sports medicine due to the abrupt dramatic nature of some injuries to this tendon. It is in the back of the lower leg and connects the calf muscle (the triceps surae) with the calcaneus bone in the heel. This tendon is so named for the hero whose heel, according to Greek mythology, was the only part of his body where he could be hurt. Inflammation in the Achilles tendon and bursa is collectively known as achillodynia. Achromatopsia: An hereditary disorder of sight due to a lack of cone vision - that type of vision provided by the cone photoreceptors in the retina. In the normal eye, there are some 6 million cone photoreceptors; they are located largely in the center of the retina. Lacking cones, persons with achromatopsia have to rely on their rod photoreceptors. There are about 100 million rod photoreceptors which are located mainly around the periphery of the retina. Rods saturate at higher levels of illumination and do not provide color vision or good detail vision. Achromats (people with achromatopsia) are therefore completely colorblind or nearly so and have very poor visual acuity. Their eyes do not adapt normally to higher levels of illumination and are very light sensitive (photophobic). There are many degrees of severity of symptoms among achromats. Of all achromats, those who are complete rod monochromats have the most severely impaired vision. There are also incomplete rod monochromats and blue cone monochromats who are less severely affected. Acidosis: Too much acid in the body, a distinctly abnormal condition resulting from the accumulation of acid or from the depletion of alkaline reserves. In acidosis, the pH of the blood is abnormally low. Acidosis is associated with diabetic ketoacidosis, lung disease, and severe kidney disease. The opposite of acidosis is alkalosis in which there is too high a pH due to excess base or insufficient acid in the body. Acne: Localized skin inflammation as a result of overactivity of the oil glands at the base of hair follicles. Acne happens when oil (sebaceous) glands come to life around puberty, when these glands are stimulated by male hormones that are produced in the adrenal glands of both boys and girls. Acquired immunodeficiency syndrome: AIDS. AIDS is a disease due to infection with the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV). Also referred to as acquired immunodeficiency disease. Acromion: The projection of the scapula (the shoulder blade) that forms the point of the shoulder. The acromion is part of the scapula. It protrudes laterally (away from the midline) and is triangular in shape. The top of the shoulder is acromial. The word "acromion" comes from the Greek "akron", peak + "omos", shoulder = the peak of the shoulder. Acromegaly: Condition due to the production of too much growth hormone by the pituitary gland after the end of adolescence.

When there is secretion of too much growth hormone before the end of adolescence, gigantism results. People with pituitary gigantism can truly be giants; they can sometimes end up over 7 or 8 feet in height. Acute: Of abrupt onset, in reference to a disease. Acute often also connotes an illness that is of short duration, rapidly progressive, and in need of urgent care. "Acute" is a measure of the time scale of a disease and is in contrast to "subacute" and "chronic." "Subacute" indicates longer duration or less rapid change. "Chronic" indicates indefinite duration or virtually no change. The time scale depends on the particular disease. For example, an acute myocardial infarction (heart attack) may last a week while an acute sore throat may only last a day or two. Ad lib: Abbreviation for the Latin "ad libitum" meaning "at pleasure" and "at one's pleasure, as much as one desires, to the full extent of one's wishes." Sometimes seen on a prescription or doctor's order. For example, during an overnight fast when the patient is not to eat any food but can have water, the doctor's order might read: "Water ad lib" (water as desired). Addiction: A chronic relapsing condition characterized by compulsive drug-seeking and abuse and by long-lasting chemical changes in the brain. Addiction is the same irrespective of whether the drug is alcohol, amphetamines, cocaine, heroin, marijuana, or nicotine. Every addictive substance induces pleasant states or relieves distress. Continued use of the addictive substance induces adaptive changes in the brain that lead to tolerance, physical dependence, uncontrollable craving and, all too often, relapse. Dependence is at such a point that stopping is very difficult and causes severe physical and mental reactions from withdrawal. The risk of addiction is in part inherited. Genetic factors, for example, account for about 40% of the risk of alcoholism. The genetic factors predisposing to addiction are not yet fully understood. Adeno-: Prefix referring to a gland, as in adenoma and adenopathy. From the Greek aden meaning originally "an acorn" and later "a gland" in the form of an acorn. Before a vowel, adenobecomes aden-, as in adenitis (inflammation of a gland). ADH secretion, inappropriate: The syndrome of inappropriate secretion of antidiuretic hormone (ADH) results in the inability to put out dilute urine, perturbs fluid (and electrolyte) balance, and causes nausea, vomiting, muscle cramps, confusion and convulsions. This syndrome may occur, for example, with oat-cell lung cancer, pancreatic cancer, prostate cancer, and Hodgkin's disease as well as a number of other disorders. Adipose: "Adipose" means "fat" but is usually used to refer specifically to tissue made up of mainly fat cells such as the yellow layer of fat beneath the skin. The word "adipose" comes from the Latin "adeps" meaning "fat, particularly lard." Adjuvant: The Latin "adjuvans" means to help, particularly to reach a goal. Adjuvant therapy for cancer is surgery followed by chemotherapy or radiation to help decrease the risk of the cancer recurring (coming back). An adjuvant is a substance that helps and enhances the pharmacological effect of a drug or increases the ability of an antigen to stimulate the immune system.

Admitting physician: The doctor responsible for admitting a patient to a hospital or other inpatient health facility. Adnexa: This Latin word (in the plural) is used in medicine in reference to appendages. For example, in gynecology the adnexa are the "appendages" of the uterus, namely the ovaries, Fallopian tubes and ligaments that hold the uterus in place. Adrenoleukodystrophy: A rare genetic (inherited) disorder characterized by the breakdown or loss of the myelin sheath surrounding nerve cells in the brain and progressive dysfunction of the adrenal gland. Adrenoleukodystrophy (ALD) is one of a group of genetic disorders called the leukodystrophies that cause damage to the myelin sheath of the nerve fibers in the brain. The myelin sheath is a fatty covering which acts as an electrical insulator. There are several forms of ALD: The classic childhood form, which is the most severe and affects only boys, may occur between ages 4 and 10. It affects only boys because the gene is on the X chromosome. Features of this form may include visual loss, learning disabilities, seizures, dysarthria (poorly articulated speech), dysphagia (difficulty swallowing), deafness, disturbances of gait and coordination, fatigue, intermittent vomiting, melanoderma (increased skin pigmentation), and progressive dementia. The most common symptoms are usually behavioral changes such as abnormal withdrawal or aggression, poor memory, and poor school performance. Women carriers: Another form of ALD is occasionally seen in women who are carriers of the disorder. Symptoms are mild and may include spastic paraparesis of the lower limbs, ataxia, hypertonia (excessive muscle tone), mild peripheral neuropathy, and urinary problems. The milder adult-onset form typically begins between ages 21 and 35. Symptoms may include leg stiffness, progressive spastic paraparesis (stiffness, weakness and/or paralysis) of the lower extremities, and ataxia. Although adult-onset ALD progresses more slowly than the classic childhood form, it can also result in deterioration of brain function. Neonatal (newborn) ALD affects both male and female babies. Symptoms may include mental retardation, facial abnormalities, seizures, retinal degeneration, hypotonia (low muscle tone), hepatomegaly (enlarged liver), and adrenal dysfunction. This form is usually quickly progressive. The treatment for all forms of ALD is symptomatic and supportive. Physical therapy, psychological support, and special education may be useful for some individuals. The prognosis for patients with ALD is generally poor due to progressive neurological deterioration. Death usually occurs within 1 to 10 years after the onset of symptoms. Adventitia: The outermost connective tissue covering of any organ, vessel, or other structure. For example, the connective tissue that surrounds an artery is called the adventitia because it is considered extraneous to the artery. "Adventitia" comes from the Latin "adventicius" meaning "foreign, strange, extraneous, coming from abroad or from outside." Other English words that stem from "advenire" include "adventure" and "avenue." A related term is "adventititious" meaning "coming from an external source or occurring in an unusual place or manner." When a doctor or nurse listens to the chest or abdomen, adventitious sounds are those that are normally not heard coming from the chest or abdomen.

Adverse effect: A harmful or abnormal result. An adverse effect may be caused by administration of a medication or by exposure to a chemical and be indicated by an untoward result such as by illness or death. Aerophagia: Swallowing too much air, a common cause of gas in the stomach and belching. Everyone swallows small amounts of air when eating or drinking. However, rapid eating or drinking, chewing gum, smoking, or ill-fitting dentures may cause a significant increase in swallowed air. The word "phage" in Greek means "to eat." Aerophagia is literally to eat air. Ageusia: The inability to taste sweet, sour, bitter, or salty substances. Some people can taste but their ability to do so is reduced; they are said to have hypogeusia. Agnosia: The inability to recognize and identify objects or persons despite having knowledge of the characteristics of those objects or persons. People with agnosia may have difficulty recognizing the geometric features of an object or face or may be able to perceive the geometric features but not know what the object is used for or whether a face is familiar or not. Agnosia can be limited to one sensory modality such as vision or hearing. For example, a person may have difficulty in recognizing an object as a cup or identifying a sound as a cough. Agnosia can result from strokes, dementia, or other neurological disorders. It typically results from damage to specific brain areas in the occipital or parietal lobes of the brain. People with agnosia may retain their cognitive abilities in other areas. Agyrophobia: Abnormal and persistent fear of crossing streets, highways and other thoroughfares; fear of thoroughfares themselves. Sufferers experience anxiety even though they realize that streets, highways and other thoroughfares pose no threat commensurate with their fear. Formed from the Greek "gyrus" (turning or whirling) and the Greek "phobos" (fear). The first letter, "a," is privative--that is, it creates a negative. Thus, an agyrophobiac shuns or avoids the whirl of traffic.

-itis: Suffix meaning inflammation. For example, colitis is literally colon inflammation or figuratively inflammation of the colon. The ending -itis is one of the building blocks derived from Greek (in this case) or Latin used to construct medical terms. Vasculitis is a general term for a group of uncommon diseases that feature inflammation of the blood vessels. The blood vessels of the body are referred to as the vascular system. The blood vessels are composed of arteries that pass oxygen-rich blood to the tissues of the body and veins that return oxygen-depleted blood from the tissues to the lungs for oxygen. Vasculitis is characterized by inflammation in and damage to the walls of various blood vessels. Adenitis: Inflammation of a gland. From the aden-, gland + -itis, inflammation. Gastritis: Inflammation of the stomach. From the Latin gastricus meaning stomach + -itis, meaning inflammation. Anoxia: 1. Strictly speaking, the absence of oxygen. 2. The near absence of oxygen. 3. Sometimes used loosely as a synonym for hypoxia. From an (without) + -ox- (oxygen) + ia == the state of being without oxygen. </P< HTML> Brachy-: Short. From the Greek brachys meaning short. The prefix "brachy-" appears in a number of medical terms including brachycephaly, brachydactyly, and brachytherapy: Brachycephaly is a short head, one that is short in diameter from front to back. Brachydactyly means short, stubby fingers and toes. Brachdactyly is a frequent feature of syndromes of congenital malformation (constellations of birth defects) including Down syndrome ( The calf is made up mainly of the gastrocnemius muscle (which comes from the Greek "gastroknemia" meaning calf of the leg, from "gaster" (gastr-), belly, + "kneme," leg). The word "calf" comes through the Anglo-Saxon, it is thought, from the Indo-European "gelbh" meaning to bunch up, as do the muscles of the calf. Calor: Heat, one of the four classic signs of inflammation (together with dolor, rubor and tumor). From the Latin calor, heat. See also: Dolor; Rubor; Tumor. Dolor: 1. Pain, one of the four classic signs of inflammation (together with calor, rubor and tumor). 2. By extension, grief or sorrow. From Latin dolor, pain. Rubor: Redness, one of the four classic signs of inflammation (together with dolor, calor, and tumor). From the Latin rubor, heat. Chronic: This important term in medicine comes from the Greek chronos, time and means lasting a long time. A chronic condition is one lasting 3 months or more, by the definition of the U.S. National Center for Health Statistics. In ancient Greece, the "father of medicine" Hippocrates distinguished diseases that were acute (abrupt, sharp and brief) from those that were chronic. This is still a very useful distinction. Subacute has been coined to designate the mid-ground between acute and chronic.

Cloaca: A common passageway for feces, urine and reproduction. At one point in the development of the human embryo, there is a cloaca. It is the far end of a structure called the hindgut. This structure then divides to form a rectum, a bladder, and genitalia. The presence of a cloaca is normal in many adult animals (birds, reptiles, amphibians, some fish, and even a few mammals). However, the persistence of a persistent cloaca in a person is a birth defect (a congenital malformation). Cloaca is the Latin word for drain or sewer. The colon is sometimes inaccurately called the large intestine or large bowel. It is only a part of the large intestine/bowel. The confusion may have arisen because the word "colon" came from "kolon" which to the ancient Greeks meant the large intestine. Colpo-: Combining form referring to the vagina, as in colposcopy (inspection of the vagina) and colpotomy (incision of the vagina). From the Greek kolpos meaning a fold, cleft, or hollow. Congenital comes from the Latin congenitus which is made up of com-, with + genitus, the past participle of gignere, to bring forth. The word "congenital" has not been used in English since its birth but first appeared in 1796. The term "congenital" is synonymous with "innate." Cyto-: Prefix denoting a cell. "Cyto-" is derived from the Greek "kytos" meaning "hollow, as a cell or container." From the same root come the combining form "-cyto-" and the suffix "-cyte" which similarly denote a cell. Cyto-, -cyto- and -cyte enter into many words and terms used in medicine, including adipocyte, agranulocytosis, cytogenetics, cytokine, cytomegalovirus, cytometry, cytoplasm, cytotoxic, elliptocytosis, erythrocyte, granulocyte, histiocyte, leukocyte, lymphocyte, lymphocytosis, macrocyte, megakaryocyte, melanocyte, monocyte, oocyte, pancytopenia, phagocyte, spherocytosis, thrombocyte, and thrombocytopenia. Dacryo-: A combining form denoting tears, as in dacryocyst (tear sac) and dacryocystorhinostomy (surgery to open up a tear duct). From the Greek dakry meaning "a tear."

The word "hematoma" came into usage around 1850. It was devised from Greek roots -- hemat-, referring to the blood + -oma, from soma meaning body = a bloody body, or a collection of blood. Hemi-: Prefix meaning one half, as in hemiparesis, hemiplegia, and hemithorax. From the Greek hemisus meaning half and equivalent to the Latin semi-. As a general rule, not always followed, hemi- goes with words of Greek origin and semi- with those of Latin origin. Hepatic-: A combining form used before a vowel to indicate a relationship to a hepatic duct or the liver. From the Greek hepar meaning liver.

Keith Gordon Irwin, The Romance of Writing, (New York: The Viking Press, 1968), p. 57. R. W. Livingstone, "Literature," in The Legacy of Greece, (Oxford, Great Britain: University Press, 1962), p. 253.

How Languages Influence Each Other

LANGUAGES, like cultures, are rarely sufficient unto themselves. The necessities of intercourse bring the speakers of one language into direct or indirect contact with those of neighboring or culturally dominant languages. The intercourse may be friendly or hostile. It may move on the humdrum plane of business and trade relations or it may consist of a borrowing or interchange of spiritual goodsart, science, religion. It would be difficult to point to a completely isolated language or dialect, least of all among the primitive peoples. The tribe is often so small that intermarriages with alien tribes that speak other dialects or even totally unrelated languages are not uncommon. It may even be doubted whether intermarriage, intertribal trade, and general cultural interchanges are not of greater relative significance on primitive levels than on our own. Whatever the degree or nature of contact between neighboring peoples, it is generally sufficient to lead to some kind of linguistic interinfluencing. Frequently the influence runs heavily in one direction. The language of a people that is looked upon as a center of culture is naturally far more likely to exert an appreciable influence on other languages spoken in its vicinity than to be influenced by them. Chinese has flooded the vocabularies of Corean, Japanese, and Annamite for centuries, but has received nothing in return. In the western Europe of medieval and modern times French has exercised a similar, though probably a less overwhelming, influence. English borrowed an immense number of words from the French of the Norman invaders, later also from the court French of Isle de France, appropriated a certain number of affixed elements of derivational value (e.g., -ess of princess, -ard of drunkard, -ty of royalty), may have been somewhat stimulated in its general analytic drift by contact with French, 1 and even allowed French to modify its phonetic pattern slightly (e.g., initial v and j in words like veal and judge; in words of Anglo-Saxon origin v and j can only occur after vowels, e.g., over, hedge). But English has exerted practically no influence on French. The simplest kind of influence that one language may exert on another is the borrowing of words. When there is cultural borrowing there is always the likelihood that the associated words may be borrowed too. When the early Germanic peoples of northern Europe first learned of wine-culture and of paved streets from their commercial or warlike contact with the Romans, it was only natural that they should adopt the Latin words for the strange beverage (vinum, English wine, German Wein) and the unfamiliar type of road (strata [via], English street, German Strasse). Later, when Christianity was introduced into England, a number of associated words, such as bishop and angel, found their way into English. And so the process has continued uninterruptedly down to the present day, each cultural wave bringing to the language a new deposit of loan-words. The careful study of such loan-words constitutes an interesting commentary on the history of culture. One can almost estimate the rle which various peoples have played in the development and spread of cultural ideas by taking note of the extent to which their vocabularies have filtered into those of other peoples. When we realize that an educated Japanese can hardly frame a single literary sentence without the use of Chinese resources, that to this day Siamese and Burmese and Cambodgian bear the unmistakable imprint of the Sanskrit and Pali that came in with Hindu Buddhism centuries ago, or that whether we
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argue for or against the teaching of Latin and Greek our argument is sure to be studded with words that have come to us from Rome and Athens, we get some inkling of what early Chinese culture and Buddhism and classical Mediterranean civilization have meant in the worlds history. There are just five languages that have had an over-whelming significance as carriers of culture. They are classical Chinese, Sanskrit, Arabic, Greek, and Latin. In comparison with these even such culturally important languages as Hebrew and French sink into a secondary position. It is a little disappointing to learn that the general cultural influence of English has so far been all but negligible. The English language itself is spreading because the English have colonized immense territories. But there is nothing to show that it is anywhere entering into the lexical heart of other languages as French has colored the English complexion or as Arabic has permeated Persian and Turkish. This fact alone is significant of the power of nationalism, cultural as well as political, during the last century. There are now psychological resistances to borrowing, or rather to new sources of borrowing, 2 that were not greatly alive in the Middle Ages or during the Renaissance. Are there resistances of a more intimate nature to the borrowing of words? It is generally assumed that the nature and extent of borrowing depend entirely on the historical facts of culture relation; that if German, for instance, has borrowed less copiously than English from Latin and French it is only because Germany has had less intimate relations than England with the culture spheres of classical Rome and France. This is true to a considerable extent, but it is not the whole truth. We must not exaggerate the physical importance of the Norman invasion nor underrate the significance of the fact that Germanys central geographical position made it peculiarly sensitive to French influences all through the Middle Ages, to humanistic influences in the latter fifteenth and early sixteenth centuries, and again to the powerful French influences of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. It seems very probable that the psychological attitude of the borrowing language itself towards linguistic material has much to do with its receptivity to foreign words. English has long been striving for the completely unified, unanalyzed word, regardless of whether it is monosyllabic or polysyllabic. Such words as credible, certitude, intangible are entirely welcome in English because each represents a unitary, well-nuanced idea and because their formal analysis (cred-ible, certitude, in-tang-ible) is not a necessary act of the unconscious mind (cred-, cert-, and tang- have no real existence in English comparable to that of good- in goodness). A word like intangible, once it is acclimated, is nearly as simple a psychological entity as any radical monosyllable (say vague, thin, grasp). In German, however, polysyllabic words strive to analyze themselves into significant elements. Hence vast numbers of French and Latin words, borrowed at the height of certain cultural influences, could not maintain themselves in the language. Latin-German words like kredibel credible and French-German words like reussieren to succeed offered nothing that the unconscious mind could assimilate to its customary method of feeling and handling words. It is as though this unconscious mind said: I am perfectly willing to accept kredibel if you will just tell me what you mean by kred-. Hence German has generally found it easier to create new words out of its own resources, as the necessity for them arose. The psychological contrast between English and German as regards the treatment of foreign material is a contrast that may be studied in all parts of the world. The Athabaskan languages of America are spoken by peoples that have had astonishingly

varied cultural contacts, yet nowhere do we find that an Athabaskan dialect has borrowed at all freely 3 from a neighboring language. These languages have always found it easier to create new words by compounding afresh elements ready to hand. They have for this reason been highly resistant to receiving the linguistic impress of the external cultural experiences of their speakers. Cambodgian and Tibetan offer a highly instructive contrast in their reaction to Sanskrit influence. Both are analytic languages, each totally different from the highly-wrought, inflective language of India. Cambodgian is isolating, but, unlike Chinese, it contains many polysyllabic words whose etymological analysis does not matter. Like English, therefore, in its relation to French and Latin, it welcomed immense numbers of Sanskrit loan-words, many of which are in common use to-day. There was no psychological resistance to them. Classical Tibetan literature was a slavish adaptation of Hindu Buddhist literature and nowhere has Buddhism implanted itself more firmly than in Tibet, yet it is strange how few Sanskrit words have found their way into the language. Tibetan was highly resistant to the polysyllabic words of Sanskrit because they could not automatically fall into significant syllables, as they should have in order to satisfy the Tibetan feeling for form. Tibetan was therefore driven to translating the great majority of these Sanskrit words into native equivalents. The Tibetan craving for form was satisfied, though the literally translated foreign terms must often have done violence to genuine Tibetan idiom. Even the proper names of the Sanskrit originals were carefully translated, element for element, into Tibetan; e.g., Suryagarbha Sun-bosomed was carefully Tibetanized into Nyi-mai snying-po Sun-of heart-the, the heart (or essence) of the sun. The study of how a language reacts to the presence of foreign wordsrejecting them, translating them, or freely accepting themmay throw much valuable light in its innate formal tendencies. The borrowing of foreign words always entails their phonetic modification. There are sure to be foreign sounds or accentual peculiarities that do not fit the native phonetic habits. They are then so changed as to do as little violence as possible to these habits. Frequently we have phonetic compromises. Such an English word as the recently introduced camouflage, as now ordinarily pronounced, corresponds to the typical phonetic usage of neither English nor French. The aspirated k, the obscure vowel of the second syllable, the precise quality of the l and of the last a, and, above all, the strong accent on the first syllable, are all the results of unconscious assimilation to our English habits of pronunciation. They differentiate our camouflage clearly from the same word as pronounced by the French. On the other hand, the long, heavy vowel in the third syllable and the final position of the zh sound (like z in azure) are distinctly un-English, just as, in Middle English, the initial j and v 4 must have been felt at first as not strictly in accord with English usage, though the strangeness has worn off by now. In all four of these casesinitial j, initial v, final zh, and unaccented a of fatherEnglish has not taken on a new sound but has merely extended the use of an old one. Occasionally a new sound is introduced, but it is likely to melt away before long. In Chaucers day the old Anglo-Saxon (written y) had long become unrounded to i, but a new set of -vowels had come in from the French (in such words as due, value, nature). The new did not long hold its own; it became diphthongized to iu and was amalgamated with the native iw of words like new and slew. Eventually this diphthong appears as yu, with change of stressdew (from Anglo-Saxon deaw) like due (Chaucerian d). Facts like these show how stubbornly a language resists radical tampering with its phonetic

pattern. Nevertheless, we know that languages do influence each other in phonetic respects, and that quite aside from the taking over of foreign sounds with borrowed words. One of the most curious facts that linguistics has to note is the occurrence of striking phonetic parallels in totally unrelated or very remotely related languages of a restricted geographical area. These parallels become especially impressive when they are seen contrastively from a wide phonetic perspective. Here are a few examples. The Germanic languages as a whole have not developed nasalized vowels. Certain Upper German (Suabian) dialects, however, have now nasalized vowels in lieu of the older vowel + nasal consonant (n). Is it only accidental that these dialects are spoken in proximity to French, which makes abundant use of nasalized vowels? Again, there are certain general phonetic features that mark off Dutch and Flemish in contrast, say, to North German and Scandinavian dialects. One of these is the presence of unaspirated voiceless stops (p, t, k), which have a precise, metallic quality reminiscent of the corresponding French sounds, but which contrast with the stronger, aspirated stops of English, North German, and Danish. Even if we assume that the unaspirated stops are more archaic, that they are the unmodified descendants of the old Germanic consonants, is it not perhaps a significant historical fact that the Dutch dialects, neighbors of French, were inhibited from modifying these consonants in accordance with what seems to have been a general Germanic phonetic drift? Even more striking than these instances is the peculiar resemblance, in certain special phonetic respects, of Russian and other Slavic languages to the unrelated Ural-Altaic languages 5 of the Volga region. The peculiar, dull vowel, for instance, known in Russian as yeri 6 has Ural-Altaic analogues, but is entirely wanting in Germanic, Greek, Armenian, and Indo-Iranian, the nearest Indo-European congeners of Slavic. We may at least suspect that the Slavic vowel is not historically unconnected with its Ural-Altaic parallels. One of the most puzzling cases of phonetic parallelism is afforded by a large number of American Indian languages spoken west of the Rockies. Even at the most radical estimate there are at least four totally unrelated linguistic stocks represented in the region from southern Alaska to central California. Nevertheless all, or practically all, the languages of this immense area have some important phonetic features in common. Chief of these is the presence of a glottalized series of stopped consonants of very distinctive formation and of quite unusual acoustic effect. 7 In the northern part of the area all the languages, whether related or not, also possess various voiceless l-sounds and a series of velar (backguttural) stopped consonants which are etymologically distinct from the ordinary k-series. It is difficult to believe that three such peculiar phonetic features as I have mentioned could have evolved independently in neighboring groups of languages. How are we to explain these and hundreds of similar phonetic convergences? In particular cases we may really be dealing with archaic similarities due to a genetic relationship that it is beyond our present power to demonstrate. But this interpretation will not get us far. It must be ruled entirely out of court, for instance, in two of the three European examples I have instanced; both nasalized vowels and the Slavic yeri are demonstrably of secondary origin in Indo-European. However we envisage the process in detail, we cannot avoid the inference that there is a tendency for speech sounds or certain distinctive manners of articulation to spread over a continuous area in somewhat the same way that elements of culture ray out from a geographical center. We may suppose that

individual variations arising at linguistic borderlandswhether by the unconscious suggestive influence of foreign speech habits or by the actual transfer of foreign sounds into the speech of bilingual individualshave gradually been incorporated into the phonetic drift of a language. So long as its main phonetic concern is the preservation of its sound patterning, not of its sounds as such, there is really no reason why a language may not unconsciously assimilate foreign sounds that have succeeded in working their way into its gamut of individual variations, provided always that these new variations (or reinforced old variations) are in the direction of the native drift. A simple illustration will throw light on this conception. Let us suppose that two neighboring and unrelated languages, A and B, each possess voiceless l-sounds (compare Welsh ll). We surmise that this is not an accident. Perhaps comparative study reveals the fact that in language A the voiceless l-sounds correspond to a sibilant series in other related languages, that an old alternation s: sh has been shifted to the new alternation l (voiceless): s. 8 Does it follow that the voiceless l of language B has had the same history? Not in the least. Perhaps B has a strong tendency toward audible breath release at the end of a word, so that the final l, like a final vowel, was originally followed by a marked aspiration. Individuals perhaps tended to anticipate a little the voiceless release and to unvoice the latter part of the final l-sound (very much as the l of English words like felt tends to be partly voiceless in anticipation of the voicelessness of the t). Yet this final l with its latent tendency to unvoicing might never have actually developed into a fully voiceless l had not the presence of voiceless l-sounds in A acted as an unconscious stimulus or suggestive push toward a more radical change in the line of Bs own drift. Once the final voiceless l emerged, its alternation in related words with medial voiced l is very likely to have led to its analogical spread. The result would be that both A and B have an important phonetic trait in common. Eventually their phonetic systems, judged as mere assemblages of sounds, might even become completely assimilated to each other, though this is an extreme case hardly ever realized in practice. The highly significant thing about such phonetic interinfluencings is the strong tendency of each language to keep its phonetic pattern intact. So long as the respective alignments of the similar sounds is different, so long as they have differing values and weights in the unrelated languages, these languages cannot be said to have diverged materially from the line of their inherent drift. In phonetics, as in vocabulary, we must be careful not to exaggerate the importance of interlinguistic influences. I have already pointed out in passing that English has taken over a certain number of morphological elements from French. English also uses a number of affixes that are derived from Latin and Greek. Some of these foreign elements, like the -ize of materialize or the -able of breakable, are even productive to-day. Such examples as these are hardly true evidences of a morphological influence exerted by one language on another. Setting aside the fact that they belong to the sphere of derivational concepts and do not touch the central morphological problem of the expression of relational ideas, they have added nothing to the structural peculiarities of our language. English was already prepared for the relation of pity to piteous by such a native pair as luck and lucky; material and materialize merely swelled the ranks of a form pattern familiar from such instances as wide and widen. In other words, the morphological influence exerted by foreign languages on English, if it is to be gauged by such examples as I have cited, is hardly different in kind from the mere borrowing of words. The introduction of the suffix -ize

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made hardly more difference to the essential build of the language than did the mere fact that it incorporated a given number of words. Had English evolved a new future on the model of the synthetic future in French or had it borrowed from Latin and Greek their employment of reduplication as a functional device (Latin tango: tetigi; Greek leipo: leloipa), we should have the right to speak of true morphological influence. But such farreaching influences are not demonstrable. Within the whole course of the history of the English language we can hardly point to one important morphological change that was not determined by the native drift, though here and there we may surmise that this drift was hastened a little by the suggestive influence of French forms. 9 It is important to realize the continuous, self-contained morphological development of English and the very modest extent to which its fundamental build has been affected by influences from without. The history of the English language has sometimes been represented as though it relapsed into a kind of chaos on the arrival of the Normans, who proceeded to play nine-pins with the Anglo-Saxon tradition. Students are more conservative today. That a far-reaching analytic development may take place without such external foreign influence as English was subjected to is clear from the history of Danish, which has gone even further than English in certain leveling tendencies. English may be conveniently used as an a fortiori test. It was flooded with French loan-words during the later Middle Ages, at a time when its drift toward the analytic type was especially strong. It was therefore changing rapidly both within and on the surface. The wonder, then, is not that it took on a number of external morphological features, mere accretions on its concrete inventory, but that, exposed as it was to remolding influences, it remained so true to its own type and historic drift. The experience gained from the study of the English language is strengthened by all that we know of documented linguistic history. Nowhere do we find any but superficial morphological interinfluencings. We may infer one of several things from this:That a really serious morphological influence is not, perhaps, impossible, but that its operation is so slow that it has hardly ever had the chance to incorporate itself in the relatively small portion of linguistic history that lies open to inspection; or that there are certain favorable conditions that make for profound morphological disturbances from without, say a peculiar instability of linguistic type or an unusual degree of cultural contact, conditions that do not happen to be realized in our documentary material; or, finally, that we have not the right to assume that a language may easily exert a remolding morphological influence on another. Meanwhile we are confronted by the baffling fact that important traits of morphology are frequently found distributed among widely differing languages within a large area, so widely differing, indeed, that it is customary to consider them genetically unrelated. Some times we may suspect that the resemblance is due to a mere convergence, that a similar morphological feature has grown up independently in unrelated languages. Yet certain morphological distributions are too specific in character to be so lightly dismissed. There must be some historical factor to account for them. Now it should be remembered that the concept of a linguistic stock is never definitive 10 in an exclusive sense. We can only say, with reasonable certainty, that such and such languages are descended from a common source, but we cannot say that such and such other languages are not genetically related. All we can do is to say that the evidence for relationship is not cumulative enough to make the inference of common origin absolutely necessary. May it not be, then, that many instances of morphological similarity between divergent languages of a restricted

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area are merely the last vestiges of a community of type and phonetic substance that the destructive work of diverging drifts has now made unrecognizable? There is probably still enough lexical and morphological resemblance between modern English and Irish to enable us to make out a fairly conclusive case for their genetic relationship on the basis of the present-day descriptive evidence alone. It is true that the case would seem weak in comparison to the case that we can actually make with the help of the historical and the comparative data that we possess. It would not be a bad case nevertheless. In another two or three millennia, however, the points of resemblance are likely to have become so obliterated that English and Irish, in the absence of all but their own descriptive evidence, will have to be set down as unrelated languages. They will still have in common certain fundamental morphological features, but it will be difficult to know how to evaluate them. Only in the light of the contrastive perspective afforded by still more divergent languages, such as Basque and Finnish, will these vestigial resemblances receive their true historic value. I cannot but suspect that many of the more significant distributions of morphological similarities are to be explained as just such vestiges. The theory of borrowing seems totally inadequate to explain those fundamental features of structure, hidden away in the very core of the linguistic complex, that have been pointed out as common, say, to Semitic and Hamitic, to the various Soudanese languages, to Malayo-Polynesian and Mon-Khmer 11 and Munda, 12 to Athabaskan and Tlingit and Haida. We must not allow ourselves to be frightened away by the timidity of the specialists, who are often notably lacking in the sense of what I have called contrastive perspective. Attempts have sometimes been made to explain the distribution of these fundamental structural features by the theory of diffusion. We know that myths, religious ideas, types of social organization, industrial devices, and other features of culture may spread from point to point, gradually making themselves at home in cultures to which they were at one time alien. We also know that words may be diffused no less freely than cultural elements, that sounds also may be borrowed, and that even morphological elements may be taken over. We may go further and recognize that certain languages have, in all probability, taken on structural features owing to the suggestive influence of neighboring languages. An examination of such cases, 13 however, almost invariably reveals the significant fact that they are but superficial additions on the morphological kernel of the language. So long as such direct historical testimony as we have gives us no really convincing examples of profound morphological influence by diffusion, we shall do well not to put too much reliance in diffusion theories. On the whole, therefore, we shall ascribe the major concordances and divergences in linguistic formphonetic pattern and morphologyto the autonomous drift of language, not to the complicating effect of single, diffused features that cluster now this way, now that. Language is probably the most self-contained, the most massively resistant of all social phenomena. It is easier to kill it off than to disintegrate its individual form.

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Early contacts
From having been one of the most hospitable languages of the world in its acceptance of foreign loans, English has developed into the most generous donor of words to other languages. Books and articles have been written to prove its hospitality in accepting words from various languages. This process of borrowing has gone on for centuries and evidence can be found not only in etymological dictionaries of English but also in every general dictionary of English that denotes the origin of source of words recorded in it. The generosity of English as a donor language began much later and some authors[1] state that prior to 1900 the influence of English on other languages was modest. Sapir in his book Language is more explicit when he says that ...it is a little disappointing to learn that the general cultural influence of English has so far been all but negligible. The English language itself is spreading because the English have colonized immense territories. But there is nothing to show that it is anywhere entering into the lexical heart of other languages...[2] By the end of the sixteenth century (in 1582), Richard Mulcaster wrote that 'the English tongue is of small reach, stretching no further than this island of ours, nay not there over all'.[3]Logan Pearsall Smith[4] believes that 'to the great vocabulary of European civilization... our country [England] made no additions before a comparatively late date towards the end of the seventeenth century'. However, he admits that 'during the Middle Ages... a few English words connected with trade and with the sea found their way into the French language, and in the sixteenth and the greater part of the seventeenth century the terms that were borrowed are of some unimportant kind. The only English word borrowed in the sixteenth century which has become a general European term is dog'.[5] Towards the end of the seventeenth and in the first half of the eighteenth century a remarkable change took place. Foreign nations began to borrow English words in ever increasing numbers, not merely terms from trades and shipping, but words of a much more important kind. This linguistic fact corresponds very accurately in date to that great historical event which has been called 'the discovery of England'[6]. After that there followed a great movement of English words in the course of the eighteenth century which led L.P. Smith to say that 'there is perhaps nothing in linguistic history more striking than the contrast between the great English words which reached the continent at that period, and the humble trade terms, the names of boats and fishes, which had been borrowed in the previous centuries'.[7] The interest in England, in English opinion, fashions and even English games which appeared about 1750 in some European countries, first in France, and then spread to the rest of Europe, particularly to Italy, was called 'Anglomania'.[8] The infiltration of English words into French (at that time the universal language) led to their adoption by other European languages. The Italians followed the continental Anglomania, borrowing the same words and imitating the same sentiments. The Germans

got their first knowledge of England from France. The main deposit of English words in French and German during the eighteenth century is much the same in the other languages of Europe regardless of whether they had direct or indirect contact with French and German which acted as important intermediaries. In the nineteenth century, English contributions to the vocabulary of European languages became more numerous and more widely spread, covering all main European languages: (a) Romance: French, Italian, Spanish and Portuguese; (b) Germanic: German, Dutch, Danish, Swedish and Norwegian; (c) Slavonic: Russian, Polish and Croatian.

Twentieth century contact

In the twentieth century the contact of English with other languages of Europe became closer due to new means of communication. The result was a very free and versatile linguistic borrowing of English words by European languages. In the course of the three previous centuries (from the seventeenth to the nineteenth) there was a continuous linguistic intertraffic which was almost entirely governed by cultural relations and by the direct or indirect influence of England on other European countries. To study the linguistic links in the twentieth century means, in fact, to investigate the degree of cultural and economic contact with England (and, more recently with America) because this influence is mostly reflected in English loan-words in European languages. Although the degree of English contact with other languages of Europe depends on various factors, the consequences of the contact can be best illustrated by the number and the kind of loan-words taken from English. The most obvious result of the linguistic contact of English with other languages of Europe is the transfer of English words into other European languages. Their vocabulary is directly enriched through the transfer which can be direct or indirect. Direct transfer is performed when two languages, English as a giving language and a European language as a receiving language, have such close geographic, cultural, sociological, political etc. ties that the borrowed objects, ideas or notions require their names to be transferred into the borrowing language. On the other hand, when there is no direct contact between the two countries and their languages, there is no direct transfer of words needed to name borrowed objects, ideas, notions etc. This indirect transfer is performed through various media and the process is called indirect borrowing. The contact between the two languages in question can also be established through a third language called an intermediary language. English loan-words reflect all these elements and in the receiving language they may have a direct influence on the vocabulary and the form of the receiving language. This specific feature is analysed below as a part of the adaptation of Anglicisms in the receiving language.

The study of Anglicisms

The vocabulary of any receiving language after it has been in the direct or indirect contact with the giving language, English, is enriched in the various fields of human knowledge to which Anglicisms belong. Our work on the project The English Element in

the European Languages[9] , which analyses about twenty European languages, has proved that nearly all fields of human knowledge have been represented in our dictionaries of Anglicisms.[10] The kinds of Anglicisms and their number are not the same in various European languages. They depend on the human activities of various nations and their contact with the English culture and civilisation. The more linked they are, the bigger number and more versatile the fields of contact are. An average contact between English and a European language results in 1500 to 2000 Anglicisms. It is quite difficult to enumerate all the fields of human activities of European nations on which English has exercised an influence. The result of English influence is that the receiving languages of Europe borrow English loans, adapt them as Anglicisms and subsequently integrate them into their vocabulary. It is impossible in this limited space to quote all the languages of Europe and all the fields of human knowledge from which Anglicisms were borrowed. We can quote only a limited number of English source words in the selected fields which were adapted into Anglicisms: (a) food and drink, (b) animals, (c) sports, (d) clothing, (e) economy, banking and money, (f) trade and measures, (g) language and literature, (h) journalism, politics and law, (i) philosophy and religion, (j) medicine, (k) science and natural science; (l) sea terms and navigation, (m) technical terms etc. In order to illustrate these, we will illustrate each thematic group by a few examples of the English source words from which Anglicisms in individual languages were developed and adapted according to the linguistic system of each receiving language. The existing dictionaries of Anglicisms in the main European languages document the way in which an English source word is adapted into an Anglicism. (The principles of adaptation are discussed below).

Thematic fields food drink animals sports clothing economy banking and money measures language and literature journalism

English source words bacon, beefsteak, jam, pudding, sandwich brandy, bourbon, grapefruit, juice, whisk(e)y alligator, antelope, bulldog, dog, kangaroo, mustang, skunk ace, back, bantam, boxer, football, tennis bikini, blazer, cardigan, pullover, raglan, trench coat, Ulster boycott, broker, budget, dumping, export, import, inflation, strike bank note, cent, check, dollar, penny, safe acre, bushel, foot, gallon, ounce, pint, watt, yard slang, alliteration, blank verse, digest, essay, pidgin, reprint, Yiddish art director, interview, column, leader, magazine

politics law philosophy religion music and dance transport sea terms computer terms technical terms medicine science social life film,radio,TV weather miscellaneous

apartheid, conformism, dominion, imperialism, isolationism, labourist, liberal, loyalist, parliament, Tory affadavit, jury, kidnap, lend-lease, lynch, petition acculturation, behaviourism, Darwinism Adventist, Anglican, Mormon, pantheism band, beat, blues, bebop, break dance, twist antifreeze, airbus, bus, car ferry, channel, container, freight, tramway, trolley bus, waggon ballast, barge, steamer, ALGOL, assembler, bit, byte, chip, clone, COBOL, computer, disc, PASCAL, ROM amplifier, blister, bloom, cracking, cable, derrick, lazer, lift, ingot, radar aids, anaesthesia, antibiotic, bypass, mumps, pacemaker, penicillin, vitamin aberration, gravitation, isotope bar, bridge, club, hobby, poker cable TV, cameraman, cinemascope, cinerama, film, live, Oscar, radio, transmitter, television, western blizzard, cyclone, hurricane, monsoon, typhoon accident, all right, camp, comfort, cowboy, dandy, flirt, folklore, park, nylon, picnic, plastic

Adaptation of Anglicisms
The integration of a great number of Anglicisms into the receiving languages of Europe, whose linguistic systems are different from that of English, requires a linguistic analysis to explain how the process is performed. English source words in passing from one system into several others must be adapted before they can be integrated. The analysis of every Anglicism in our dictionaries of Anglicisms in European languages[11] is organised so that it defines: (a) the origin of the Anglicism (i.e. from which English model-source it was developed), (b) its pronunciation in the receiving language, (c) its morphological categories (parts of speech and gender), and (d) its meaning. To achieve this, the analysis is performed on four levels: (a) the orthographic level, to show how the spelling of an English source word is adapted into the orthography of the receiving language, (b) the phonological level, to explain the pronunciation of the Anglicism especially when it differs from the English source word, (c) the morphological level, to show how the citation form of the Anglicism (and, if it is a noun, its gender, indicated by sb-m/f/n) are determined, (d) the semantic level, to determine which meaning of the English source word is transferred into the corresponding Anglicism.

The orthography of Anglicisms

The adaptation of an English source word into an Anglicism begins on the orthographic level in order to determine the spelling of the Anglicism (the citation form) and its relation to the orthography of the model (the English source). There are four possibilities:

Romanian language comes from Latin. It is related to French and mostly to Italian. It contains 66% Latin based words, 20% Slavic based words, the rest are newer and come from Dacian, Turkish, Greek or English. Romanian is also the most spoken language in Moldova, located NE of Romania. There are 40 million speakers. from http://linguistics.byu.edu/classes/ling450ch/reports/romanian.html The History of the Romanian Language Melodie Hanners Linguistics 450 "I have been asked many times, "What language do they speak in Romania Russian?" To the surprise of many however, the answer is no. Romania, the small country in the center of Eastern Europe, has its own, very beautiful language. Romania is unique in that it is the only Eastern Block country that speaks a Romance language. Alexandru Niculescu, in his book Outline History of the Romanian Language says, "Romanian is the only Romance language which has developed in the Eastern part of Latin Europe" (16). The history of Romanian can be traced through different periods of outside influence on the language. The first period I will look at is the Dacian period. The Dacians were the first known civilization to live in the area where Romania is now situated. The second period is the Romanization following the Roman conquest of the Dacians. After the Romanization was a period of Slavic influence on the Proto Romanian of that time, followed by a Re-Latinization movement during the 19th Century. Romanian reflects the turbulent history of its native speakers. It illustrates the story of a nation of survivors. Dacians It would be impossible to report on the history of Romanian without reporting also on the history of the people. Historians, when studying this language, usually go back in their studies as far as two thousand years. During that period, the area that is now known as Romania was occupied by a civilization known as the Dacians (pronounced dachyanz). Dennis Deletant, in the introduction to his text book, Colloquial Romanian, says, "The Dacians, who occupied much of this area [the lower Danube region], are believed to have spoken a Thracian tongue" (1). Constantin C. Giurescu wrote a book entitled, The Making of the Romanian People and Language. In this book he describes what the Dacians may have looked like, and what their main activities were. Not much is known of the Dacians, but speculations and theories have been made based on archeological finds, words remaining in modern Romanian from that time period, and two monuments that were erected following the Roman invasion Tropeaum Traiani, and Trajans Column. Of the Dacians, Giurescu says, "They are the autochthonous ethnic element which lies at the foundation of the Romanian people" (49). The Dacians main activity was agriculture. They also engaged in viticulture, or the cultivation of vinyards. They were skilled craftsmen in working metals to create tools and weapons. The Dacians were also known for their cattle and their bee-keeping (50-51).

Linguists have studied the Romanian language to find which words come from Dacian origin. They have discovered one hundred and sixty words with this origin. These terms cover a very wide area beginning with the human body (buz| = lip; ceaf| = nape; grumaz = neck; gu| = goitre), the family (copil = child; prunc = baby; zestre = dowry) . . . agricultural, pastoral, viticultural, piscicultural activities (maz| re = peas; arin| =tilled land; baci = shepherd making cheese; mnz = colt; strung| = small gate through which sheep are passed to be milked; arc = enclosure . . .gard = fence), the physical environment (m | gur| = lone hill or mountain; mal = bank) the flora (brad = fir-tree; copac = tree) . . . Certainly the number of these terms will increase following subsequent research; they will also show us other aspects of the linguistic inheritance; scholars already consider as belonging to this inheritance the suffixes -esc, -e te, which are so frequent in Romanian and characteristic of it (Giurescu 60-61). It is interesting to note the types of words that remain in the language from the Dacian era. It is natural for words to remain from a proto language that have to do with the body and familial relations because these are common topics of conversation in every civilization. This Dacian vocabulary tells us the story of an industrious people who worked the land. Romanization Dacians though, are not the only ancestors of the Romanian people and its language. As their countrys name suggests, Romans played a major role in their history and development. In Rome, at the beginning of the second century A.D., the soldier Trajan was appointed emperor. "He was a great general, mastering all the secrets of military art and bearing all hardships and sufferings of the war together with his soldiers who worshipped him for it. Besides military virtues he also had those of a civilian ruler" (Giurescu 43). In the summer of 106 A.D. the Roman army, under Trajan, succeeded in conquering the Dacians after many years of battles. Trajan then "colonized it with settlers from all parts of the Empire who intermarried with the local population and romanized it" (Deletant 1). Giurgescu says, "How can this extraordinary power of Dacian Romanization be explained? How was it possible that it should grow so deep roots in such a short time? The answer, in our opinion, could only be one: Romanization won in Dacia because it won over the native population. If the Romans had not won the Dacians over for their civilization and culture, the same thing would have happened in the Carpatho-Danubian area that happened in Pannonia and Britania: the Romanizing element would have gradually disappeared" (98). The Dacians seem to have been very accepting of their conquerors. Their Romanization happened rather rapidly, because the Romans only ruled over Dacia for 165 years.

One of the ways that the Romans "won the Dacians over" was through the veterans of their army. Many of the soldiers in the Roman army were of Dacian origin. By the end of their 25 year service they had learned Latin and the ways of the Romans. Many of those soldiers who were of Roman descent were married to Dacian women. At the end of a soldiers military service he was granted Roman citizenship if he did not already have it. This citizenship was extended to every member of his family (Giurescu 98-101). Another way that Latin was spread throughout this area was through missionaries who brought with them the Christian Religion and a whole Latin liturgy to go with it. When people attended church at that time, the services were done in Latin. "Most of the Romanian words designating the essential notions connected with the Christian faith are of Latin origin" (Giurescu 141). Niculescu says, "Another major role in Romanizing Dacia was played by urbanization" (24). The urban centers had rural areas around them. The Roman administrators, merchants, travelers and colonists "turned into agents of Romanization" (24-25). Slavic Influence During the 7th century and throughout the 9th century the Slavs came to the Dacia area. Their language greatly influenced Romanian. "The Sclavini engaged upon ever closer relations of cohabitation with the Romanized native population both North and South of the Danube" (Niculescu 46). This is an important point, because not only did the Dacians adopt Slavonisms, but the Slavs learned Latin. It is apparent that the Slavs acquired the Latin language because of the absence of many emotional terms of Latin origin in the Romanian language. As the Slavs adopted the Romance language, they substituted "Slavonic words for a number of Latin emotional terms. . . On learning the Romanian Latinate, the Slavs preferred to use in this language words of their native language whose meaning and expressive connotations they knew" (Niculescu 49). Anyone who has learned to speak a second language can understand the Slavs preference for their own emotional terms. Often we hear coinages such as Spanglish to describe such a concept. Niculescu goes on to explain that "Romanian is the only Romance language that has failed to preserve amor, carus, amare, sponsa, etc., replacing them by dragoste, drag, a iubi, nevasta, logodna (= betrothal), a logodi (= to betrothe)" (49). Another way in which the Slavs influenced the language of the Dacians of that time was pronunciation. Remembering that the Slavs had adopted the Latin spoken in that region, it is apparent that they would speak this second language with a quite heavy accent. The Romanian of today is pronounced somewhat differently than all of the other languages in its family. An example of pronunciation change that Niculescu gives is the yodization or palatalization of initial /e/ in the personal pronouns. Initial /e/ in most words is pronounced the same as in all Romance languages, but in the personal pronouns the sound has been palatalized, causing it to have an initial /y/ sound. So the word el (he) is pronounced /yel/ (49). Almost all of the linguists and historians who have studied this topic "uphold the idea that the Balkan and Slavic elements contributed to rounding off the individuality of Romanian as a Romance language" (Niculescu 48).

Re-Latinization During the 1800's Romanian linguists made an effort to re-Latinize their language. We dont need to look any farther than the literature of their day to see the dissatisfaction of that era with the Slavonisms in the language. Negruzzi, a famous author from that period compares Romanian to a cloth that has been corrupted with coarse and ugly threads. He said: Oh! p|catul este net|g>|duit i rana nevindecabil| ! Cnd neamurile barbare au nundat Romnia ca un r| pide iroi, g|sind pnza limbei urzit|, luau suveiea i, prin dreptul celui main tare, aruncau unde i unde cte un fir de b|t|tur| de a lor, groas|i nodoroas|. Astfel se esu limba noastr|. Pentru a scoate acum acele l| tunoiase fire, trebui a destr|ma toat| pnza, i prin urmare a crea o limb| mai frumoas| poate, mai nobil| si mai nv|at|, c|riia nimic nu i-ar lipsi alta dect de a fi-- romneasc| (209). [Oh! The sin is undeniable and the wound unhealable! When the barbarous nations flooded Romania like a ravishing stream, finding the cloth of the fated language, they took the needle and, through the right of the strongest, threw here and there a string of their thick, gnarled thread. Thus our language was woven. Now in order to remove those knotty fibers, the entire cloth must be destroyed, and follow up by creating a more beautiful language, maybe more noble and learned, from which nothing would be missing other than being Romanian] This shows us the great desire to make a "pure" Latin-based language. It also shows the resolution that they had to face, that if those proposed changes were made it would change the language into something other than their own Romanian. Another writer from that period made a statement about his opinions on Slavonisms. He says, "Romnul crede n Dumnezeu, n ngeri, n zne i a fost botezat de preot la biseric| . . ." [The Romanian believes in God, in angels, in fairies, and was baptized by a priest at church . . .] The italicized words are all of Latin origin. The author is showing how many spiritual and religious words come from their Latin roots. He goes on to show how many words showing weakness and infirmities come from Slavic. Of course, as we have already seen, some of the words referring to love and relationships have their roots in Slavic, so not all Slavonisms were harsh words. In the first half of the 19th century there began an "Enlightenment" in Romania. Books from the west by authors such as Racine, Moliere, and Lamartine were translated into Romanian. At this time a Romanian writer and theorist, Ion Heliade R|dulescu wrote his opinion on the purification of the Romanian literary language. He wanted to "s| ne unim n scris i s| ne facem o limb| literar|" [unite ourselves in writing and to make for ourselves a literary language]. He began to cultivate the Romanian literary language. "A cultiva o limb| va s| zic| a o cur|i de tot ceeace nu o face s| nainteze" (Niculescu 131). [To cultivate a language is to clean it of all that which doesnt make it progress]. Heliades movement began by selecting Italian words and eliminating contributions to the language from German, Russian and Greek. In 1828 he wrote, "scriei cum s| v|

neleag| contemporanii . . . scrim pentru cei care tr|iesc iar nu pentru cei mori" (132). [You write to be understood by your contemporaries . . . we write for those who live and not for the dead]. Modern Romanian Romanian continues to change even now. As all languages do, it borrows many words from other languages, especially French. Since the Revolution in 1989, Romania has been opened up to a whole world that they only could have imagined before. They are now (as most European countries are) influenced greatly by American English. On any given Friday a Romanian could wish you a "week-end bun" meaning, "good weekend." Romanian is, indeed, as Negruzzi said, a cloth woven with many different threads. But the Romanians of today have come to accept the more "coarse" threads and recognize their "cloth" as a unique, beautiful tapestry that illustrates their history. Romanians are survivors. Their history is filled with stories of being conquered by stronger civilizations, but the Romanians are still with us today. Their language shows this. From the core of Dacian words to the Latinization and the Slavic influence, the Romanian language tells the story of a nation of survivors." In the 20th century, an increasing number of English words have been borrowed (such as: gem < jam; interviu < interview; meci < match; manager < manager; fotbal < football). These words are assigned grammatical gender in Romanian and handled according to Romanian rules; thus "the manager" is managerul. Some of these English words are in turn Latin lexical constructions - calqued or borrowed/constructed from Latin or other Romance languages, like "management" and "interview" (from the French "entrevue").

Cuvinte

ANEME, anemii, s.f. Boal determinat de scderea cantitativ sau calitativ a globulelor roii i a hemoglobinei din snge. Din fr. anmie.
Sursa: DEX '98 |

ARTR, artere, s.f. 1. Vas sangvin care asigur circulaia sngelui de la inim la diverse organe i esuturi. 2. Cale important de comunicaie i de transport. Conduct hidraulic principal de alimentare prin care se transport apa spre locul de consum. Linie electric de alimentare prin care se transport energie spre locul de consum. Din fr. artre.
Sursa: DEX '98 |

BIOPSE, biopsii, s.f. Scoatere prin procedee chirurgicale a unui fragment dintr-un esut viu pentru a fi studiat la microscop. [Pr.: bi-o-] Din fr. biopsie.
Sursa: DEX '98

BIORTM, bioritmuri, s.n. (Biol.) Ritm (2) al activitii organismului datorat particularitilor biologice individuale. [Pr.: bi-o-] Din engl. biorhythm.
Sursa: DEX '98

BIOFEEDBACK s.n. (Psih.) Retroaciune (1) care se manifest la nivelul a diferite sisteme (biologice, tehnice etc.) n scopul meninerii stabilitii si echilibrului lor fa de influene exterioare; retroaciune invers, conexiune invers, cauzalitate inelar, lan cauzal nchis. [Pr.: f'idbec] - Cuv. engl. Surs : DEX'98

BY-PASS s.n. v. bipas.

Sursa: DN |

CTGUT s.n. Fir fabricat din intestinul unor animale, folosit n chirurgie pentru custuri. [< fr., engl. catgut].
Sursa: DN |

catgut

noun [U] strong cord, made from the dried intestines of animals, especially sheep, which is used for the strings of musical instruments

A cyst of the little glands in the eyelids that make a lubricant which they discharge through tiny openings in the edges of the lids. The lubricant is a fatty substance called sebum characteristic of sebaceous glands.

These glands are called the meibomian glands. Inflammation of them is termed meibomianitis or, alternatively, meibomitis. Chronic inflammation of the meibomian glands leads to meibomian cysts or chalazions. The word "chalazion" is Greek for small pimple (and little hail). Like a pimple, a chalazion is an inflamed swelling. But instead of being on the skin, a chalazion is in the margin of the eyelid.

chemoterapie/chimioterapie, s.f., (engl. Chemotherapie, fr. chimiothrapie)- terapie prin substante chimice CHEMZIS s.n. (Med.) Edem al conjunctivei datorit unei inflamaii sau unui traumatism. [< fr. chimosis].
Sursa: DN

COLAGN s.n. (Biol.) Protein care se gsete n esutul conjunctiv, osos i cartilaginos i care prin fierbere se transform n gelatin. (Adjectival) esut colagen. Din fr. collagne.
Sursa: DEX '98 | Trimis de Valery, 16 Jun 2004 | Greeal de tipar

colagn adj. m., pl. colagni; f. sg. colagn, pl. Colagne CLSM, clisme, s.f. Introducere a unui lichid n intestinul gros, pe cale rectal, pentru evacuarea forat a materiilor fecale, de obicei n cazurile de constipaie; clistir. Din ngr. klsma, germ. Klysma.
Sursa: DEX '98

CM//1 ~e f. Pierdere a cunotinei n timpul unei boli grave, provocat de o reprimare a funciilor sistemului nervos central. ~ diabetic. ~ apoplectic. A fi n ~ a fi n agonie. [G.-D. comei] /<fr. coma
Sursa: NODEX |

DISFNCIE, disfuncii, s.f. 1. (Med.) Tulburare a funciei unui organ, aparat sau sistem. 2. (Tehn.) Reducere a adaptrii sau integrrii unui subsistem la sistemul din care face parte. Din germ. Disfunktion, it. disfunzione.
Sursa: DEX '98

DPING s.n. Dopaj; mod artificial de a mri rezistena i randamentul fizic n concursuri sportive prin administrarea de medicamente stimulatorii (stricnin, amfetamine etc.). [< engl., fr. doping].
Sursa: DN

DREN s.n. 1. Conduct subteran pentru colectarea i evacuarea apei de pe un teren mltinos. Strat pietros care cptuete spatele unui zid de sprijin, o bolt etc., destinat s colecteze apa de infiltraie. 2. Tub, me de tifon prin care se scurge puroiul sau lichidul dintr-o ran. [< fr., engl. drain].
Sursa: DN |

FTNESS s.n. Condiie fizic bun, sntate. [Pr.: ft-nis] (< engl. fitness)
Sursa: MDN

JOGGING [pr.: gighing] n. Alergare uoar practicat pentru ntreinerea sntii. /Cuv. engl.
Sursa: NODEX

HORMN s.m. Secreie a glandelor endocrine, care stimuleaz i coordoneaz activitatea anumitor organe sau a ntregului organism. [< fr., engl. hormone, cf. gr. horman a excita].
Sursa: DN |

LSER s.n. Dispozitiv, amplificator cuantic de radiaii electromagnetice vizibile, foarte intense i nguste, cu mare directivitate, folosit n telecomunicaii, metalurgie etc. [Pl. -re, (s.m.) -ri. / < engl.., fr. laser, cf. engl. l(ight) a(mplification by) s(timulated) e(mission of) r(adiation) amplificare a luminii prin stimularea emisiunii radiaiei].
Sursa: DN

MANAGEMENT s.n. Activitatea i arta de a conduce. 2. Ansamblul activitilor de organizare, de conducere i de gestiune a ntreprinderilor. 3. tiina i tehnica organizrii i conducerii unei ntreprinderi. [Pr.: me-nigi-ment] Cuv. engl.
Sursa: DEX '98 |

MIGRN s.f. Durere de cap (localizat ntr-o anumit regiune a capului i nsoit de tulburri digestive). [< fr. Migraine; engl. migrene].
Sursa: DN |

n'ursing s. n. Surs : DOR (266029) - siveco

PACEMAKER s.n. (Pr: pis-micr) Stimulator cardiac. Cuv. engl.

Sursa: Neoficial

PLSTI//C2 ~c (~ci, ~ce) 1) (despre corpuri solide) Care poate fi modelat; care se preteaz modelrii. Materiale (sau mase) ~ce materiale sintetice din care se produc diferite obiecte. Operaie ~c plastie. Chirurgie ~c ramur a medicinei care se ocup cu operaiile plastice. 2) Care ine de artele ce reflect realitatea prin imagini vizuale; propriu artelor care reflect realitatea prin imagini vizuale. Arte ~ce ansamblu de arte (pictur, sculptur, desen, arhitectur) care reflect realitatea prin imagini vizuale. 3) lit. Care exprim ceva cu mare putere de evocare; sugestiv; expresiv. /<fr. Plastique; engl. plastic
Sursa: NODEX |

RANDOMIZ, randomizez, vb. I. Tranz. (Englezism) A distribui ntmpltor variantele din cmpul de experien (pentru eliminarea erorilor experimentale). Din engl. randomize.
Sursa: DEX '98

RA s.n. (Med.) Erupie eritematoas de scurt durat, care apare n perioada de invazie a unor boli eruptive. [< fr., engl. rash].
Sursa: DN

RTING s. v. apreciere.
Sursa: Sinonime

SPITALIZ vb. I. tr. A interna pe cineva n spital pentru tratament. [Dup fr. hospitaliser]., engl. hospitalize
Sursa: DN |Sursa: DN

STRES, stresuri, s.n. 1. (Med.) Nume dat oricrui factor (sau ansamblu de factori) de mediu care provoac organismului uman o reacie anormal; p. ext. efect nefavorabil produs asupra organismului uman de un factor de mediu. 2. (Geol.) Presiune lateral tangenial care se produce n sinclinale i determin formarea cutelor muntoase. Din engl., fr. stress.
Sursa: DEX '98

TRANSPLNT ~uri n. 1) med. esut sau organ luat dintr-un corp i mutat, pe cale chirurgical, n alt parte a corpului sau grefat la un alt individ; gref. 2) rar Plantare a unei plante n alt loc. [Sil. trans-plant; Pl. i transplante] /<engl., fr. Transplant TRIL2, trialuri, s.n. Meci de selecie, de triere. [Pr.: tri-al] Din engl. trial [match].
Sursa: DEX '98

WRING s.n. (Med.) Procedeu de tratare a unui anevrism al aortei, constnd din introducerea n interiorul lui, n form de ghem, a unui fir metalic lung i subire. [< fr. wiring, cf. engl. to wire a fixa cu o srm].
Sursa: DN

Tourette's syndrome

Show phonetics

noun [U] a rare illness of the brain in which the sufferer swears, makes noises and moves in a way that they cannot control

premenstrual syndrome [U] (UK ALSO premenstrual tension)

a condition in which some women experience pain and swelling in particular parts of their bodies, and feelings such as anxiety, anger, or unhappiness for a few days before their period

Down's syndrome

Show phonetics

noun [U] a genetic condition in which a person is born with lower than average mental ability, a flat face, and sloping eyes

HIV

Show phonetics

noun [U] ABBREVIATION FOR human immunodeficiency virus: the virus that causes AIDS (= a serious disease that destroys the body's ability to

fight infection)
(from Cambridge Advanced Learner's Dictionary)

a b k t d e f g d h i k l m n o p r s t ts

Constat de la o vreme ca limba romana este tot mai atacata si chiar batjocorita in fel si chip. Ultima mea sedere in tara, de cateva saptamani, m-a convins pe deplin de aceasta stare. Zilnic citesti si auzi anglicisme - singurele preferate, din prostie si snobism -, adio deci francofonie (sic!), de crezi ca romanii sunt acum cu totii anglofoni. Noii parveniti ai zilei isi exprima cu aroganta prostul-gust, atacand miseleste si graiul romanesc. Pe Calea Victoriei si-a facut aparitia o mostra de asemenea snobism prin Big fashion ice cream. Cati inteleg despre ce e vorba? (citeam ca pana si un Nastase ar fi poposit la acel local - oare nu l-au deranjat anglicismele indigeste?). E adevarat, mai toate apucaturile cu iz occidental au falitii lor - cu bani, se intelege, si cu aere, altele decat cele romanesti. Pe bulevardul Magheru, intr-o patiserie, sta scris cu litere mari: Thank you for your shopping. Multumirile in romaneste sunt, desigur, inexistente! Nu mai vorbim de rent, let, car wash, open door, dining room... etc., pentru care se crede ca nu ar exista corespondente in limba romana. Radio Contact, ce se asculta si in autobuze, este pronuntat cu o asemenea voluptate americanizata, ca si titlurile cantecelor (mai toate, se intelege, anglosaxone), de ai impresia ca te afli la New York! Cine sa puna ordine in aceste apucaturi, pe cat de frecvente, pe atat de nocive si de naucitoare? Academia Romana? Doarme! Menirea ei este tocmai aceea de a veghea la corecta folosire a limbii romane. Poate ca nu a primit inca nici un semnal de la Cotroceni sau Victoria! Cand totul in Romania este afacere de partid si de stat, se intelege si mizeria cultural-lingvistica, pe langa toate celelalte acumulate in anii trandafirii. Avortata lege a limbii romane a iscat lupte intestine, reactii epidermice de rea-vointa si nepricepere. O tara ca Franta poseda o lege in acest sens. Sa nu existe organizatii nonguvernamentale, romani de buna-credinta care sa reactioneze cum se cuvine la o asemenea terfelire a limbii romane? O reactie fireasca si de bun-simt. Unele acronime se impun, dar altele nu! DNA i RNA nu prea cred c vor nlocui ADN i ARN n viitorul apropiat. Mai sunt unii care se ncpneaz s traduc ECG prin EKG, myself included, dar mai tiu pe cineva BP va fi mult vreme TA n romnete. Nu e "presiunea sngelui" n general, pentru c exist presiune venoas, arterial, periferic, central... n romnete se face referin (vorbire!) numai despre tensiunea periferic a sngelui arterial (dac est e central, se menioneaz TA central i, de regul, la ce nivel). O alt chestie, de data asta cred c ilogic, a englezei medicale, este c pulsului (la ncheietura minii sau la carotid, inghinal...) i se spune Heart Rate. Frecvena real a btilor inimii nu se poate stabili dect prin EKG (sic!), nu prin palpare sau auscultaie.i nici nu este o "rat" adevrat. "Rata" implic un raport (x/y), att x ct i y fiind cunoscute. De acord c ceea ce simt eu lund pulsul este pulsul periferic real (cel care "se simte", "ajunge" n situl respectiv), dar care este raportul adevrat? tiu care e y, dar x ct este? Inima, acolo, n piept, cu ce frecven bate de fapt? Care e heart rate?

"Job" Procesul de anglicizare a limbii noastre capata amploare din ce in ce mai primejdioasa. In tot mai multe publicatii este preferat, aproape in tot timpul, anglicismul "job" (la plural "joburi"). Redactia unui cotidian central scoate un supliment gratuit cu titlul "Educatie & joburi". Iar semnul grafic "&" care substituie conjunctia engleza "and" (=si) apare nu numai in ziare, reviste, carti, pe micul si pe marele ecran, ci si in titulatura multor firme. Cat despre sintagma "second-hand", de asemenea anglicism, aceasta-i atat de raspandita incat aproape niciun vorbitor nu mai spune, nici nu mai scrie "la mana a doua", cand se au in vedere marfurile invechite sau cele care sunt de calitatea a II-a inca de la fabricarea lor. Deosebit de grav este faptul ca autorii editiei a II-a a DOOM au inregistrat

atat termenul "job" cat si expresia (sintagmatica) "second-hand". Este foarte grav acest fapt stricator de limba, avand in vedere ca aceia care au menirea sa opreasca invazia barbarismelor, tocmai ei incurajeaza patrunderea anglicismelor extrem de suparatoare in limba romana, prin intermediul dictionarului fundamental pe care l-au scos in anul 2005. Iar cand va aparea editia a III-a a DEX-ului, autorii acestui lexicon, imitandu-i pe cei ai DOOM, vor atesta si ei noile anglicisme si cele care vor patrunde in continuare in lexicul limbii romane. Mentionam ca "job" ("giob" in pronuntarea englezilor, a britanicilor, si "giab" in rostirea anglofonilor din Statele Unite ale Amercii si din Canada) inseamna "serviciu, slujba, loc de munca". Ca sa se vada cat de expresiva este sintagma romaneasca "locuri de munca", in comparatie cu barbarismul "joburi" (citindu-se "gioburi" si "giaburi") dam, in doua variante aceeasi propozitie. Intreprinderea "Tractorul" ofera zece joburi. Intreprinderea "Tractorul" ofera zece locuri de munca. Deosebit de suparator este si raspunsul stereotip (de multe ori, nepotrivit) "Nu-i nicio problema" (traducere a locutiunii engleze "No problem"), despre care am mai scris.

n opinia lui Th. Hristea, care este i a autoarelor DOOM , aciunea de cultivare tiinific a limbii naionale nu trebuie s aib nimic n comun nici cu imuabilitatea anumitor norme gramaticale, nici cu neaoismul, nici cu neologismomania [...] i nici cu fanatismul unor puriti ntrziai, care resping orice inovaie lingvistic sub pretext c ei apr frumuseea i puritatea limbii strmoeti. Este n afar de orice discuie c limba trebuie lsat s evolueze; nici vorb nu poate fi despre o ncercare de a ine n loc evoluia fireasc a limbii, aceasta trebuind s se dezvolte (adic s se schimbe) When we analyse diachronically the Romanian medical and pharmaceutical terminology, we can say that it represents a lexical ensemble characterized by heterogeneousness. It has its own dynamics due to the specific character of the terms. New lexical elements have been added permanently in the twentieth century to the corpus of medical terms established in the last century. Another characteristic of the medical terminology in our century is its international tendency. The great number of international words--among which those of Latin, Greek and, more recent, English origin--make it easier to decode the message for the specialists speaking different languages. The great number of words of this type emphasize the scholarly, artificial character of the vocabulary. A well-represented class, from the point of view of its number, are the neologism of Latin-Romantic origin, terms that have been adapted phonetically and morphologically to the system of the Romanian language. The linguistic facts we find in the specialty texts (in the XIX

and XX centuries) confirm our belief that, as a whole, the medical terminology is a linguistic field in a continuous process of modeling, and mainly that is open to be renewed.

The language of medicine

There is no recognized discipline called medical linguistics, but perhaps there ought to be one. The language of medicine offers intriguing challenges both to medical historians and to linguists. Classical scholars have analysed the contents and language of the most ancient medical records in great detail, but the later development of medical terminology has received much less attention. The oldest written sources of western medicine are the Hippocratic writings from the 5th and 4th centuries BC, which cover all aspects of medicine at that time and contain numerous medical terms. This was the beginning of the Greek era of the language of medicine, which lasted even after the Roman conquest, since the Romans, who had no similar medical tradition, imported Greek medicine. Most of the doctors practising in the Roman Empire were Greek, and the works by Galen of Pergamum, from the 2nd century AD, were for centuries valued as highly as the Hippocratic ones. Our Greek legacy comprises numerous names of diseases and symptoms, such as catarrh (downflow), diarrhoea (throughflow), dyspnoea (bad breathing), melancholic (pertaining to black bile) and podagra (a foot trap). At the beginning of the first century AD, when Greek was still the language of medicine in the Roman world, an important development took place. At that time a Roman aristocrat from Narbonensis (now Narbonne in the South of France) by the name of Aulus Cornelius Celsus wrote De Medicina, which was an encyclopaedic overview of medical knowledge based on Greek sources. He is sometimes called Cicero medicorum (the Cicero of doctors) on account of his elegant Latin. Celsus faced the difficulty that most Greek medical terms had no Latin equivalents, and the manner in which he solved this problem is of considerable interest from a linguistic point of view. First, he imported a few Greek terms directly, even preserving their Greek grammatical endings. He included, for instance, the Greek words pyloros (now pylorus) and eileos (now ileus), written with Greek letters in his Latin text. Secondly, he latinized Greek words, writing them with Latin letters and replacing Greek endings by Latin onese.g. stomachus and brachium. Thirdly, and most importantly, he retained the vivid imagery of the Greek anatomical terminology by translating Greek terms into Latin, such as dentes canini from Greek kynodontes (dog teeth) and caecum from Greek to typhlon (the blind [gut]). Thus, we can still enjoy the old Greek tradition of likening the shape of anatomical structures to, for instance, musical instruments (e.g. tuba=trumpet, tibia= flute), armour (thorax=breastplate, galea=helmet), tools (fibula=needle, falx=sickle), plants (uvea=grape, glans= acorn) and animals (helix=snail, concha=mussel, musculus= mouse, tragus=goat so named because that part of the external ear may be covered with hair,

resembling the tuft on a goat's chin). Some of these words are the original Greek ones, while others are Latin equivalents introduced by Celsus and his successors. During the Middle Ages a third language gained importance as many of the classical Greek medical texts were translated into Arabic. Scholars from the Arab world also made original contributions to medical literature, and a few Arabic terms (e.g. nucha) found their way into western medicine. However, at the time of the renaissance, when Greek was no longer widely understood, both Greek and Arabic works were translated into Latin, and the era of medical Latin began. Celsus' De Medicina appeared in print as early as 1478, only a couple of decades after the introduction of the printing press, and it was followed by Latin editions of Galen. During the subsequent centuries almost all important medical works were published in Latin (e.g. those by Vesalius, Harvey and Sydenham); the medical vocabulary expanded but basically did not change. Medical Latin continued to be ordinary Latin with the admixture of numerous Greek and Latin medical terms. Gradually, however, the national languages gained ground at the expense of Latin, and in Britain William Heberden's Commentarii was probably the last notable medical work to be written in Latin. It appeared in 1802 and Dr Johnson referred to the author as ultimus Romanorum (the last of the Romans). In other countries medical Latin survived a little longer: in Denmark, hospital doctors wrote patients' notes in Latin until 1853. Then followed the era of the national medical languages, such as medical English (i.e. ordinary English with the admixture of medical terms), medical French, medical German, medical Italian and many others. A few of these, especially French, German and English, replaced Latin as vehicles for international communication, but most of the others were only used nationally. The national medical languages had much in common since most of the medical terms were derived from medical Latin, but there were systematic differences that still persist. In Germanic languages such as the German, Dutch and Scandinavian ones, anatomical terms and disease names are often imported directly with their correct Latin endings, e.g. nervus musculocutaneus and ulcus ventriculi, whereas the same terms in Romance languages are usually naturalized according to the norms of each particular language, e.g. le nerf musculo-cutan and ulcre gastrique in French, and il nervo musculocutaneo and ulcera gastrica in Italian. English is a Germanic language but half its vocabulary is of Romance origin, and medical English tends to follow the Romance pattern except in placing the adjective before the noun, e.g. the musculocutaneous nerve and gastric ulcer. In Slav languages it is customary to translate the terms, e.g. Russian kozhno-myzhechny nerv (skin-muscle nerve) and jasva zheludka (ulcer of stomach). Modern Greek is noteworthy in allowing only Greek terms, including many of those that Celsus translated into Latin two millennia ago. The musculocutaneous nerve, for instance, is to myodermatiko neuro. However, the distinction described here between a Germanic, a Romance and a Slav pattern is no more than a tendency with numerous exceptions. English-speaking doctors also accept direct loans with Latin endings (e.g.

medulla oblongata and diabetes mellitus), and German doctors may naturalize the Latin terms (e.g. Coronararterien for arteriae coronariae) or translate them into German (e.g. Magengeschwr instead of ulcus ventriculi). The national medical languages did not confine themselves to importing terms already found in medical Latin. Medical scientists continued to develop new concepts that had to be named, and our classically schooled predecessors coined a multitude of new terms, most of which were composed of Greek rather than Latin roots, since Latin does not to the same extent permit the formation of composite words. They introduced, for instance, the terms nephrectomy, ophthalmoscopy and erythrocyte, which in medical Latin would have been the rather more cumbersome excisio renis, inspectio oculorum and cellula rubra. This huge neoclassical word stock with Greek roots, which is still being used, also presents other characteristics of linguistic interest such as the special meaning attached to certain suffixes of a Greek origin (e.g. -itis and -oma) and the fact that some prefixes and suffixes are more productive than others. Greek hyper-, for instance, is more productive than Latin super-, although originally they had exactly the same meaning. Therefore, we say hypertension, which is a Greek-Latin hybrid, rather than supertension, which would have been the correct Latin term. Medical English Today, all the most influential medical journals are written in English, and English has become the language of choice at international conferences. We have entered the era of medical English, which resembles the era of medical Latin in that, once again, medical doctors have chosen a single language for international communication. Whereas in former times new medical terms were derived from classical Greek or Latin roots, now they are often, partly or wholly, composed of words borrowed from ordinary English e.g. bypass operation, clearance, base excess, screening, scanningand doctors from non-English-speaking countries now have the choice between importing these English terms directly and translating them into their own language. The term bypass, for instance, is accepted in German, Dutch, Scandinavian, Italian and Romanian, whereas the French, who do not favour anglicisms, translated it to pontage. The Poles chose pomostowanie, which has the same meaning as pontage (most being a bridge), and the Russians use shuntirovanie, which is just another anglicism, being derived from English shunt. Naturalization of the English words is also quite common in some languages: in Danish, we use the verbs at screene and at skanne (to screen and to scan). English acronyms such as AIDS, CT, MR and PCR present the difficulty that usually the initials no longer fit when the English term is translated, but as a rule such discrepancies are simply ignored. AIDS, for instance, is widely accepted and has almost become a noun in its own right, though in French and Spanish it is SIDA and in Russian SPID, reflecting the order of the equivalent words in these languages.

For linguists the language of medicine is fascinating for the flow of concepts and words from one tongue to another. For medical doctors, an appreciation of the history and original meaning of words offers a new dimension to their professional language.
English is widely regarded as having become the global language. Today it is used for many purposes and it is present in all spheres of life. English is the language of technological and scientific development, trade, diplomacy, sports, media and it is widely used in everyday conversation as well. Technical vocabulary is most likely to accept foreign words and the language of medicine is not excluded from this angloamerican influence. Doctors prefer anglicisms, which perfectly fill the gaps in the Romanian medical terminology (they consider them adequate and they prefer ortographically non adapted forms, i.e. original graphics e.g. screening instead of skrining, pace maker instead of pejsmejker etc). On the other hand, laymen do not understand most of the terms and they cannot even predict their meaning from the context. They consider that the Romanian equivalents are the only possible solution. But we noticed differences in the attitudes regarding the age and the level of education. We can conclude that this research will have both practical and theoretical impact on the creation of Croatian medical equivalents and the formation of up-to-date Romanian medical terminology. It is a never ending process, because we notice everyday penetration of English words into Romanian language. Their acceptance is closely connected to general state policy and the degree of linguistic purism, which is present in all the languages in varying degrees.

International English is the concept of the English language as a global means of communication in numerous dialects, and the movement towards an international standard for the language. It is also referred to as Global English, World English, Common English, General English or Standard English. Sometimes these terms refer simply to the array of varieties of English spoken throughout the world; sometimes they refer to a desired standardisation. However, consensus on the terminology and path to standardisation has not been reached. Recently, due to the increased popularity of American media, as well as the political and economic influence of the U.S. around the world, there has been a trend for people to want to learn American English. This is even the case in countries which have traditionally taught British English at schools. American English words, phrases, and grammar are also being used more frequently in many British English based speaking countries (see Americanization) due to the popularitiy of American TV, movies, and music, throughout the world. The ebb and flow between the standardisation of the language and its diversification have been ever present throughout its history. The flagship of the former is intelligibility and practicality, while the latter has cultural autonomy and flexibility. Unlike proponents of constructed languages, International English proponents face on the one hand the belief that English already is a world language (and as such, nothing needs to be done to promote it further) and, on the other, the belief that an international language would inherently need to be a constructed one (e.g., Esperanto in Chinese is

generally just referred to as "shijie yu" or "world language"). In such an environment, at least four basic approaches have been proposed or employed toward the further expansion or consolidation of International English, some in contrast with, and others in opposition to, methods used to advance constructed international auxiliary languages. International English sometimes refers to English as it is actually being used and developed in the world; as a language owned not just by native speakers, but by all those who come to use it. Basically, it covers the English language at large, often (but not always or necessarily) implicitly seen as standard. It is certainly also commonly used in connection with the acquisition, use, and study of English as the world's lingua franca ('TEIL: Teaching English as an International Language'), and especially when the language is considered as a whole in contrast with American English, British English, South African English, and the like. McArthur (2002, p. 44445) It especially means English words and phrases generally understood throughout the English-speaking world as opposed to localisms. The importance of non-native English language skills can be recognised behind the long-standing joke that the international language of science and technology is broken English. International English reaches towards cultural neutrality. This has a practical use: "What could be better than a type of English that saves you from having to re-edit publications for individual regional markets! Teachers and learners of English as a second language also find it an attractive idea both often concerned that their English should be neutral, without British or American or Canadian or Australian colouring. Any regional variety of English has a set of political, social and cultural connotations attached to it, even the so-called 'standard' forms." Peters (2004, International English) According to this viewpoint, International English is a concept of English that minimises the aspects defined by either the colonial imperialism of Victorian Britain or the so-called "cultural imperialism" of the 20th century United States. While British colonialism laid the foundation for English over much of the world, International English is a product of an emerging world culture, very much attributable to the influence of the United States as well, but conceptually based on a far greater degree of cross-talk and linguistic transculturation, which tends to mitigate both U.S. influence and British colonial influence. The development of International English often centres around academic and scientific communities, where formal English usage is prevalent, and creative and flowery use of the language is at a minimum. This formal International English allows entry into Western culture as a whole and Western cultural values in general.

ARGUMENT
The paper tries to answer the question posed in the title - why, against all expectation, do many anglicisms in the 16 languages covered by DEA deviate lexically from their English source words either subtly, or markedly? The traditional treatment of borrowings as foreign words in a receptor language fails to answer this question convincingly. The paper offers an alternative approach which recognizes the active role of the borrowing language. This role is interpreted as an ability to create close lexical copies of the respective model words in the source language. The loanwords created in this way share with the rest of the receptor language lexicon the structural and semantic potential for dynamic development leading to the creation of further new meanings and words. This approach is supported with an analysis of the factors underlying the independent lexical development, often along similar lines, of some Anglicisms in DEA, which are shared by several languages. of European Anglicisms [DEA] How important are lexical borrowings? The usual definition is that when a new concept arrives in the life of the speakers it is usually taken over together with its name. Later the foreign word is naturalised, i.e. its pronunciation and grammatical features are adapted to the host language and sooner or later it is accepted as a part of the vocabulary. Purist languages may want to go further and replace the foreign element by a calque. Occasionally, the whole new notion raises objections and it is rejected through abolishing the word, its name. Thus lexical borrowing is not merely a linguistic problem but also one of history, politics and fashion. After the change of regime in 1990, all restriction fell away and the veritable flood of English words started streaming in. It was not only a political question or one of mere fashion but there were too many new concepts arriving and too few people with the necessary knowledge of language to handle the problem. Words, which were not new in essence, were adopted, many new false friends have been created, and calques based on misunderstanding were the rule. Advertisements abounded in English elements, sometimes only the connecting word was in Romanian. A new wave of English names on shop-signs appeared, most frequently than not misspelling the unfamiliar foreign word. In 2000 a new regulation appeared, which obliged the shop owners and advertisers to indicate in Hungarian too what is on offer. In looking at how societies interact, it is only natural to conclude that various traits from the cultures or languages in contact will begin to influence each other. This influence may be something as minor as a new phrase or a word, or the influence could go so far as to instate numerous changes in an already well established language. Also responsible for the impact of English is the prestige associated with this language. This language is generally held in highest regard by the younger generation of Romanians, who are easily influenced by the television, radio, movies, and other media that are supplied by British and American entertainment, which are considered to be trendy and cool. Each of those resources has influenced the Romanian population on numerous levels, creating new words and phrases in the Romanian language. My presentation is intended to present the situation of Anglicisms in Romanian today with regard to the dominant attitudes and evaluations which influence the process of acceptation and adaptation of the loan words. The main theoretical aspect of this issue could effectively be the connection between cultural and sociolinguistic factors and the more structural properties of a language. Essentially, the dominant attitude in the Romanian society (with an obvious difference respect to age and generation) is very favorable to anglicisms. Arguments in favour of anglicisms include pragmaticism, with references to necessity, modernity, situational relevance, specialization or the advantages of international communication. I think that there are some historical explanations for what can seem a paradoxical attitude (in a context of other nationalistic and traditional discourses inherent to the transition period): first of all, a tradition of loan acceptation (the loan translation had no cultural success). The reason is that main Romanian purism was only partially of the xenophobic type, merely proposing a substitution of a precedent influence (Slavic, Greek, Turkish) with another one (Romance, mainly French); 19th century purism was associated with a claim for modernization (that privileged the second term of the opposition East/West). The last substitution is oriented in the same direction. Then, the very rapid modernization in the 19th century has produced in Romanian a clear stratification, stylistically marked: many traditional Romanian terms are connotated "archaic" and "popular", they are highly polysemantic, in some ways seeming incompatible with the modern culture. In

present-day Romania, the language symbolizes less the national identity, and more a personal instrument for access to modernity: it is a means of social affirmation and prestige. This attitude clashes with the linguistic (grammatical) constraints; the contradiction appears in hybrid formulas of adaptation: a strong tendency of conserving the English orthography (modification of which is perceived as a stigma for uneducated people; there is a return to the original form even for already adapted forms) and the pronunciation (minimally and unconsciously modified) is associated with an inevitable morphological adaptation (necessary for the inflection) and sometimes with semantic transformation. All these factors produce some important changes in the writing system (as it contradicts the phonological principle, dominant in the Romanian orthography) and even in the morphology (through a new tendency to reducing inflection, by using invariable forms).

Language attitudes are investigated using a press language corpus and a collection of debates on various Internet forums, as well as some answers to special questionnaires. I will also deal with some recent cases: a project for "defending the Romanian language", nearly unanimously ironized, parodied and finally rejected; a new edition of a normative orthographic and morphological dictionary, introducing many anglicisms, but very intensely criticized for completely different issues (the acceptation on some popular, "uneducated" variants); a campaign against doubling in Romanian the English cartoons. On the other hand, one can notice that, in spite of (or maybe: due to) the refusal to bring in legislation to deal with this phenomenon, there are many signs of spontaneous auto-regulation: many recent loans already have related loan translations